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Phase transitions
Consider a system described by the variables P and T . For a given P and T , the equilib-
rium state of the system does not necessarily have to be homogeneous. The system can
show different state forms (f. i., for water the possible state forms are liquid/solid/gas).
These state forms are called phases. In each phase certain macroscopic properties can
show very different values.
Example: water.
55
56 CHAPTER 6. PHASE TRANSITIONS
Critical point: at this point, the gas and the liquid have equal densities and specific
entropies (entropy per particle). The phase transition becomes
second-order at this point.
Triple point: at this point (line), gas, liquid and solid coexist.
Note: the melting curve has negative slope, which means that at constant temperature
T < T0 ice melts under increasing pressure (we observe this during ice-skating).
When water starts boiling, it undergoes a phase transition from a liquid to a gas phase.
For both phases independently, the equation of state is a well-defined regular function,
continuous, with continuous derivatives. However, while going from liquid to gas one
function ”abruptly” changes to the other function. Such a transition is the first-order
phase transition.
The first-order phase transition can be defined more systematically by considering the
Gibbs thermodynamic potential. In a ”first-order phase transition”, the first derivative of
the Gibbs potential is discontinuous across the phase boundary. Also, according to the
relations:
∂G ∂G
V = and S = − ,
∂P T ∂T P
volume V and entropy S are discontinuous as well.
This P − V diagram is a projection onto P − V of the equation of state surface for water
(Fig. 6.3).
dG = µ1 dN1 + µ2 dN2 = 0,
dP ∆S
=
dT ∆V
or
dP ∆QL
= → Clapeyron equation
dT T ∆V
where ∆QL = T ∆S is the latent heat.
Figure 6.5: The slope of the liquid(2)-solid(1) boundary is positive ⇒ the liquid contracts
upon freezing.
60 CHAPTER 6. PHASE TRANSITIONS
Figure 6.6 shows the P − T diagram for water, which expands upon freezing (due to the
Hydrogen bonding between molecules).
Figure 6.6: The slope of the liquid(2)-solid(1) boundary is negative ⇒ the liquid expands
upon freezing.
In a ”second-order” phase transition the first derivatives of G vanish, and the Clapeyron
equation is replaced by a condition involving second derivatives.
2)
∂ n Gα
n
∂ Gβ
n
6=
∂T ∂T n
n P n P
∂ Gα ∂ Gβ
n
6=
∂P T ∂P n T
6.5. EHRENFEST CLASSIFICATION OF PHASE TRANSITIONS 61
In practice, only phase transitions of first- and second -order are of importance. Their
properties are listed below.
1st order:
1) G(T, P ) continuous;
∂G ∂G
2) S = − and V = discontinuous;
∂T P ∂P T
3) ∃ latent heat.
2nd order:
1) G(T, P ) continuous;
1 ∂ 2G
κT = − ,
V ∂P 2
2
1 ∂ G
β= .
V ∂P ∂T
There are not many phase transitions of the second order that, following Ehrenfest classifi-
cation, show a finite discontinuity in the specific heat. A superconductor at zero magnetic
field is an example of such 2nd -order phase transitions (Fig. 6.8).
62 CHAPTER 6. PHASE TRANSITIONS
Note: in practice, though, many systems with phase transitions which are not of the first
order show divergences (not finite discontinuities) in the response functions. For instance,
the susceptibility of a magnetic system is of the form
∂M 1
χ= , χ(T ) ∼ ,
∂H T (T − Tc )γ
with γ being called critical exponent. For systems with such properties, the Ehrenfest
classification is not anymore valid.
For a more general classification, one considers only the behavior of the entropy at the
phase boundary as a function of T . Within this classification, discontinuous and contin-
uous phase transitions are distinguished as discussed below.
1) discontinuous phase transitions are equivalent to phase transitions of the 1st order.
Properties:
Consider a fluid system whose phase transition is depicted in Fig. 6.9. Since, as seen from
Fig. 6.9, V = ∂G
∂P T0
shows a finite discontinuity, the phase transition is of 1st order. If
we now increase temperature, ∆ρ diminishes (Fig. 6.10) and at Tc the transition is not
This phenomenon happens for many systems. As another example, let us also consider a
magnet (Fig. 6.11).
Since
∂G
M =− , B 0 = µ0 H
∂B0 T0
is discontinuous, this transition is of 1st order. However, as in the previous example, by
increasing temperature the phase transition becomes second-order at T0 = Tc (Fig. 6.12).
64 CHAPTER 6. PHASE TRANSITIONS
P V = N kB T // P V = nRT,
is only valid for very small densities of particles and, therefore, cannot describe the gas-
liquid phase transition. This phase transition is due to intermolecular interactions. In
this section, we will derive an equation of state for a gas which includes intermolecular
interaction in a phenomenological way.
In order to derive explicit expressions for Vef f and Pef f , we assume that the potential
energy U (r) between two molecules as a function of their separation r0 has the form as
shown in Figure 6.13.
In particular,
- U (r) has a repulsive core with radius r0 (a few angstroms) due to the electrostatic
repulsion of the electron cloud;
- U (r) has an attractive tail at r > r0 due to the mutual electrostatic polarization of
two interacting molecules.
6.6. VAN DER WAALS EQUATION OF STATE 65
The depth of attractive U (r) is about 1 eV (changes with the gas species). This minimum
is responsible for the chemical valence and for the crystal structure of solids.
In order to consider these effects qualitatively, we separate them.
a) The hard core excludes a certain volume around a molecule so that other molecules
have less room in which to move. As a consequence, the effective volume of the gas
is reduced:
Vef f = V − bn .
V : total volume of the system;
b: total excluded volume, b ≈ N πr03 /6;
n: number of moles.
b) The pressure of the gas comes from the molecules hitting the walls of the container.
A real gas hits the walls with less kinetic energy than an ideal gas since in the real gas
the molecules are held back by the attraction of neighboring molecules (attractive
tail) (Fig. 6.14). The reduction in the pressure is proportional to the number of
A
C2 = B − .
R̄T
This coefficient can be obtained experimentally by observing deviations from the ideal
gas law. From measuring these deviations at varying temperature, one can extract the
parameters A and B.
6.6. VAN DER WAALS EQUATION OF STATE 67
an2 n3
3 2 nRT
V −V nb + +V − ab = 0 . (6.10)
P P P
Eq. (6.10) is a polynomial of the 3rd order and, hence, for given T and P there would
exist three real roots or only one real root. For T < Tc and P < Pc , we have three real
roots. As we increase T , these roots move closer and merge at T = Tc , the critical point.
For T > Tc , there is only one real solution and two complex conjugate ones.
(V − Vc )3 = 0
Pc V c 3
Zc = = .
nRTc 8
68 CHAPTER 6. PHASE TRANSITIONS
Experimentally, one finds that almost all real gases have Zc < 83 , while for the ideal gas
Zc = 1. Therefore, the van der Waals equation is an improvement with respect to the
ideal gas equation.
Negative compressibility is not realistic since a decrease of volume dV < 0 would mean
a decrease of pressure dP < 0, which does not make sense since such a behavior leads to
the collapse of the system. This unphysical result originates from the implicit assumption
that the density of the system is always uniform. In fact, it is possible to show (and we
are going to do this now) that the system at T < Tc prefers to undergo a first-order phase
transition by breaking up into a mixture of phases of different densities.
where F is the Helmholtz free energy, the free energy can be obtained as the area under
the isotherm: Z
F (V, T ) = − P dV.
isotherm
The phase-separated state is the equilibrium state; the states 1 and 2 are defined by the
conditions:
two phases in equilibrium ⇒ G1 (T, PV ) = G2 (T, PV ),
where PV is the ”vapor pressure”;
⇒ U1 − T S1 + PV V1 = U2 − T S2 + PV V2
⇒ F1 − F2 = PV (V2 − V1 ).
6.6. VAN DER WAALS EQUATION OF STATE 69
For T = const,
dF = −P dV,
Z V1 Z V2
F1 − F2 = − dV P (V ) = dV P (V ) ⇒
V2 V1
Z V2
⇒ P dV = PV (V2 − V1 ) .
V1
This means that the areas A and B are equal to each other. The horizontal line in Fig.
6.16 (F, V ) is the Maxwell construction.