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Heat Exchangers
• Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the
exchange of heat between two fluids that are at
different temperatures while keeping them from
mixing with each other.
• Heat exchangers are commonly used in practice
in a wide range of applications, from heating
and air-conditioning systems in a household, to
chemical processing and power production in
large plants..

Types of Heat Exchangers

• Different heat transfer applications

require different types of hardware
and different configurations of heat
transfer equipment.

What should we choose?

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Double-Pipe Heat Exchangers

• The simplest type of heat exchanger is called the
double-pipe heat exchanger.
• One fluid flows through the smaller pipe while the
other fluid flows through the annular space between
the two pipes.
• Two types of flow
arrangement
– parallel flow,
– counter flow.

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Compact Heat Exchanger

• Large heat transfer surface area per unit volume.
• Area density β ─ heat transfer surface of a heat
exchanger to volume ratio.
• Compact heat exchanger β >700 m2/m3.
• Examples:
– car radiators (β ≈1000 m2/m3),
– glass-ceramic gas turbine heat
exchangers (β ≈6000 m2/m3),
– the regenerator of a Stirling
engine (β ≈15,000 m2/m3), and
– the human lung (β ≈20,000 m2/m3).

• Compact heat exchangers are commonly

used in
– gas-to-gas and
– gas-to liquid (or liquid-to-gas) heat exchangers.
• Typically cross-flow configura2on ─ the two
fluids move perpendicular to each other.
• The cross-flow is further classified as
– unmixed flow
and
– mixed flow.

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Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger

• The most common type of heat exchanger in industrial
applications.
• Large number of tubes are packed in a shell with their axes
parallel to that of the shell.
• The other fluid flows outside the tubes through the shell.
• Baffles are commonly placed in the shell.
• Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are relatively large size and
weight.
• Shell-and-tube heat
exchangers are further
classified according to
the number of shell and
tube passes involved.

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Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger

• Consists of a series of plates with corrugated flat flow
passages.
• The hot and cold fluids flow in alternate passages
• Well suited for liquid-to-liquid heat exchange
applications, provided that
the hot and cold fluid
streams are at about the
same pressure.

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The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

• A heat exchanger typically involves two flowing fluids
separated by a solid wall.
• Heat is transferred
– from the hot fluid to the wall by
convection,
– through the wall by conduction, and
– from the wall to the cold fluid by
convection.
• The thermal resistance network
– two convection and
– one conduction resistances.

• For a double-pipe heat exchanger, the thermal

resistance of the tube wall is
ln ( D0 Di )
Rwall = (1)
2π kL
• The total thermal resistance
1 ln ( D0 Di ) 1
Rtotal = Ri + Rwall + Ro = + + (2)
hi Ai 2π kL ho Ao
• When one fluid flows inside a circular
tube and the other outside of it, we have

Ai = π Di L ; Ao = π Do L

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• It is convenient to combine all the thermal

resistances in the path of heat flow from the
hot fluid to the cold one into a single
resistance R
∆T
Q& = = UA∆T = U i Ai ∆T = U o Ao ∆T (3)
R
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient,
whose unit is W/m2ºC.
• Canceling ΔT, Eq. 3 reduces to
1 1 1 1 1
= = =R= + Rwall + (4)
UAs U i Ai U o Ao hi Ai ho Ao

• When the wall thickness of the tube is small

and the thermal conductivity of the tube
material is high (Rwall=0) and the inner and
outer surfaces of the tube are almost identical
(Ai≈Ao≈As), Eq. 4 simplifies to
1 1 1
≈ + (5)
U hi ho
1 1
• When hi>>ho ≈
U ho
1 1
• When hi<<ho ≈
U hi

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Fouling Factor
• The performance of heat exchangers usually
deteriorates with time as a result of accumulation of
deposits on heat transfer surfaces.
• The layer of deposits represents additional resistance
to heat transfer and causes the rate of heat transfer in
a heat exchanger to decrease.
• The fouling factor Rf ─ The net effect of these
accumulations on heat transfer.
• Two common type of fouling:
– precipitation of solid deposits in a
fluid on the heat transfer surfaces.
– corrosion and other chemical fouling.

• The overall heat transfer coefficient needs to

be modified to account for the effects of
fouling on both the inner and the outer
surfaces of the tube.
• For an unfinned shell-and-tube heat
exchanger, it can be expressed as
1 R f ,i ln ( D0 Di ) R f ,o 1
R= + + + + (8)
hi Ai Ai 2π kL Ao ho Ao
Rf,i and Rf,o are the fouling factors at those
surfaces.

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Problem:
A double-pipe (shell-and-tube) heat exchanger is constructed of a stainless steel (k
=15.1 W/m·°C) inner tube of inner diameter Di = 1.5 cm and outer diameter Do = 1.9
cm and an outer shell of inner diameter 3.2 cm. The convection heat transfer
coefficient is given to be hi = 800 W/m2·°C on the inner surface of the tube and ho =
1200 W/m2·°C on the outer surface. For a fouling factor of Rf,i =0.0004 m2·°C/ W
on the tube side and Rf,o = 0.0001 m2·°C/ W on the shell side, determine (a) the
thermal resistance of the heat exchanger per unit length and (b) the overall heat
transfer coefficients, Ui and Uo based on the inner and outer surface areas of the
tube, respectively.

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Problem:
Hot oil is to be cooled in a double-tube counter-flow heat exchanger.
The copper inner tubes have a diameter of 2 cm and negligible
thickness. The inner diameter of the outer tube (the shell) is 3 cm.
Water flows through the tube at a rate of 0.5 kg/s, and the oil through
the shell at a rate of 0.8 kg/s. Taking the average temperatures of the
water and the oil to be 45°C and 80°C, respectively, determine the
overall heat transfer coefficient of this heat exchanger.

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• For fully developed turbulent flow the more accurate

Nusselt number can be calculated from the Dittus–
Boelter equation
Re > 10, 000 n = 0.4 heating 
Nu = 0.023Re0.8 Pr n  
0.7 ≤ Pr ≤ 160 n = 0.3 cooling 

Flow through Tube Annulus

Annular flow is associated with two

Nusselt numbers— Nui on the inner
tube surface and Nuo on the outer tube
surface— since it may involve heat
transfer on both surfaces.

The Nusselt numbers for fully

developed laminar flow with one
surface isothermal and the other
adiabatic are given in Table

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Analysis of Heat Exchangers

• Two different design tasks:
1) Specified:
- the temperature change in a fluid stream, and
- the mass flow rate.
Required:
- the designer needs to select a heat exchanger.
2) Specified:
- the heat exchanger type and size,
- fluid mass flow rate,
- inlet temperatures.
Required:
- the designer needs to predict the outlet temperatures and heat transfer
rate.
• Two methods used in the analysis of heat exchangers:
– the log mean temperature difference (or LMTD)
• best suited for the #1,
– the effectiveness–NTU method
• best suited for task #2.

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• The analysis of heat exchangers can be greatly

simplify by making the following assumptions,
which are closely approximated in practice:
– steady-flow,
– kinetic and potential energy changes are
negligible,
– the specific heat of a fluid is constant,
– axial heat conduction along the tube is negligible,
– the outer surface of the heat exchanger is
perfectly insulated.
• The first law of thermodynamics requires that
the rate of heat transfer from the hot fluid be
equal to the rate of heat transfer to the cold
one.

• The transfer rate to the cold fluid: Heat Capacity Rate

Q& = m& c (T − T ) = C (T − T
c pc c , out c ,in c c , out c ,in );Cc = m& c c pc
(9) (10) (
(11)
• The transfer rate to the hot fluid:
Q& = m& h c ph (Th ,in − Th,out ) = Ch (Th,in − Th,out ) ; Ch = m& h c ph
(12) (13) (11)
• Two special types of heat exchangers commonly used
in practice are condensers and boilers.
• One of the fluids in a condenser or a boiler
undergoes a phase-change process, and the rate of
heat transfer is expressed as
Q& = mh
& fg (14)

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The Log Mean Temperature Difference

Method
• The temperature difference between the hot and cold
fluids varies along the heat exchanger.

it is convenient to have a mean temperature
difference ΔTm for use in the relation
Q& = UAs ∆Tm (15)

• Consider the parallel-flow

double-pipe heat exchanger.

• An energy balance on each fluid in a differential

section of the heat exchanger
δ Q& = − m& h c ph dTh (16)
 &
δ Q = m& c c pc dTc (17)
 δ Q&
 hdT = − (18)
 m& h c ph
 &
dT = δ Q
 c m& c c pc (19)

• Taking their difference, we get
 1 1 
dTh − dTc = d (Th − Tc ) = −δ Q& 
 m& h c ph m& c c pc 
+ (20)
 

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• The rate of heat transfer in the differential section

of the heat exchanger can also be expressed as
δ Q& = U (Th − Tc ) dAs (21)
• Substituting this equation into Eq. 20 and
rearranging give
d (Th − Tc )  1 1 
= −UdAs  +  (22)
Th − Tc  m& h c ph m& c c pc
 
• Integrating from the inlet of the heat exchanger to
its outlet, we obtain
Th ,out − Tc ,out  1 1 
ln = −UAs  +  (23)
Th ,in − Tc ,in  m& h c ph m& c c pc
 

• Solving Eqs. 9 and 12 for mccpc and mhcph and

substituting into Eq. 23 give
Q& = UAs ∆Tlm (24)
∆T1 − ∆T2
∆Tlm = (25)
ln ( ∆T1 ∆T2 )
• ∆Tlm is the log mean temperature difference.
• ∆T1 and ∆T2 are the temperature difference between
the two fluids at the two ends
(inlet and outlet).
• It makes no difference which
end of the heat exchanger is
designated as the inlet or the
outlet.

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Counter-Flow Heat Exchangers

• The relation already given for the log
mean temperature difference for
parallel-flow heat exchanger can be used
for a counter-flow heat exchanger.
• ∆T1 and ∆T2 are expressed as
shown in the Figure.
• ∆Tlm, CF > ∆Tlm, PF
• A smaller surface area (a smaller heat
exchanger) is needed to achieve a specified
heat transfer rate in a counter-flow heat
exchanger.

Multipass and Cross-Flow Heat

Exchangers: Use of a Correction
Factor
• The log mean temperature difference relation
developed earlier is limited to parallel-flow and
counter-flow heat exchangers only.
• To simplify the analysis of cross-flow and multipass
shell-and-tube heat exchangers, it is convenient to
express the log mean temperature difference
relation as
∆Tlm = F ∆Tlm,CF (26)

• F is the correction factor, and ∆Tlm, CF is the log mean

temperature for counter-flow case.

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F Charts for Common Shell-and-Tube

and Cross-Flow Heat Exchangers.
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Cross Flow Heat Exchanger

Problem:
Steam in the condenser of a steam power plant is to be condensed
at a temperature of 50°C (hfg =2305 kJ/kg) with cooling water
(Cp=4180 J/kg · °C) from a nearby lake, which enters the tubes of
the condenser at 18°C and leaves at 27°C. The surface area of the
tubes is 58 m2, and the overall heat transfer coefficient is 2400
W/m2 · °C. Determine the mass flow rate of the cooling water
needed and the rate of condensation of the steam in the condenser.

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Solution:

Problem:
A double-pipe parallel-flow heat exchanger is to heat water (Cp =
4180 J/kg · °C) from 25°C to 60°C at a rate of 0.2 kg/s. The heating
is to be accomplished by geothermal water (Cp - 4310 J/kg · °C)
available at 140°C at a mass flow rate of 0.3 kg/s. The inner tube is
thin-walled and has a diameter of 0.8 cm. If the overall heat transfer
coefficient of the heat exchanger is 550 W/m2 · °C, determine the
length of the heat exchanger required to achieve the desired heating.

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Solution:

The Heat Exchanger Design Procedure

using the LMTD
• With the LMTD method, the task is to select a heat exchanger
that will meet the prescribed heat transfer requirements.
• The procedure to be followed by the selection process is:
1. Select the type of heat exchanger suitable for the application.
2. Determine any unknown inlet or outlet temperature and the
heat transfer rate using an energy balance.
3. Calculate the log mean temperature difference ∆Tlm and the
correction factor F, if necessary.
4. Obtain (select or calculate) the value of the overall heat
transfer co-efficient U.
5. Calculate the heat transfer surface area As needed to meet
requirements.

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The Effectiveness – NTU Method

• This method is based on a dimensionless parameter called the
heat transfer effectiveness ε
Q& Actual heat transfer rate
ε= & = (29)
Q Maximum possible heat transfer rate
max
• The actual heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger
Q& = Cc (Tc ,out − Tc ,in ) = Ch (Th ,in − Th,out ) (30)
• The maximum temperature difference
∆Tmax = Th ,in − Tc ,in (31)
• The maximum possible heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger

Q& max = Cmin ∆Tmax = Cmin (Th ,in − Tc ,in ) (32)

• Once the effectiveness of the heat exchanger is

known, the actual heat transfer rate can be
determined from
Q& = ε Q& max = ε Cmin (Th ,in − Tc ,in ) (33)
• The effectiveness of a heat exchanger depends
on:
– the geometry of the heat exchanger, and
– the flow arrangement.
• It can be shown that the effectiveness of double-
pipe parallel-flow heat exchanger is
 UA  C  
1 − exp  − s 1 + min  
ε parallel flow =  Cmin  Cmax  
C (38)
1 + min
Cmax

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• Effectiveness relations of the heat exchangers typically

involve a dimensionless group called the number of
transfer units NTU
UAs UA s
NTU= =
Cmin ( & p
mc ) min
(39)
• For specified values of U and Cmin, the value of NTU is a
measure of the heat transfer surface area As.
• The larger the NTU, the larger the heat exchanger.
• It is also convenient to define a capacity ratio c
C
c= min (40)
C max
• The effectiveness of a heat exchanger is a function of
the number of transfer units NTU and the capacity
ratio c.

Effectiveness for Several Heat Exchangers

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Effectiveness Heat Exchangers Plots

Problem:

A shell-and-tube heat exchanger with 2-shell passes and 8-tube

passes is used to heat ethyl alcohol (Cp = 2670 J/kg · °C) in the
tubes from 25°C to 70°C at a rate of 2.1 kg/s. The heating is to be
done by water (Cp =4190 J/kg · °C) that enters the shell at 95°C and
leaves at 60°C. If the overall heat transfer coefficient is 800 W/m2 ·
°C, determine the heat transfer surface area of the heat exchanger
using (a) the LMTD method and (b) the –NTU method.

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Selection of Heat Exchangers

• An engineer going through catalogs of heat exchanger
manufacturers will be overwhelmed by the type and
number of readily available off-the-shelf heat
exchangers.
• The proper selection depends on several factors:
– heat transfer rate
– cost
• procurement, maintenance, and power.
– pumping power,
– size and weight,
– Type,
– Materials,
– miscellaneous (leak-tight, safety and reliability, Quietness).

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