IGCSE PHYSICS - Revision Guide - Andrew Richard Ward - 2014

IGCSE PHYSICS – 8TH EDITION
A COMPLETE REVISION GUIDE

BY
ANDREW RICHARD WARD
BSc PGCE MA(Ed) MRSC
EIGHTH EDITION – JANUARY 2014
ANDREW RICHARD WARD

00965 – 55983529
chemistrykuwait@gmail.com
IGCSE PHYSICS – EIGHT EDITION – JANUARY 2014 – ANDREW RICHARD WARD – 00965 55983529
GENERAL PHYSICS
MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS
The units used in physics are called SI units – which are governed by the
Systeme International Utilities – in France.
The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (Kg)
The SI unit for time is the second (s)
The SI unit for length is the metre (m)
We use prefixes when we involve very large amounts or very small amounts of
each of these SI units.
For example, MEGA (M) means million; KILO (K) means thousand; CENTI (C)
means 1/100 and MILLI means 1/1000.
Very small or very large numbers are written in POWERS OF TEN. This is called
STANDARD FORM.
The number given is always to TWO SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
e.g. 65900 = 6.59 x 105
0.0038 = 3.8 x 10-3
0.00005 = 5 x 10-5
Mass is measured with a mass balance or a bean balance
This is a digital mass balance
This is a beam balance
1 kg = 1 kilogram
1 gram is 1/1000 kilogram = 10-3 kg
1 milligram is 1/1000 gram = 10-6kg
Time is measured on a clock that can be digital or analog
Digital times could be a stopwatch or a stopclock
Analog timers could be a clock or a watch
1 millisecond (ms) = 1/1000 second = 10-3 s
1 microsecond (µs) = 1/1000 millisecond = 10-6s
1 nanosecond = 1/ 1,000,000,000 second = 10-9s
There are 3 ways of measuring length
1. RULER – This must touch the object measured. The

ruler end is lined up with the object end. You must avoid reading the ruler
scale at an angle to avoid PARALLAX ERRORS. These are errors between
the perceived and actual view of the object.
2. CALIPERS – Have a built-in scale for accurate
measurement of length.
3. MICROMETER This is a very accurate piece of equipment

that could even measure the diameter of a piece of wire.
1 kilometre (km) = 1000 metres = 103 m
1 metre (m)
1 centimetre (cm) = 1/100 m = 10-2 m
1 millimetre (mm)= 1/1000 m = 10-3 m
1 micrometer (µm) = 1/1,000,000 m = 10-6 m
REVIEW QUESTIONS 1 (note: 1 mile = 1600 m)
1. Write down the value of 1678mm in m

2. The mass of a book that contains 600 pages is 300 g. Write the mass of
one page in a) kg and b) mg
3. Sort out the following units into the table below:
km, µg, s, mm, km, m, ms, g, mg, mm, cs, µs
LENGTH DISTANCE TIME
4. In each of the following pairs, which of the two quantities is the largest?
a) 2km or 2200 m
b) 2m or 1500mm
c) 2500 kg or 30,000,000 mg
d) 40µs or 4000 ms
5. Which of the following terms are correct?
a) One mg = one million

b) 1,000,000 mg = 1 g
c) 1,000 mg = 1 g
d) 1,000,000 mg = 1 kg
6. An athlete completes a marathon race of distance 36,000 m in 21600 s.

Convert this to km/h
7. Calculate the amount of seconds in January (31 days); 100600 g into kg

and amount of cm in 3 mile race.
FORCES AND THEIR EFFECTS
A force is a push or pull. Forces are measured in NEWTON (N) using a

NEWTON METER
The force of GRAVITY acts on an object’s MASS and produces WEIGHT ON

EARTH. On earth, the FORCE OF GRAVITY IS 9.8 N / kg.
It is also interesting to note that gravity produces ACCELERATION.
TYPES OF FORCE
1. Gravity or weight
2. REACTION FORCE that acts upwards and opposite
3. THRUST/PUSH/PULL – produces acceleration
4. DRAG/AIR RESISTANCE/FRICTION – produces deceleration /
retardation
5. LIFT – an upward force
6. TENSION - stretching force
7. COMPRESSION – squashing force
8. TORSION – twisting force
WHAT CAN FORCES DO?
1. Speed things up or slow things down

2. Push or pull objects
3. Change the size of objects
4. Change the shape of objects
5. Change the direction of movement of an object
WEIGHT AS A FORCE
If we apply a STRETCHING force to a spring, the result is an EXTENSION.

The spring gets LONGER. If the force is DOUBLED, so is the extension. If
the force is trebled, so is the extension.
As one of these quantities increases, so does the other BY THE SAME
AMOUNT. We say that EXTENSION IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL to the
APPLIED FORCE. THIS IS CALLED HOOKE’S LAW.
This can be seen when a graph of load applied is plotted against extension
of the spring. This is shown overleaf.
As we have a straight line graph with a POSITIVE GRADIENT, we say that
EXTENSION IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE LOAD. This happens up to a
point, P, which is called the LIMIT OF PROPORTIONALITY. After this point, the
spring does not obey Hooke’s Law and is basically destroyed and does not have
anymore ‘springiness’ or elasticity. The spring is said to have reached its ELASTIC
LIMIT.
If we PASS the elastic limit of a spring, the spring will be DEFORMED and
PERMANENTLY STRETCHED.
THE FORCE CONSTANT
The force constant, k, of a spring is the FORCE THAT IS NEEDED TO CAUSE THE
SAME AMOUNT OF EXTENSION.
K = F/e where F=Force and e = extension
EXAMPLE
A spring is stretched 0.02m by a weight of 2.0 N.
a) Calculate the force constant, k

b) Calculate the weight W of an object that causes an extension of 0.09 m.
ANSWERS
a) k = F/e = 2.0 N / 0.02 m = 100 N/M

b) W = the stretching force F = k x e = 100 N/M x 0.09m = 9N
Here are some calculations for you to try:
1. Calculate the force constant, k, for the following stretches of a spring

a) 0.06m by a force of 3N
b) 1.8M by a force of 12N
c) 250mm by a force of 2N
2. Calculate W for the following:

a) 200 N/M and an extension of 1.4m
b) 50 N/M and an extension of 2.8m
c) 10 n/m and an extension of 5mm
3. Calculate e for the following:

a) 250 N/M, 8N
b) 1.68 N/M, 12.9 N
MASS AND WEIGHT
These 2 quantities are NOT the same.
Mass is:
- Measured in kG
- Measured with a mass balance
- A scalar quantity
- Amount of matter
- Not a force
- Mass = W / G
Weight is:
- Measured in N
- Measured with a newton meter
- A vector quantity
- Mass acted upon by gravity
- Is a force
- W=FxG
A scalar quantity has size only like speed, temperature and mass
A vector quantity has both size and direction like weight and velocity
FORCES WILL CHANGE THE MOTION OF AN OBJECT
Sir Isaac Newton discovered 3 Laws of Motion
Newton’s First Law of Motion is:
“If an object is at rest, it will stay at rest until an external force acts on it called
INERTIA. If the forces on an object are BALANCED, the object will move in a
STRAIGHT LINE at CONSTANT VELOCITY”
Here are some examples of balanced forces
Balanced forces are when two forces are applied on an object against the object
in a different direction. If a force on the other side is greater, then the object
will travel the direction the greater force is traveling, if the forces are the same
nothing happens.
Balanced forces result in a net force of zero.
Here are some examples of unbalanced forces
Unbalanced forces are forces that push in opposite directions, and one, being
stronger, causes motion of an object or air.
Unbalanced forces are one that produces a nonzero net force, which changes on
object’s motions. It also causes an object's velocity to change.
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
This law states that UNBALANCED FORCES PRODUCE ACCELERATION.
This is shown on a diagram by UNEQUAL arrows.
The overall force (which is unbalanced) is called the RESULTANT FORCE. The
resultant force produces ACCELERATION.
The larger the force gets, the larger the acceleration.
If the mass is larger, the acceleration gets smaller as a mass RESISTS

acceleration.
In the above example, the resultant force is 100 – 85 = 15 N and the Airplane
will move backwards.
The formula for calculating a resultant force is FORCE = MASS x ACCELRATION.
Rearranging this gives us MASS = FORCE / ACCELERATION and ACCELERATION =

FORCE / MASS.
EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the force needed to accelerate a mass of 10 Kg at 12 m/s2
Force = mass x acceleration = 10 x 12 = 120 N
2. Calculate the acceleration of a mass of 800 kg has a force of 3200 N
acting on it.
Acceleration = force / mass = 3200 / 800 = 4 m/s2
3. If a force is 5000 N and mass is 250 kg, what is acceleration?

4. If acceleration is 22 m/s2 and mass is 6kg, what is the force?
5. If force is 1220 N and acceleration is 54 m/s2, what is the mass?
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
REACTION FORCES ARE EQUAL AND OPPOSITE
A large action force of the person’s leg muscles will mean that that the
skateboard moves left.
CALCULATIONS INVOLVING FORCE, MASS AND ACCELERATION
1. Calculate the acceleration of an object if it changes its velocity from 16

m/s to 100 m/s in 21 seconds.
2. Calculate the force of an object if it has a mass of 200 kg and an
acceleration of 3.5 m/s2.
3. Calculate the mass of an object that accelerates from 40 m/s to 260 m/s
in 20 seconds with a force of 2000 N.
4. What force is needed to accelerate a mass of 15 kg at 5m/s2? The same
force acts on another body that accelerates at 6 m/s2 so what is its mass?
5. Calculate the force acting on a mass of 45 kg accelerating from 20 m/s to
500 m/s in 12 seconds.
6. An object of mass 1.2 kg accelerates from 26 m/s to 78 m/s in 36 seconds.
Calculate the force.
7. A body of mass 265 kg decelerates from 30 m/s to 2 m/s in 7 s. Calculate
a) the deceleration and b) the force required for this deceleration.
8. A car of mass 2,200,000 g is acted on by a force of 25, 000 N. Calculate the
acceleration.
9. A force of 240 N acts on a mass of 240 g. Calculate the acceleration.
10. A rocket decelerates from 800 m/s to rest in 25 seconds. Calculate the
mass of the rocket if the force that acts upon it is 120, 000 N.
SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
Speed is a scalar quantity that has size only. It is measured in metres per second
m/s.
A car travels a distance of 100 metres in 5 seconds. Find its a) speed and b) how
long it takes to travel 75 metres.
a) Speed = distance / time = 100 / 5 = 20 m/s

b) Time = distance / speed = 75 / 20 = 3.5 s
Velocity is a vector quantity that has both size AND direction.
Acceleration means how quickly an object changes its velocity
ACCELERATION = CHANGE IN VELOCITY / THE TIME TAKEN FOR THIS CHANGE
The units of acceleration are velocity / time = m/s/s = ms-2 or m/s2
EXAMPLE
Calculate the acceleration of an object whose velocity changes from 3 m/s to 13

m/s in 5 seconds.
Acceleration = change in velocity / time = (13-3) / 5 = 10 / 5 = 2 m/s2
FURTHER CALCULATIONS
Calculate the acceleration or deceleration in the following examples
1. 8100 m/s to 40 m/s in 22 seconds

2. 572 to 5900 m/s in 14 seconds
3. 450 m/s to 3000 m/s in 12.6 seconds
4. 100 m/s to 345.5 m/s in 13.67 seconds
5. 100 m/s to 765 m/s in 8 minutes and 34 seconds
DISTANCE/TIME GRAPHS AND VELOCITY/TIME GRAPHS
Here is a typical distance/time graph
The gradient or slope of the graph tells us the speed. The blue line in the above
graph tells us that the object is travelling at a greater speed as the slope is
steeper.
If the graph is FLAT – the object has STOPPED, IS AT REST AND STATIONARY.
If the graph gets STEEPER there is an INCREASE in SPEED
A STEEPER CURVE ALSO MEANS THAT THE OBJECT IS ACCELERATING.
From the distance/time graph, we can CALCULATE SPEED.
Speed = gradient = vertical (y) / horizontal (x) = 8m / 3 s = 2.67 m/s in the above
example for the gradient of the red line on the left.
Here is an example of a velocity/time graph
The gradient of this graph shows ACCELERATION
The flat part of this graph shows that the object is travelling at a CONSTANT
SPEED.
If the graph gets steeper, there is an INCREASE IN ACCELERATION
The AREA under the graph shows the DISTANCE TRAVELLED IN A GIVEN TIME
A CURVED part of a distance/time graph shows a change in ACCELERATION.
Here is a velocity/time graph for a rocket
From a velocity/time graph it is possible to calculate acceleration, speed and the

distance travelled:
Acceleration = gradient = vertical (y) / horizontal (x)
Speed can be read directly from the speed / velocity vertical axis (y)
Distance travelled = THE AREA UNDER THE VELOCITY / TIME GRAPH
CALCULATIONS INVOLVING DISTANCE/SPEED AND VELOCITY/SPEED GRAPHS
1. Plot on graph paper the following data for a racing car
Speed 0 10 20 29 37 50 59 64 65 65
(m/s)
Time 0 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14
(s)
What was the car’s acceleration after a) 140 seconds and b) after 1 second?
2. The velocity of a car, v, varies with time, t.
Velocity 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
(m/s)
Time (s) 0 5 10 15 15 15 15 11 7.5 3.5 0
a) Plot a graph of v against t

b) Describe the motion between a) 0 and 15 seconds b) 15 to 30
seconds and c) after 30 seconds
c) Calculate the acceleration during the first 15 seconds
d) State the forces on the carat constant velocity. What is the
resultant force?
3. A train takes 1 minute to travel between two stations. The train

accelerates from rest to a speed of 25 m/s in 10 seconds. The
train then travels at a constant speed for 30 seconds before
coming to rest with constant deceleration.
a) Draw a graph to represent all different stages in the motion of

the train.
b) Calculate the time the train is travelling at a speed above 20 m/s
and calculate the retardation.
c) Calculate the braking force that is needed to stop the train if the
train has a mass of 100,000 kg.
VECTORS AND SCALARS
A scalar quantity has ONLY SIZE e.g. speed, volume and mass
A vector quantity has BOTH SIZE AND DIRECTION e.g. velocity
ADDING SCALARS AND VECTORS

With scalars, you just simply add e.g. 5 + 5 = 10 ALWAYS!!!!
With vectors, it actually depends on the direction of the force.
1. IF TWO OR MORE FORCES ARE IN THE SAME DIRECTION – ADD
2. IF THE SAME FORCE ACTS IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS – RESULTANT FORCE

IS ZERO
3. IF WE HAVE UNEQUAL AND OPPOSITE FORCES – SUBTRACT THE SMALLER

FROM THE LARGER
4. TWO OPPOSITE CONVERGING FORCES – SUBTRACT THE SMALLER FROM

THE LARGER, ALSO.
ADDING VECTORS WHICH ARE NOT IN LINE
If two forces are at right angles, we use Pythagoras’ theorem or the

parallelogram rule.
This is shown overleaf:
Example:
If a = 30 N and B = 40 N
a 2 = b 2 + c2
= 302 + 402 = 900 + 1600 = 2500 N
a = √ 2500 = 50 N
When vectors A and B are at an angle to each other, they add to produce the
resultant C by the parallelogram rule. Note that C is the diagonal of a
parallelogram where A and B are adjacent sides. Resultant C is shown in the first
two diagrams, a and b.
Construct the resultant C in diagrams c and d. Note that in diagram d you form a
rectangle (a special case of a parallelogram). After you have finished your
constructions, state in the blanks which resultant is the longer and which one
is shorter.
On the following page we see an airplane being blown off course by wind in
various directions. Use the parallelogram rule to show the resultant speed and
direction in each case.
On the next page are 3 motorboats crossing a river. All have the same speed in
the water and all e3xperience the same amount of water flow. Construct
resultant vectors to show the speed and direction of the motor boats.
a) Which boat provides the shortest route to shore?
b) Which boat reaches the opposite shore first?
c) Which boat gives you the fastest ride?
FURTHER PROBLEMS ON PARALLELOGRAM RULE
1. Draw 2 forces of 100 Newton and 140 Newton at right-angles to each

other. Use a scale of 1cm = 10 Newton. Calculate the resultant force.
2. Repeat the above process for 2 forces of 60 N and 180 N at right-angles to

each other.
3. A horizontal force of 80 Newton has another force of 50 Newton acting at

an angle of 50° to it. Draw a diagram on graph paper, measuring the angle
with a protractor. Use the parallelogram rule to find the resultant force.
CIRCULAR MOTION
For an object to move in a circular path, an INWARD FORCE is needed.
This inward force is called CENTRIPETAL FORCE.
Some examples of centripetal force are:
1. Gravity which keeps satellites in orbit above Earth

2. The chain on a ball in a hammer throwing competition at the Olympic
Games
3. The string attached to a ball when it is moving in a circle.
AN INCREASE in centripetal force is needed if
a) MASS OF THE OBJECT IS INCREASED

b) SPEED OF THE OBJECT IS INCREASED
c) RADIUS OF THE CIRCLE GETS SMALLER
Here is a diagram to show centripetal force acting on a car as it goes around a

roundabout
Here is a diagram to show forces acting on a ball at the end of a string. The ball
is travelling at velocity, v
Centripetal force acts inwards. This produces an INWARD ACCELERATION.
If the string breaks, the ball will travel in a STRAIGHT LINE and obey NEWTON’S
FIRST LAW OF MOTION.
If the mass of an object is DOUBLED, TWICE the centripetal force is needed to

keep the object moving in a circular motion.
In the circle, the object’s DIRECTION IS ALWAYS CHANGING.
THIS MEANS THAT THE OBEJECT’S VELOCITY IS ALWAYS CHANGING BUT ITS
SPEED STAYS THE SAME.
DENSITY
Which has the greater mass, a kilogram of lead or a kilogram of feathers?
Most people say lead but actually the masses are identical.
What people are imagining is that LEAD HAS A HIGHER DENSITY THAN
FEATHERS.
Lead has a higher density as there is a large mass (one kilogram) taking up a
SMALL VOLUME.
DENSITY IS HOW MUCH MASS THERE IS IN A GIVEN VOLUME
DENSITY (D) = MASS (M) / VOLUME (V)
Using this triangle, we also can say that
MASS = VOLUME x DENSITY and that VOLUME = MASS / DENSITY
The units of density are kg/m3, g/m3 and g/cm3
MEASURING DENSITY
We can find the mass of an object on a MASS BALANCE
If the volume on an object has a REGULAR SHAPE we say volume = lwh
Or volume = length x width x height
If the object has an irregular shape with sides that cannot be measured with a
ruler, we must use the concept of DISPLACEMENT.
DISPLACEMENT
An object in water will displace a volume of water that IS EQUAL TO THE MASS
OF THAT OBJECT. The INCREASE in water levels equals the volume of the object.
This can be seen in the diagram below:
We added 200 cm3 of water to the measuring cylinder. The stone was added.
The new volume in the measuring cylinder is 260 cm3. This increase in volume is
EQUAL TO THE VOLUME OF THE STONE. The volume of the stone in the above
experiment is 260 – 200 = 60 cm3.
The mass of this stone was found to be 180 grams on a mass balance.
The density of the stone can be calculated.
Density = mass / volume = 180 g / 60 cm3 = 3 g/cm3
THE MORE MASS A SUBSTANCE HAS PER UNIT VOLUME, THE HIGHER THE
DENSITY OF THE SUBSTANCE.
DENSITY CALCULATIONS
1. Find the density of an object with a mass of 100 grams and a

volume of 20 cm3.
2. An object has a volume of 5m3 and a density of 500 kg/m3. Find
the mass.
3. The density of air is 1.32 kg/m3. A room measures 2.5 m by 4m
by 10 m. Find the mass of air inside the room.
4. Copy and complete the following table
OBJECT MASS VOLUME DENSITY

A 10g 20 cm3
B 10 g/cm3
C 600 kg
D
E 0.5 kg
a) Which object has the greatest mass?

b) Which objects are made of the same substance?
c) Which objects would float on water – the density of water is 1
g/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3?
5. There is a stack of 1000 bricks on a building site in Mangaf. The

stack measures 2m by 1m by 1m.
a) Calculate the total volume of the stack
b) Calculate the volume of ONE brick
c) If the density of the brick is 2500 kg/m3, what is the total
density of the stack of bricks?
d) When the bricks are put into a truck, the maximum load
possible is 1000 kg. How many bricks can be loaded up?
TURNING FORCES
When a FORCE acts on something which has a TURNING POINT or PIVOT, a

TURNING FORCE called a MOMENT is produced.
The moment depends on:
a) THE SIZE OF THE FORCE

b) THE DISTANCE FROM THE PIVOT
MOMENT OF A FORCE (Nm) = FORCE (N) x DISTANCE FROM PIVOT (m)
The distance is often called PERPENDICULAR distance.
Perpendicular means the SHORTEST DISTANCE from the FORCE to the TURNING
POINT.
Here are the forces on a wheelbarrow. The PIVOT is in the centre of the wheel,
the force of the person lifting the wheelbarrow is the EFFORT, the sand in the
wheelbarrow has a downward force called LOAD. The TURNING FORCE or
MOMENT is shown in YELLOW as the wheelbarrow is LIFTED UP.
Other examples of turning forces include:
Using a door handle to open or close a door

See-saws
Loosening a nut with a spanner
Cranes
Beam-balances
Handle bars on motorbikes
Levers
MOMENTS IN BALANCE
Here is an example of balanced single loads
Here is an example of unbalanced single loads
Example one shows somebody sitting over the pivot. Their weight (a force) is
evenly distributed causing the see saw to balance.
Example two shows two people of equal weight sitting a same perpendicular
distance from the pivot on either side of the seesaw. The moments on either side
of the seesaw are IDENTICAL and so the seesaw is balanced.
In example three, one light person with HIGH WEIGHT can sit a LONG WAY from
the pivot and balance the seesaw with two people of LOWER WEIGHT sitting
closer to the seesaw.
When the force is supplied by a weight its centre of gravity is the point from which the
force arrow is drawn. It goes vertically down. To find the perpendicular distance for use
in the calculation of the moment, you need to draw a perpendicular line from the weight
arrow to the line that passed through the fulcrum (axis of rotation!). (You sometimes
have to draw dashed construction lines to do this!).
Be careful not to call the moment just a 'turning force' - the 'turning force' is only part of
the moment... the moment is 'the effect that the turning force has on the system'!
If it were just a force it would be measured in N... the moment is measured in Nm which
has the same dimensions as energy.
Moment = force × perpendicular distance from the line of action of the

force to the axis of rotation
That's quite a mouthful - but learn it! - in calculations you can get away with a shortened
version:
Moment = Fd
The Principle of Moments
For a body in equilibrium (balanced!) the sum of the clockwise moments is equal to the
sum of the anticlockwise moments.
clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
Garfield has considerably more weight than Odie - so for them to 'teeter-totter' Odie has
to sit a bigger distance away from the fulcrum. To play 'see-saw' their moments have to
be equal (according to the Princlple of Moments):
F1d1 = F2d2
As Odie has less weight (force) he needs more distance!
Here are some more turning forces calculations:
1. A force of 200 N is applied to a spanner of length 20 cm. Calculate the
moment.
2. A uniform metre of mass 100 g balances at the 40 cm mark when an
unknown mass is placed at the 10cm mark . What is the value of the
unknown mass?
3. Explain why a mechanic would use a long spanner to undo a very tight nut
that could not be loosened with a short spanner.
4. Explain why a door handle is far away from the hinge
5. Explain why kit is difficult to steer a bicycle by gripping the centre of the
handle bars.
CENTRE OF MASS AND EQUILIBRIUM
A system is at EQULIBRIUM when there is:
No resultant force
No resultant turning effect
ALL OBEJCTS HAVE A CENTRE OF MASS AND A CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
To find the centre of mass of a flat, plane, laminated object:
1. Suspend a card from a plumb line. Mark as a line AB

2. Suspend from a different point and label the line CD
3. THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY IS AT THE INTERSECTION OF LINES AB AND CD
(where the LINES CROSS)
This is shown by the diagram overleaf.
STABILITY
If an object is PUSHED AND RELEASED, it is STABLE if it RETURNS TO ITS

ORIGINAL POSITION
Some objects are obviously more stable than others
Stability is INCREASED by WIDENING THE OBJECTS BASE and LOWERING the

centre of gravity.
This can be seen in a racing car
STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM
There are 3 states of equilibrium: stable, unstable and neutral.
With stable equilibrium – the centre of gravity remains over the wide base
With unstable equilibrium –the centre of gravity easily passes the narrow base
With neutral equilibrium – the centre of gravity always remains OVER its base.
PROBLEMS ON STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM
1. Draw an Aquafina bottle in the 3 states of equilibrium

2. Comment on the stability of a double decker London bus and a F1 Racing
car that Lewis Hamilton drives.
3. Draw a diagram of a drawing pin in the 3 states of equilibrium.
4. Why do pole vaulters do a technique where they arch their back called
the ‘Fosbury Flop’?
ENERGY
There are 8 different kinds of energy:
1. KINETIC ENERGY – ENERGY OF MOTION

2. POTENTIAL ENERGY – STORED energy due to an object’s position
or shape
3. HEAT/THERMAL ENERGY - energy from movement of atoms
4. RADIATED ENERGY – energy that is carried as WAVES
5. NUCLEAR ENERGY – energy formed from splitting atoms
6. ELECTRICAL ENERGY – energy transfer caused by electrons
7. CHEMICAL ENERGY – energy from chemicals and fuels
8. LIGHT AND SOUND
TRANSFORMATIONS OF ENERGY
Energy can be changed or TRANSFORMED from one type to another.

The amount of energy stays the SAME as it is CONSERVED.
THIS IS THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY which says that
‘ENERGY CANNOT BE CREATED OR DESTROYED. WE CAN ONLY

CHANGE ENERGY INTO DIFFERENT FORMS’.
EXAMPLES
PROBLEMS
Draw diagrams to show the following energy transformations:
1. Rocket taking off

2. Jack-in-a-box
3. Battery in a toy car
4. Catapult
5. Nuclear explosion
6. Firing a gun
7. Dam to stop water flowing
8. Fireworks
ENERGY TRANSFER DIAGRAMS
These show the amount of energy being transformed due to the

thickness of the arrow on the energy transfer diagram. Here are two
examples:
This energy transfer diagram shows the useful energy transfer in a car
engine. You can see that a car engine transfers chemical energy,
which is stored in the fuel, into kinetic energy in the engine and
wheels.
This diagram shows the energy transfer diagram for the useful energy
transfer in an electric lamp. You can see that the electric lamp
transfers or converts electrical energy into light energy.
SANKEY DIAGRAMS
Sankey diagrams summarise all the energy transfers taking place in a
process. The thicker the line or arrow, the greater the amount of
energy involved. The Sankey diagram for an electric lamp below
shows that most of the electrical energy is transferred as heat rather
than light.
Some of the energy in the above diagram is NOT useful and is LOST as
HEAT ENERGY.
EFFICIENCY
Some energy conversions are more EFFICIENT than others. Very few
are 100% efficient.
Efficiency = (useful energy output / total energy input) x 100%
For instance in the above example with the filament bulb, for every
100 J of energy input into the bulb, only 10 J is useful as light energy.
The filament bulb is said to be only 10% EFFICIENT.
EFFICIENCY CALCULATIONS
1. Calculate the efficiency of an electric bell that uses 250 J of
energy but loses 35 J as heat energy.
2. Calculate the useful energy output of an electric motor that is
85% efficient and has a total energy input of 500 J.
3. Calculate the total energy input of a device with an efficiency of
78% and a useful energy output of 600 J
CALCULATING POTENTIAL ENERGY AND KINETIC ENERGY

These are transformed in many ways, for example, with a pendulum.
On the left of the pendulum there is 100% potential energy (PE) and
zero % kinetic energy.
In the middle (the swing), there is 100% kinetic energy (KE) and zero %
potential energy.
Similarly, on the right there is 100% potential energy (PE) and zero %
kinetic energy again.
CALCULATING GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY (GPE)
Gravitational Potential Energy called "GPE" is a measure of how far an

object can fall.
The higher up it is, the further it can fall and the more GPE it has.
GPE also depends on the object's weight.
GPE = mass x gravity x height. GPE = m x g x h.
This equation is important!
Since mass x gravity = weight, GPE = weight x height.

On Earth the force of gravity is 10 N/kg.
For example, the GPE of a rock which has a mass of 75kg

and is raised to a height of 4·0 metres is
GPE = 75 x 10 x 4·0
= 3000J.
When the object starts to fall, GPE is transferred into KE

CALCULATING KINETIC ENERGY
Formula for kinetic energy = ½ mv2
This means that kinetic energy = ½ mass x velocity2
Example
If a stone has mass of 5kg and a velocity of 20m/s, find its kinetic
energy
Kinetic energy = ½ mv2
½ x 5 x 202 = 2000 J or 2 Kj
CALCULATIONS
1. An object has a mass of 6kg What is the GPE
a) 4 m above the ground

b) 6m above the ground
2. An object of mass 15 kg has a speed of 20 m/s/
a) What is the KE of the object

b) What is the KE of the object if its speed is doubled?
3. A stone is dropped from a height of 2.5 km and has a mass of

250g.
a) Calculate its GPE

b) What is the GPE if the height is halved
4. An object of mass 23kg is released from a height of 48 m.
a) Calculate the GPE of the object

b) Calculate the GPE when the mass of the object is doubled
c) Calculate the GPE when the mass of the object is halved
d) Calculate the GPE when the mass of the object is trebled
5. A car of mass 1500 kg travels at 30 m/s speed.
a) Calculate the KE of the car

b) Calculate the KE when the car slows down to a speed of 10 m/s
c) Calculate the change in the KE when this happens
FURTHER KE AND GPE PROBLEMS
1. A stone of mass 8kg is dropped from a height of 4 metres. What

is the KE of the stone half way down?
DON’T FORGET THAT ENERGY IS CONSERVED – NOT CREATED OR

DESTROYED
This means that
THE STONE’S LOSS OF POTENTAIL ENERGY IS EQUAL TO ITS GAIN IN

KINETIC ENERGY!!!!!
The height lost by the stone is 2 metres.
PE lost by the stone is mgh = 8 x 10 x 2 = 160 J
So, the kinetic energy gained by the stone is 160 J
2. A stone of mass 4kg slides down a slope which has a vertical

height above the ground of 5 metres.
What is the velocity of the stone when it reaches the bottom of the
slope?
Again, potential energy at top of slope = kinetic energy at bottom
PE = mgh = 4 x 10 x 5 = 200 J
Kinetic energy at bottom of slope must also be 200 J
This means ½ mv2 = 200 J as this is the equation for KE
2v2 = 200J (as half a mass of 4kg = 2kg)
200 / 2 = v2
V2 = 100
V = √ 100 = 10 m/s
You try these ones:
1. A stone of mass 2.8 kg travels down a slope with a vertical

height of 25m. Calculate the velocity of the stone at the bottom
of the slope.
2. A ball of mass 5kg is dropped from the Eiffel Tower in Paris.
Calculate the velocity of the stone when it reaches the ground.
The Eiffel tower stands 158 metres above the ground.
3. A pole-vaulter at the Olympic Games has a mass of 75 kilograms.
a) What is her weight in Newton?

b) If she vaults to a height of 3 metres, what is her PE?
c) How much KE does she have just before reaching the ground?
d) What is her velocity at this time?
4. Draw and complete the following table
HEIGHT (m) KE (J) PE (J) VELOCITY (m/s)

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
5. A marble of mass 28 g is rolled down a slope with a vertical
height of 2 metres.
a) Calculate the GPE and KE for the marble

b) Calculate the velocity of the marble at the bottom of the slope
c) Draw a line graph for any of the following relationships in this
example:
i) Height vs. PE
ii) Height vs. KE
iii) Height vs. velocity
iv) PE vs. velocity
v) PE vs. KE
vi) KE vs. velocity
PROBLEMS INVOLVING CALCULATING THE VERTICAL HEIGHT
These are VERY COMMON questions on IGCSE papers
A stone with a mass of 4 kg is dropped from an unknown vertical

height h. Its velocity is 10 m/s at the bottom.
Calculate
a) The kinetic energy of the stone

b) The height that the stone was dropped from
KE = ½ mv2
KE = ½ X 4 X 102 = 200 J
Kinetic energy at the bottom = potential energy at the top
PE is also 200 J
PE = mgh = 200 J
PE = 4 X 10 X h
PE = 40 h
200 = 40 h
H = 5 metres
Here is yet another set of calculations:
1. The PE of a bullet at the top of the arc shape that it makes when
fired from a gun is 250 J. Calculate the height of the bullet from
the ground.
2. An object with a mass of 15kg is dropped from an unknown
height h. Its KE at the bottom is 2000 J. Calculate the drop
height.
3. A 2kg ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 6 m/s.
Calculate the maximum height that can be reached by the ball.
ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy that we use for electricity is obtained from the chemical

energy that is contained within fuels.
Fuels come from NON-RENEWABLE energy resources such as COAL,
OIL AND GAS.
These fuels are fossil fuels and took MILLIONS OF YEARS to form.
These fuels are NON-RENEWABLE as the fuels CANNOT BE REPLACED
IN A LIFETIME.
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Here is a diagram to show how a coal-fired power station works
All energy on Earth comes from a NUCLEAR FUSION reaction in the
SUN where ATOMS COMBINE to RELEASE ENERGY.
In electricity generation, like in the coal-fired power station on the

previous page, electricity comes from GENERATORS and TURBINES.
Energy from fuels is used to HEAT WATER and make HIGH ENERGY
STEAM.
The steam is used to TURN TURBINES which turn a GENRATOR that

MAKES THE ELECTRICITY.
For every 100 J of chemical energy in the coal:
15J is wasted in the boiler

45 J is wasted in cooling down the water
5J is wasted in the generator
65 J of energy is wasted which means that the power station is only 35%
EFFICIENT.
Most power stations use non-renewable energy resources such as COAL, OIL
and METHANE (natural gas).
All of these non-renewable fuels have many advantages and disadvantages

which are summarized in the table on the next page:
NAME OF FUEL ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
COAL Lots of heat Finite – will eventually
Reserves left run out
Easy to transport Expensive to mine
High energy content Burning it produces CO2
Cheap to buy gas that adds to global
warming
Burning it produces SO2
gas that dissolves in
clouds to form acid rain
“Dirty” fuel
OIL Cheap to buy Finite
Can obtain many useful Expensive to get from
chemicals (fractions) the ground by using an
from it which can be oil well. Also a “dirty”
used to make important fuel for the same reasons
chemicals like petrol, as described for coal
plastics and polymers
GAS High energy content Finite
“Clean” fuel Difficult to store
Flammable and dangers
of explosions
Also polluting for the
same reasons as
described for coal and oil
NUCLEAR High energy production Very important to have
“Clean” fuel high safety methods
Nuclear power stations
are extremely expensive
to build
High risk of radiation
Difficult to store
ELECTRICITY FROM WATER AND WIND
Two major power schemes are involved:
1. Moving water – tidal power or hydroelectric power (HEP)

2. Wind power from wind turbines also known as AEROGENERATORS
TIDAL POWER
A DAM is built across a RIVER. The river empties and fills with the TIDE.
Electricity is generated from the KINETIC ENERGY of the water on TURBINES OR
GENERATORS
HYDROELECTRIC POWER
Turbines turn generators. These power stations make use of the KINETIC
ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY of the water.
WIND POWER
Uses AEROGENERATORS that trap the KINETIC ENERGY of the WIND
They are built in upland areas or on wind farms off the shoreline.
The diagram on the next page shows how a wind generator works.
Other schemes involve the following:
1. WAVE ENERGY – Generators are driven by the up and down movement of

the waves
2. SOLAR ENERGY – PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS absorb the Sun’s rays and store
up electrical charge rather like the cell on your Solar Powered Calculator.
3. BIOFUELS – Fuels made from BIOMASS (animal and plant materials) such
as BIOETHANOL from sugar cane and BIODIESEL from palm oil.
4. GEOTHERMAL – Steam for turbines is produced by geothermal energy –

hot water or hot rocks in the Earth’s crust.
SUMMARY TABLE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
ENERGY SOURCE ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

SOLAR Free Inefficient
Renewable Expensive
Variable amounts of
sunshine
GEOTHERMAL Renewable Drilling is expensive in
Free geologically active areas
only
TIDAL Renewable Expensive
Free Only a few suitable areas
WIND Renewable Noisy
Free Expensive
Environmentally-friendly Upland areas needed or
a large area off the
shoreline needed
BIOFUELS Varied sources Large areas of land
Renewable needed
WAVE Renewable Little success
Free Expensive
Variable waves
HYDROELECTRIC Renewable Expensive
Free Few areas available
Causes environmental
damage
ENERGY, WORK AND POWER
Energy and work are measured in JOULES
Work is done when a FORCE makes something MOVE.
More work is done when:
1. The force is greater

2. The distance moved is greater
ONE JOULE OF WORK IS DONE WHEN A FORCE OF 1 NEWTON MOVES AN

OBJECT ONE METRE IN THE DIRECTION OF THE FORCE
Here is the formula that is needed to calculate work done:
WORK DONE (Nm) = FORCE (N) x DISTANCE MOVED IN DIRECTION OF FORCE(m)
Notice that the unit for work is the NEWTON METRE Nm.
For example,
If a 5N force moves an object a distance of 4 metres, work done = 20Nm
CALCULATIONS
1. Calculate the work done when a force of 234 N moves an object 567 m
2. Calculate the force needed to produce 70 J of work by moving an object
2m
3. Calculate the distance moved when a force of 4N produces 8060J of work
4. Express the following amounts of energy in Joule
a) 10kJ
b) 35MJ
POWER
POWER IS THE RATE AT WHICH WORK IS DONE
Power = work done / time taken
This means
Work done = power x time

Time = work / power
Power is measured in WATTS or JOULES PER SECOND
Large units of power = KILOWATT (Kw = 1 thousand watts) or MEGAWATTS

(MW – one million watts)
It is possible to calculate power when a FORCE lifts an object by a VERTICAL

DISTANCE in a given amount of TIME
EXAMPLE
A crane lifts a load of 4000 N through a height of 5m in 10 seconds. What is the

power of the crane?
Two steps
Work done = force x distance moved = 4000N x 5m = 20,000 J
Power = work done / time taken = 20,000 / 10 s = 2000 W
ELECTRICAL POWER
This is also measured in watts.
Electrical items are marked with the power THAT THEY CONVERY e.g. a 2kW
kettle.
EXAMPLE
An electric kettle is rated at 2Kw.

How many joules of energy are transferred in 20 seconds?
Power = 2kW = 2000 W = 2000 J/S

In ten seconds, the energy transferred = 20 x 2000J = 40,000 J or 40Kj
CALCULATIONS
1. A crane lifts a 1200 kg mass through a height of 24 metres in 36 seconds.

a) Calculate the weight of the mass
b) Calculate the work done (in Joule)
c) Calculate the power output (convert to kW)
2. A girl does 4000 J of work in 40 seconds. Calculate her power and convert
to kW.
3. A lamp is rated 150W. How many Joules does it convert into heat and
light in a) one second and b) 3 minutes?
4. A motor has a useful power output of 5kW.
a) Calculate this power output in Watts

b) Calculate the useful work done in one second
c) Calculate the useful work done in 20 seconds
d) Calculate the efficiency of the motor if the useful power input is 8 kW
PRESSURE
The definition of pressure is FORCE PER UNIT AREA
PRESSURE = FORCE / AREA
This means also that FORCE = AREA x PRESSURE and that AREA = FORCE /
PRESSURE
Force is measured in Newton. Area is measured in metres2

This gives us units for pressure of N/m2
1 N/m2 is called a PASCAL. Pressure is measured in Pascals, also.
EXAMPLES OF ‘REAL WORLD’ PRESSURE
WALL FOUNDATIONS
These have a large horizontal area with a low pressure. This

stops them sinking into the ground.
DRAWING PIN
This pin has a very high pressure in a very small area when it is
pushed into the wood.
STILETTO HEELS ON LADIES SHOES
These also exert a high pressure in a small area, just like a

drawing pin.
PRESSURE PROBLEMS
The wind pressure on a brick wall is 100Pa. The wall has an area of 10 m2.
Find the force.
FORCE = AREA x PRESSURE

= 100 Pa x 10 m2 = a force of 1000 N
PRESSURE CALCULATIONS
1. A force of 400 N acts on an area of 2 m2.

a) Calculate the pressure
b) Recalculate the pressure when the area is only 1m2
c) Recalculate the pressure when the area is doubled to 4m2
2. What force is produced if:

a) Pressure is 1000 Pa and area is 0.2 m2
b) Pressure is 4kPa and area is 0.4 m2
3. Explain why a load-spreading washer stops a metal nut on a bolt from

sinking into a block of wood.
4. A rectangular block which has a mass of 45 kg has sides 0.1m, 0.5m and
2m.
a) Calculate the weight of the block

b) Calculate the block’s maximum pressure that it exerts on the ground
c) Calculate the minimum pressure of the block on the ground.
PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS
In liquids, pressure has the following properties:
1. PRESSURE ACTS IN ALL DIRECTIONS – the liquid pushes on every surface

that it has contact with.
2. PRESSURE INCREASES AS DEPTH INCREASES – this is due to the weight of
the water ABOVE the object.
3. PRESSURE DEPENDS ON THE DENSITY OF THE LIQUID – thick sticky
(viscous) liquids like oil are denser than water.
CALCULATING THE PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS
The formula that we use is:
PRESSURE = DENSITY x GRAVITY x HEIGHT
Pressure = ρ (GREEK LETTER RHO) x g x h
EXAMPLE
If the density of water is 1000 kg / m3, what is the pressure at the bottom of a
swimming pool that is 3 metres deep?
Pressure = ρgh
= 1000 kg/m3 x 10 N/kg x 3m
= 30,000 Pa
Don’t forget that density = mass / volume , weight = density x volume x g
CALCULATIONS
Take g to be 10 N / Kg; density of water = 1000 kg / m3 and the density of

paraffin (less dense than water) is 800 kg m3.
1.
a) Compare the pressure at A2 with A1

b) If the height of water in piston 2 is 3m, calculate the pressure of the water
at the bottom of the piston.
3. A storage tank measuring 4m by 5m is filled with paraffin to a depth of 2

metres. Calculate:
a) The volume of paraffin

b) The mass of paraffin
c) The weight of paraffin
d) The pressure of the paraffin at the bottom of the storage tank
4. A glass fish tank with a base area of 4 m2 is filled with water to a depth of
5 metres.
a) Calculate the volume of the water

b) Calculate the mass of the water
c) Calculate the weight of the water
d) Calculate the pressure of the water at the bottom of the tank
5. Calculate the density of salty water with a mass of 12000 kg and a volume
of 7 m3. Recalculate the weight this water would have in the fish tank
above.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The pressure of the atmosphere has two main properties:
1. ITS PRESSURE ACTS IN ALL DIRECTIONS

2. ITS PRESSURE BECOMES LESS AS YOU RISE UP THROUGH IT
The atmosphere is DENSER at LOWER levels

This is because GASES CAN BE COMPRESSED (SQUASHED)
At sea level, atmospheric pressure is approximately 100,000 Pa (100 kPa)
100, 000 Pa is better known as STANDARD ATOMSPHERIC PRESSURE OR 1

ATMOSPHERE PRESSURE – 1 atm
1 ATMOSPHERE PRESSURE IS THE PRESSURE THAT WILL SUPPORT A COLUMN OF

MERCURY METAL 760 mm HIGH
IN WEATHER FORECASTING, PRESSURE UNITS ARE MILLIBARS (mb).
ONE MILLIBAR – 1 mb = 100 Pa

MEASURING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
This is measured by using a MERCURY BAROMETER
The vacuum above the mercury contains no air at all so it has ZERO PRESSURE.
The mercury column is held up by the pressure of the air to a height of 760mm –
1 ATMOSPHERE PRESSURE.
The height of the mercury actually changes slightly due to different weather
conditions.
High air pressure causes sunny weather with no wind (above 1000 mb pressure)
Low air pressure causes rainy weather and lots of wind (below 1000 mb
pressure)
Very low air pressure causes severe weather systems such as hurricanes and
cyclones.
MEASURING PRESSURE DIFFERENCES
Pressure differences are measured using a MERCURY MANOMETER like this
There are also water and alcohol manometers available.
The manometer is filled with mercury. The difference in HEIGHT shows the
EXTRA PRESSURE when a gas or liquid is applied. This pressure is called EXCESS
PRESSURE.
The actual pressure of a gas supplied =

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE + EXCESS PRESSURE
CALCULATIONS
1. In a monometer, the pressure on the left is 5 mm mercury and on the

right after the gas has been added is 20 mm mercury. Find the excess
pressure in mm mercury.
2. What would be the actual pressure of the gas supplied in question 1?
3. If a mercury manometer was taken to the top of Mount Everest, how
would you expect the height of the column of the mercury to change?
4. Explain how you can suck your Frapuccino through a straw at Starbucks.
5. The density of mercury is 13590 kg / m3.
a) Calculate the pressure at the bottom of a column of mercury that is 1.5
metres long
6. If on a normal day, the pressure of mercury is 760 mm, what would this
value be in a) Pascals b) atmospheres c) millibars?
This is the end of General Physics for IGCSE
THERMAL PHYSICS
THERMAL PHYSICS
THE KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL OF MATTER
This model describes the structure, attraction and movement of particles.
There are 3 states of matter:
Solid, liquid and gas
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES
1. SOLIDS
Solids have a FIXED SHAPE AND VOLUME. The particles are CLOSE TOGETHER.
There are STRONG FORCES OF ATTRACTION between the particles. The particles
VIBRATE around FIXED POSITIONS.
2. LIQUIDS
Liquids have a FIXED VOLUME and can FLOW TO FILL ANY SHAPE. Liquid
particles are quite close together but are FREE MOVING with WEAK FORCES OF
ATTRACTION.
3. GAS
Gases have NO FIXED SHAPE OR VOLUME. A gas will FILL ALL AVAILABLE SPACE.
Gas particles are FAST MOVING AND SPREAD OUT (FAR APART).
Gases have VERY WEAK FORCES OF ATTRACTION.
EVIDENCE FOR MOVING PARTICLES
The main evidence for the movement of particles is called BROWNIAN MOTION.
The above diagram shows the Brownian motion of smoke particles.
BROWNIAN MOTION IS THE RANSOM MOVEMENT OF GAS PARTICLES.
You can look at the smoke particles down a microscope and take video pictures
of the movement. This is how we got the photograph above.
The larger smoke particles seem to move in a random zigzag path.

The ransom movement is due to COLLISIONS with AIR MOLECULES.
MOVEMENT AND ENERGY OF PARTICLES
All moving particles have KINETIC AND POTENTIAL energy due to their
POSITIONS.
GAS MOLECULES have the HIGHEST kinetic energy and potential energy.
The TOTAL KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY of ALL the atoms in a
material is known as the INTERNAL ENERGY.
Internal energy INCREASES as the TEMPERATURE INCREASES. This is because the
PARTICLES are MOVING FASTER.
EVAPORATION
The definition of evaporation is THE ESCAPE OF MORE ENERGETIC MOLECULES

FROM THE SURFACE OF A LIQUID.
In the above diagram you can see water evaporating from the roof of a house
on a hot day.
Molecules escape from the surface of the liquid due to INCREASED KINETIC
ENERGY.
TEMPERATURE AFFECTS the KINETIC ENERGY of the MOLECULES.
Some molecules can RETURN to the SURFACE of the liquid unless the gas is
removed.
FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION
1. TEMPERATURE – this increases the kinetic energy of the molecules

2. SURFACE AREA – this causes more of the molecules to be closer to the
surface. This increases evaporation.
3. HUMIDITY – this is because air has a HIGH WATER CONTENT. Molecules
return to the surface of the liquid as fast as the escaping molecules.
4. AIR MOVEMENTS – moving air carries escaping molecules away from the
surface before they have a chance to return to the surface.
BOILING
Here is a picture that shows that

some molecules are evaporating
from the surface of boiling water
inside a kettle.
This is a very rapid form of evaporation. The vapour BUBBLES form DEEP within
the liquid. The bubbles RISE, EXPAND AND BURST. They release LARGE
AMOUNTS OF WATER.
THE COOLING EFFECT OF EVAPORATION
Evaporation also has a COOLING EFFECT. As a liquid cools, it takes THERMAL

ENERGY AWAY FROM an object. This is called the LATENT HEAT OF
VAPORIZATION. This effect is seen in SWEATING and REFRIDGERATORS.
a) SWEATING – occurs when water in sweat evaporates, this removes

thermal energy.
b) REFRIDGERATORS
The REFRIDGERANT EVAPORATES taking away lots of THERMAL ENERGY

The VAPOUR is removed by a PUMP
The pump compresses the vapour into a LIQUID
The liquid then heats up
The liquid is then COOLED by COOLING PIPES. EXCESS thermal energy REMOVED
BY AIR.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain why on a humid day you feel hot and uncomfortable

2. Explain why puddles of water dry out very quickly
3. Explain by using kinetic theory how this cooling effect takes place
4. What is the difference between evaporation and boiling?
THERMAL EXPANSION
Thermal expansion is an INCREASE IN VOLUME DUE TO HEATING.

This is because solids, liquids and gases all expand on heating.
When heated, particles have increased vibrations.

These vibrations will take up more space.
Solids will expand in ALL DIRECTIONS

Expansion is higher when there is a HIGHER TEMPERATURE and a LARGER
LENGTH of solid.
GASES EXPAND LOTS, LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS EXPAND LESS.
EXAMPLES OF EXPANSION – THE BIMETALLIC STRIP
This strip demonstrates the expansion of metals. The strip is made from two
different metals – BRASS AND IRON. Brass is shown as the TOP STRIP shaded
BLUE.
The brass EXPANDS MORE than the iron and CURVES UPWARDS.
The strip bends downwards due to an increase in length.
This makes the bimetallic strip TOUCH THE CONTACT which COMPLETES THE
CIRCUIT sending electricity into the wire.
Bimetallic strips are used in a fire alarm and an electric thermostat – like an iron
for your clothes.
In the fire alarm circuit with the bimetallic strip shown above, the contacts close
due to the thermal expansion of the bimetallic strip. This completes the circuit.
The wire leads to an electric bell which rings when there is a fire.
ELECTRIC THERMOSTAT
The above diagram of the electric thermostat in an electric iron for your clothes
uses a bimetallic strip made from BRASS and INVAR.
When the temperature rises, the bimetallic strip bends away from the contact.
This causes the current to the electric heater to be switched off.
The bar then cools and straightens sending a current into the heating coil again.
This is how a STEADY TEMPERATURE is THERMOSTATICALLY obtained.
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS WITH EXPANSION
Railway lines can buckle in the hot sun
To avoid this, we leave EXPANSION GAPS BETWEEN THE LINES TO ALLOW FOR
EXPANSION. The expansion gaps can be clearly seen below
The ends of bridges are usually on ROLLERS to allow for expansion when the
bridge expands.
Steam, water and gas pipes at a chemical factory usually have bends in them to
allow for expansion – to prevent oil, gas and chemical explosions due to a build-
up of pressure when the gases or liquids expand.
Telephone wires expand in the summer
Here are some telephone wires from Australia that shows when they get longer
they bend towards the ground. On a cold day, the cables tend to look horizontal
as they CONTRACT WHEN COLD.
EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS
Most liquids expand when they get hotter. Water doesn’t !!!
Water at ordinary temperatures contracts and increases in density as it is

cooled, like most substances. But at about 4°C it reaches a maximum density
and then decreases in density as it approaches the freezing point. This decrease
in density is only about one part in 10,000 as it cools from 4°C to 0°C, but this is
sufficient to cause the water near freezing to come to the top. The water further
expands upon freezing, so that water freezes from the top down, and ice floats
on water.
WHY?
The fact that water expands upon freezing causes icebergs to float. The fact that
water reaches a maximum density at about 4°C causes bodies of water to freeze
on the top first. Then the further expansion as a part of the phase change keeps
the ice floating with some 8% of its mass above the surface.
The expansion upon freezing comes from the fact that water crystallizes into an
open hexagonal form. This hexagonal lattice contains more space than the
liquid state.
EXPANSION OF GASES
This is covered by THE GAS LAWS.
These gas laws led to several important concepts in Physics.
Boyles Law:
Pressure is inversely proportional to the volume:
We can plot the data as a graph:
We can see that the data fit into a pattern called a hyperbola. If, however we
plot pressure against 1/volume we get a linear (straight line) graph.
Since the line goes through the origin, we say that the two quantities are
directly proportional.
• So we can say that
1 /Volume (m-3)
•
Pressure (kPa)
P  1/V
• Therefore:
P = k/V where k is a constant.
• Rearranging:
PV = constant.
The picture below shows a data-logging experiment for Boyle's Law.
Charles' Law
The volume of an ideal gas is proportional to its Kelvin temperature.
The traditional way was to use a small drop of concentrated sulphuric acid in a
capillary tube and heat it in water, watching it move up the capillary as the
temperature got higher. Getting good thermal contact is quite difficult in the
experiment, so there is quite a lot of uncertainty. We can use data logging
equipment to show the experiment.
Whichever way we get the data, the ideal graph is like this:
Whatever the gas we use, we find that the line always, without exception
passes through the temperature axis at a very particular value, -273.15 oC. This
led to the concept of absolute zero, discovered by William Thompson, Lord
Kelvin. If we put the absolute zero point, 0 Kelvin, we get:
This allows us to say:
VµT
Therefore
V = kT where k is a constant
Rearranging:
V/T = constant
The Pressure Law:
This law tells us that pressure is proportional to the Kelvin temperature. The
traditional way to demonstrate this is with a large glass sphere immersed in
water, connected to a manometer, a rather low tech (but remarkably
accurate) way of detecting small differences in gas pressure.
We can demonstrate the same using data logging equipment like this:
We can show this on a graph like this:
So we can write:
PT
Therefore
P = kT
Rearranging:
P/T = constant
These three relationships can be combined to give:
PV / T = constant
With a fixed mass of gas, there are 3 things to consider:
Pressure, volume and temperature
LINKING PRESSURE AND VOLUME (AT CONSTANT TEMPERATURE)
In a gas, molecules are constantly colliding with the walls of the container. The
FORCE of these collisions causes PRESSURE.
A large volume of gas has a low pressure; a small volume of gas has a higher
pressure.
If the volume of the gas is HALVED, its pressure DOUBLES.
PRESSURE IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO VOLUME. THIS IS BOYLE’S LAW.
Boyle’s Law states that “For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature,
pressure is inversely proportional to the volume”.
FORMULA
STARTING PRESSURE x STARTING VOLUME = END PRESSURE x END VOLUME

P1V1 = P2V2
WORKED EXAMPLES
A fixed mass of gas of pressure 500 Pa with a volume of 30 m3 is squashed to a

pressure of 1000 Pa. Calculate the end volume of the gas.
P1V1 = P2V2
500 x 30 = 1000 x V2
15000 = 1000 V2
V2 = 15 cm3
Here is another worked example
A fixed mass of gas of unknown pressure (Pa) and a volume of 450 m3 is

compressed to a pressure of 220 Pa and a volume of 150 m3. Calculate the initial
pressure.
P1V1 = P2V2
P1 x 450 = 220 x 150
P1 x 450 = 33000
P1 = 33000 / 450
P1= 73.3 Pa
GAS LAW CALCULATIONS
1. A fixed volume of gas at 5000 Pa is compressed down to 60 m3 and the

pressure rises to 260,000 Pa. Calculate the original volume of the gas.
2. Calculate the initial pressure of a gas of 393 m3 having expanded to 4785 m3

at a pressure of 10,000 Pa.
3. The pressure inside a gas pipeline is 800kPa. Ten litres of gas escapes into the
air when the pressure is 100kPa. What is the pressure of the gas when that
happened?
4. The final pressure of an escaped gas is 700kPa. This gas occupies a volume iof
100 m3. If the initial pressure was 2000 kPa, calculate the initial volume of the
gas.
5 Using the kinetic theory of matter, explain why:

a) Air in a car tyre exerts pressure on the walls of the tyre
b) The pressure inside the tyre increases when the tyre is pumped up
c) The tyre pressure is greater at the end of journey than at the start
LINKING PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE (AT CONSTANT VOLUME)
With these conditions, we use the KELVIN TEMPERATURE SCALE.

This scale usually measures very high or very low temperatures. This scale uses
a temperature called ABSOLUTE ZERO -273°C AS ITS STARTING TEMPERATURE.
So, absolute zero is ZERO KELVIN on the KELVIN SCALE.
Absolute zero is the temperature at which all atoms stop moving and is the
lowest possible temperature that exists.
Here is the pressure law:
FOR A MASS OF GAS AT CONSTANT VOLUME, PRESSURE IS DIRECTLY

PROPORTIONAL TO TEMPERATURE.
This means that if the pressure doubles, the temperature must have doubled.
Remember, to change a temperature in °C to K – simply add 273
The reason why temperature is directly proportional to temperature is because:
a) Gas molecules GAIN KINETIC ENERGY as TEMPERATURE INCREASES

b) FASTER moving molecules cause HARDER collisions which INCREASE the
pressure of the gas.
LINKING VOLUME AND TEMPERATURE (AT CONSTANT PRESSURE)
This is Charles’ Law which states that FOR A FIXED MASS OF GAS AT CONSTANT
PRESSURE, VOLUME IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE KELVIN TEMPERATURE.
This is because
• Increased temperature will INCREASE THE KINETIC ENERGY of the gas

molecules
• Molecules will MOVE FASTER and the DISTANCE between the molecules
INCREASES
• This increases the volume of the gas
A summary of the gas laws is:
P = Pressure V = Volume T = Temperature
Boyle’s Law PV = k
Charles’ Law V=k

Combined Gas Law PV = k
T
T
Ideal Gas Law PV = nRT where “n” = number of moles of gas
PV = mRT where “m” = mass of a gas, MM = molar mass of the gas
MM
R = Ideal Gas Constant = 0.08216 lL . atm = 8.314 J J = Kg m2
Mol . K mol . K s2
STP: Standard Temperature = 0 C ( 273.15 K)
Standard Pressure = 1 atmosphere = 760 mmHg = 760 torr
= 101.3 kPa = 1.013 x 105 Pa
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
Temperature is a MEASURE of the KINETIC ENERGY of ATOMS.
Temperature is measured in °C (degrees Celsius), °F (degrees Fahrenheit) or K

(Kelvin)
Temperature is measured with an instrument called a THERMOMETER.
TYPES OF THERMOMETER
1. CONSTANT VOLUME THERMOMETER – contains a constant gas whose

pressure increases as the temperature increases. The temperature scale is r
read off from the pressure of the gas.
2. RESISTANCE THERMOMETER – resistance INCREASES as temperature

increases. The resistance of a wire is used as an indication of the temperature.
3. THE LIQUID IN-GLASS THERMOMETER – this is the most common

thermometer that we use. This thermometer contains either mercury or
ethanol. An increase in volume is used as an indicator of the increasing
temperature.
Mercury is widely used in thermometers because it is a good conductor of heat

that expands EVENLY as the temperature rises.
Unfortunately, mercury freezes at -39°C and is extremely poisonous.
Alcohol is widely used in thermometers because it can be used at very low

temperatures and its expansion is SIX TIMES GREATER THAN THAT OF
MERCURY. This means that an alcohol thermometer is EXTREMELY SENSITIVE TO
CHANGE IN HEAT.
Unfortunately, alcohol boils at 78°C so can’t be used above this temperature.
TERMS WHEN USING THERMOMETERS
LINEARITY – This is even expansion on the temperature scale. THE DIFFERENCE

BETWEEN THE SAME TEMPERATURE RISE IS THE SAME.
NON-LINEARITY: Expansion is not constant as there are different distances

between the points on a thermometer.
RANGE – This is the DIFFERENCE between the HIGHEST and LOWEST points on
the thermometer scale. In-glass thermometers have a range of 100°C
as there is a difference in one hundred °C from melting ice to boiling
water.
SENSITIVITY – This is a measure of the EXPANSION of the LIQUID inside the

thermometer. Sensitive thermometers measure VERY SMALL
TEMPERATURE CHANGES.
CALIBRATION – This is the CALCULATION of a SCALE that depends on the UPPER

AND THE LOWER FIXED POINTS.
The UPPER FIXED POINT is marked as 100°C and found by placing a

thermometer into STEAM at STANDARD ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.
The LOWER FIXED POINT is marked as 0°C and is found by placing a

thermometer into PURE MELTING ICE at standard pressure.
ELECTRONIC TEMPERATURE SENSORS
THE THERMOCOUPLE
The thermocouple is usually composed of COPPER AND CONSTANTIN wires
which are both connected to a VOLTMETER.
IRON IS NOT USED BECAUSE IT RUSTS.
One end of one of the wires is placed in PURE MELTING ICE AT 0°C. This is called
the COLD JUNCTION.
The end of the other wire is HEATED and is called the HOT JUNCTION.
The VOLTMETER is CALIBRATED to measure VOLTAGE in the wires as a
MEASURE OF THE TEMPERATURE.
The GREATER the difference in the voltage BETWEEN THE TWO WIRES, the
HIGHER the temperature.
USES OF THE THERMOCOUPLE
1. Used to discover the MELTING POINT OF METALS at VERY HIGH temperatures.

2. Easily measures rapidly changing temperatures.
3. Can measure the temperature of an object AT A DISTANCE.
QUESTIONS
1. State the property used to measure temperature in a) mercury in-glass

thermometer and b) a thermocouple.
2. Give the temperature of the following in Kelvin a) absolute zero b) boiling
water c) melting ice d) 127°C e) 25°C
3. The scale on a mercury thermometer is linear and extends from -110 °C to
100°C in 240 mm steps.
a) What do we mean by ‘the scale is linear’?
b) Calculate the distance moved by the mercury if the temperature increases
from 0°C to 1°C
c) from 1°C to 100°C
d) Describe how it is possible to calibrate this thermometer.
4. Describe the features of a thermometer which will make it a) quick to act and
b) sensitive.
5. Name 3 practical situations in the laboratory or industry where a

thermocouple may be used.
6. Describe an experiment in which you can accurately calibrate a

thermocouple.
THERMAL CAPACITY
There are a few things to remember here:
1. ALL MATERIALS ABSORB THERMAL (HEAT) ENERGY

2. The AMOUNT of HEAT ENERGY that a material can ABSORB is called
THERMAL CAPACITY
3. This term is also called SECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (c)
4. Specific heat capacity is measured in J kg-1 °C-1
HEAT CAPACITY (J °C-1)
“HEAT CAPACITY IS THE AMOUNT OF HEAT ENERGY NEEDED TO RAISE THE

TEMPERATURE OF AN OBJECT BY 1°C”
The heat capacity of an object depends upon:
a) Its mass
b) The material it is made from.
Objects such as WATER have a HIGH HEAT CAPACITY as it takes LOTS of heat
energy to warm them up.
FORMULA FOR HEAT CAPACITY
HEAT CAPACITY (J °C-1) = MASS x SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
Example – calculate the heat capacity of 5 kg of water in an electric kettle.
The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg-1 °C-1
Heat capacity = 5 x 4200 = 21,000 J or 21 kJ
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
This is measured in J kg-1 °C-1 and IS THE AMOUNT OF HEAT ENERGY NEEDED TO
RAISE 1KG OF A SUBSTANCE BY 1°C
The formula for specific heat capacity is

ENERGY SUPPLIED / (MASS x TEMPERATURE RISE)
To find the specific heat capacity of a substance, we need to know:
1. The energy supplied to a substance in Joule

2. The mass of the object
3. The temperature rise
EXPERIMENT TO FIND THE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF WATER
Using the above apparatus:
1. Put 1 kg of cold water into a beaker. Insulate the beaker and put a lid on it.
2. Record the temperature of the water with a digital thermometer.
3. Place a 100 Watt heating coil into the water and switch on for a given amount
of time – say 150 seconds.
4. Switch off the heating coil, stir the water and record the final temperature.
CALCULATIONS FROM THE ABOVE EXPERIMENT
1. We can calculate the energy supplied by the heating coil

2. We can calculate the temperature change
3. We can then calculate the specific heat capacity of the water
1. Energy of the heating element = power (W) x time (s)
= 100 x 150 = 15,000 J (15 kJ)
2. Start temperature was 23°C and final temperature was 31°C

Temperature change = 31 – 23 = 8°C
3. Specific heat capacity = energy supplied / (mass x temperature rise)

= 15,000 / (1 x 8) = 1875 J kg-1 °C-1
MAKE THE FOLLOWING ASSUMPTION!
YOU MUST ASSUME THAT ALL OF THE THERMAL ENERGY HAS BEEN USED TO
HEAT UP THE WATER. REMEMBER, IN REALITY, SOME HEAT ENERGY WILL BE
LOST TO THE BEAKER AND ITS SURROUNDINGS
WHAT IF THE ENERGY SUPPLIED TO AN OBJECT IS UNKNOWN?
This is possible to calculate by re-arranging the equation for specific heat

capacity.
ENERGY TRANSFERRED =
MASS x SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY x TEMPERATURE CHANGE
H = m c T
EXAMPLE
Calculate the energy transferred if 4 kg of water rises from 30°C to 85°C if the
specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg-1 °C-1
Temp change is 85-30 = 55°C, H = m c T
H = 4 x 4200 x 55 = 924,000 J or 924 kJ
IMPORTANT SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY VALUES
Copper = 385 J kg-1 °C-1

Gold = 130 J kg-1 °C-1
Iron = 448 J kg-1 °C-1
Aluminium = 900 J kg-1 °C-1
CALCULATIONS ON SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
1. Calculate the energy required to heat 15kg of water from 15°C to 90°C
2. Calculate the energy lost by a 5kg block of aluminium if it cools from 100°C to
40°C
3. A 220 W heater is placed in 4 kg of liquid for 2 minutes.
a) Calculate the energy of the heater
b) Calculate the specific heat capacity of the unknown liquid if the temperature
rises from 20 °C to 45°C
4. A 2kg block of iron is given 10kJ of energy and its temperature rises by 10°C.
Calculate the specific heat capacity of the iron.
5. Calculate the energy required to change the temperature of:
a) 2kg of water by 5°C

b) 500g of water by 4°C
c) 100 g of gold from 20°C to 30°C
d) 200 g of copper from 60°C to 10°C
6. How much energy is needed to heat 100,000 kg of water in a swimming pool

from 15°C to 25°C
7. Calculate the energy transferred into 500 g of water when heated from 20°C
to 100°C
8. The specific heat capacity of concrete is 1050 J kg-1 °C-1. It is part of a heater. If
the heater cools from 80°C to 40°C, how much heat energy is given out for this
25 kg mass of concrete?
9. A 60 Watt heater is switched on for 90 seconds. This 60 W heater is used to

heat up 2 kg of a liquid. The temperature increases from 23 °C to 25°C.
Calculate the specific heat capacity of the unknown liquid.
10. Calculate the energy lost from an unknown metal (x) with a specific heat
capacity of 800 J kg-1 °C-1 if the mass of the metal object is 800 g and it cools
from 70°C to 30°C
LATENT HEAT
Ice can absorb thermal heat energy and change state.
AS THERE IS A CHANGE OF STATE, THERE IS ACTUALLY NO CHANGE IN

TEMPERATURE.
Heat energy is used to break the FORCES OF ATTRACTION between the

molecules.
This can be shown on the graph on the following page.
On the graph, there is a flat part where the line is horizontal.
The energy absorbed when changing state from a SOLID TO LIQUID is called THE
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION.
This is what the flat part of the above graph actually shows us.
The latent heat of fusion is a MEASURE OF ENERGY and has the units J/Kg.
WORKED EXAMPLE
ENERGY = MASS x SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT

E=mL
At 0°C, if 2 kg of ice is melted, E = m L = 2 x 660, 000 J/Kg
This means that it takes 330, 000 J (33kJ) to melt one kilogram of ice to water at
0°C
EXPERIMENT TO FIND THE SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE
1. Place a known mass of ice in a filter funnel

2. Place a 100 Watt heater (calorimeter) in the ice
3. Switch on the heater for 6 minutes (360 seconds)
4. Collect the melted ice in a beaker
5. Transfer the liquid into a measuring cylinder and record the volume of melted
ice (water) formed.
6. Transfer this volume of liquid to a mass balance and record the mass of
melted liquid water formed.
Volume of water produced = 75 cm3

Mass of water produced = 75 g (0.075 kg) as 1 cm3 of water = 1 g
Energy from the heater = power x time = 100 W x 360 s = 36000 J
LATENT HEAT = energy supplied / mass
36,000 / 0.075 = 480,000 J /kg
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ON SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT
1. If the specific latent heat of ice is 340,000 J / kg, calculate:
a) The energy needed to melt 2 kg of ice at 0°C

b) The energy needed to melt 500 g of ice at 0°C
2. Calculate the latent heat of fusion if 260,000 J of energy is needed to melt 90g
of ice.
3. Here is a heating curve for an unknown substance
a) At 100°C, is the substance a solid, liquid or gas?

b) What is the boiling point of the substance?
c) What is the melting point of the substance?
d) Where is there a transfer of energy without a decrease in the temperature?
4. A 60 Watt heater is switched on for 5 minutes to melt crushed ice.

Calculate the heat of fusion of ice if 40 cm3 of water is collected.
5. Calculate the energy needed to melt 4g of a substance which has a specific

latent heat of fusion of 540,000 J / kg
LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
Water can absorb thermal energy to change state from a liquid to a gas when it
reaches its BOILING POINT.
The heat energy is used to break bonds between particles so that they become
spread out and move about with higher energy.
This means that the particles become GAS.
The heat energy needed to CHANGE A LIQUID INTO A GAS AT THE SAME
TEMPERATURE is called THE LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION.
Again, on a graph, any change from a liquid to a gas is shown by a FLAT

HORIZONTAL LINE.
The latent heat of vaporization is also measured in J/kg
FORMULA
ENERGY NEEDED TO BOIL WATER AT 100°C =

MASS x LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
Again, E = m L
EXAMPLE
At 100°C, if 1 kg of water is vaporized, calculate the energy needed if the latent

heat of vaporization of water is 2,300,000 J/kg
E = m L = 1 x 2,300,000 = 2,300,000 J
This means that IT TAKES 2,300,000 J of energy to change 1kg OF WATER INTO
STEAM AT 100°C
EXPERIMENT TO FIND THE SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF WATER
1. Boil 1500 g of water in a 1500 W kettle for 5 minutes (heat source above)
2. Re-calculate any loss in the mass
3. Calculate the energy needed
Mass of water at start = 1500 g

Mass of water at end = 1300 g
Mass of steam (the difference) = 1500 – 1300 = 200 g = 0.2 kg
Energy = power x time = 1500 w x 300 s = 450,000 J
Specific latent heat of vaporization = energy / mass = 450,000 J / 0.2 kg =

2,250,000 J/kg
QUESTIONS ON SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
1. Calculate the specific latent heat of vaporization if a 200o watt heater boils
1200 g of water to 1100 g steam in 8 minutes.
2. Calculate the energy transferred if 3 kg of water is heated (take the specific

latent heat of water to be 2,300,000 J/kg)
3. A 3kW electric kettle heats 600 g of water for 12 minutes. The mass changes
to 450g. Calculate the specific latent heat of vaporization of water.
4. Calculate the energy needed to boil 100 g of water at 100°C (take the specific
latent heat of water to be 2,300,000 J/kg)
HEAT TRANSFER
There are 3 main methods of heat transfer:
CONDUCTION, CONVECTION AND RADIATION
CONDUCTION
This is the TRANSFER of THERMAL ENERGY from ATOM TO ATOM in a

CONDUCTOR like a METAL.
Heat energy INCREASES the KINETIC ENERGY of the PARTICLES and makes them
VIBRATE MORE.
CONDUCTION IN METALS
This explains why METALS are GOOD CONDUCTORS of HEAT and ELECTRICITY.
In metals, the ELECTRONS of their ATOMS are FREE-MOVING.
The electrons COLLIDE with the atoms in the metal making them VIBRATE
FASTER. This PASSES ALONG THE THERMAL ENERGY by CONDUCTION.
INSULATORS are POOR CON DUCTORS OF HEAT as they DO NOT HAVE free-
moving electrons.
THERMAL CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
Good conductors are metals like copper and aluminium. Silicon and graphite are
TWO NON-METALS that conduct electricity.
Poor conductors are INSULATORS. Examples of insulators are plastic, glass,

rubber, wool, polystyrene and wood.
EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE CONDUCTION IN METALS
Four bars are heated made from copper, aluminium, steel and iron. They are all
the same size and mass.
At the end of each bar are nails which are held by wax
The best conductor makes the nails drop off first by melting the wax as the heat
passes down the metal by conduction.
The copper nail falls off first, then aluminium, then iron then steel.
This means that of the 4 metals – COPPER IS THE BEST CONDUCTOR AND STEEL
IS THE WORST CONDUCTOR.
HEAT LOSS AND INSULATING MATERIALS
Insulators are used around the home to reduce heat loss. This is how they do it.
The diagram on the next page shows how energy can be saved in a house.
Firstly, here is a diagram to show how energy can be lost from your home.
Here is a diagram to show how most of this energy can be saved instead of
wasted.
CONVECTION
CONVECTION IS THE MOVEMENT OF THERMAL ENERGY FROM ONE PLACE TO

ANOTHER
Convection is caused by CONVECTION CURRENTS in LIQUIDS AND GASES.
EXAMPLES OF CONVECTION CURRENTS
1. ON-SHORE AND OFF-SHORE SEA BREEZES
In the day we have an ON-SHORE BREEZE. The land is warmer than the sea.
The warm air rises, the cold air sinks. The wind travels from sea to land (right
hand diagram).
At night, we have an OFF-SHORE BREEZE. The sea is warmer than the land. The
warm air rises and cold air sinks. Wind travels from sea to land (left hand
diagram).
2. AIRCRAFT LIFT
Aircraft use WARM air current called THERMALS to generate LIFT. We can see
the RELATIVE AIR FLOW of the THERMALS in the diagram above.
3. HEATING ELEMENT IN KETTLE
4. CONVECTOR HEATER
These warm a room in your house because warm air rises and cool air falls.
Eventually all the air in the room is hot.
5. REFRIDGERATORS
In a refrigerator, the COLD AIR SINKS as it has a HIGHER DENSITY. This produces
a CIRCULATING AIR CURRENT which COOLS DOWN YOUR FOOD.
6. DOMESTIC HOT WATER SYSTEM
In this system, cold water sinks and is heated in a boiler.

The hot water rises and is stored in a storage tank.
The colder water at the bottom of the storage tank is recycled.
The storage tank is insulated to stop heat loss by conduction and convection.
7. HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchangers are found in CAR ENGINES.

The engine is COOLED by CONVECTION CURRENTS in the WATER PIPES.
WATER carries UNWANTED HEAT from the ENGINE to a RADIATOR.
The radiator acts as a HEAT EXCHANGER which GIVES UP its THERMAL ENERGY
to the AIR.
RADIATION
Radiation is HEAT TRANSFER by INFRA-RED WAVES.

This is part of the ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM OF WAVES (see later notes).
THERMAL RADIATION is a MIXTURE of DIFFERENT WAVELENGTHS.
ALL objects EMIT THERMAL RADIATION.
The AMOUNT OF RADIATION depends on the TEMPERATURE and SURFACE of
the object.
EMITTERS AND ABSORBERS OF HEAT
Some surfaces are better at emitting or absorbing heat
The BEST EMITTER is a DULL MATT BLACK surface

The WORST EMITTER is a WHITE or SHINY surface
The WORST reflector is a MATT BLACK surface, the BEST is a SHINY surface
A MATT BLACK surface is the BEST ABSORBER of heat
A SHINY surface is the WORST ABSORBER of heat
SUMMARY:
A MATT BLACK SURFACE IS A GOOD ABSORBER, GOOD EMITTER AND POOR

REFLECTOR.
A SHINY SURFACE IS A POOR ABSORBER, POOR EMITTER AND GOOD
REFLECTOR.
USES OF RADIATION
1. THE VACUUM FLASK
The vacuum flask REDUCES CONDUCTION, CONVECTION AND RADIATION

The VACUUM STOPS energy transfer by CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION
The SILVERING of the GLASS STOPS RADIATION of heat energy
Silvering the glass REFLECTS BACK INFRA-RED RAYS
The LID REDUCES HEAT LOSS by CONDUCTION, CONVECTION AND RADIATION
2. GREENHOUSE
RAYS from the SUN (SOLAR RAYS) have a SHORT WAVELENGTH and PENETRATE
the GLASS in the greenhouse.
These SOLAR RAYS are ABSORBED by the PLANT.
Plants REFLECT LONGER WAVELENGTHS.
The longer wavelengths CANNOT PENETRATE the glass.
3. THERMOGRAPHY
This photograph of the elephant was taken with a CAMERA USING INFRA-RED
RAYS. The camera is a THERMAL IMAGING CAMERA or THERMOGRAPH.
This is often used in MEDICINE. The DISEASED parts of the skin appear HOTTER,
usually WHITE.
4. FIRE-FIGHTING AND VOLCANOLOGY
Fire-fighting suits are silvered. Most heat energy is reflected to protect the
fireman. This is also used by volcanologists who need to study the hot lava in a
volcano.
QUESTIONS ON HEAT TRANSFER (CONDUCTION, CONVECTION AND RADIATION)
1. Describe and explain four ways in which heat loss can be reduced in a house.
2a) Give 2 ways that heat loss by conduction can be stopped in a vacuum flask.
b) Give 1 way that heat loss by convection can be stopped in a vacuum flask.
c) Give 1 way that heat loss by radiation can be stopped in a vacuum flask.
3. Explain why:
a) Saucepans have copper bottoms and plastic handles

b) Wool and feathers are good insulators
c) It is safer to pick up a hot dish with a dry cloth than with a wet cloth
4. Why are metals much better thermal conductors than most other materials?
5. A hot water bottle loses thermal energy even when it is lagged. How could
this energy loss be reduced?
6. Explain why:
a) A radiator warms air in a room even though the air is a poor thermal
conductor.
b) The freezer compartment of a refrigerator is placed at the top.
c) Smoke from a bonfire or barbecue rises upwards.
7. On a hot summer day, coastal winds blow in from the sea.
a) What causes these winds?

b) Why do the winds change direction at night?
8. Name the surface which is best at:
a) Absorbing thermal radiation

b) Emitting thermal radiation
c) Reflecting thermal radiation
9. Explain why:
a) Polystyrene is used for drinking cups

b) Why a lid with a hole covers a polystyrene cup
10. Explain why a fire-fighting suit is covered silver.
END OF THERMAL PHYSICS
PROPERTIES OF WAVES, INCLUDING
LIGHT AND SOUND
WAVES
GENERAL WAVE PROPERTIES
Energy is transferred from one place to another by WAVES.

Waves are produced by VIBRATION.
Waves are made up of a REPEATING PATTERN.
WAVE TERMS – PARTS OF A WAVE
1. DISPLACEMENT – this is how far a point on a wave is from the REST POSITION
(RP) – Which is the HORIZONTAL MID-POINT of the wave.
2. TROUGH – the lowest part of the wave.
3. CREST OR PEAK – the highest part of the wave.
4. WAVELENGTH (λ) – the length of one wave.
5. AMPLITUDE (a) – maximum height of a wave from the rest position.
6. FREQUENCY – the number of waves per second – measured in HERTZ (Hz)
THE WAVE-SPEED EQUATION
The relationship between SPEED, FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH is given by

the equation:
SPEED = FREQUENCY x WAVELENGTH
V = fλ
Example
If a wave has a frequency of 500 Hz and a wavelength of 2 m, what is the speed

of the wave?
V = fλ
V = 500 x 2 = 1000 m/s
TYPES OF WAVES
There are TWO different types of wave – TRANSVERSE WAVES AND

LONGITUDINAL WAVES
1. TRANSVERSE WAVES
These waves have SIDE-TO-SIDE OSCILLATIONS that are at 90° to the DIRECTION
of WAVE TRAVEL.
It is the VIBRATIONS that act TRANSVERSELY.
Examples of transverse waves are WATER WAVES and ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES.
2. LONGITUDINAL WAVES
Here, the oscillations are BACKWARDS and FORWARDS. The oscillations are
also IN THE DIRECTION OF TRAVEL.
The wave contains RAREFRACTIONS. These are AREAS where the WAVE HAS
BEEN STRETCHED OUT. There are also COMPRESSIONS where the wave has been
SQUASHED.
Examples of longitudinal waves are SOUND WAVES and EARTHQUAKE SHOCK

WAVES.
WAVE EFFECTS
These are the PROPERTIES of waves. They can be studied with a RIPPLE TANK.
Here is a ripple tank
The ripple tank has a surface of water. A vibrating block acts as a RIPPLE
GENERATOR which produces RIPPLES on the SURFACE of the WATER.
The waves look like SHADOWS on the SCREEN.
1. REFLECTION OFF A PLANE (FLAT) SURFACE
The wave angle INTO the object is the SAME as the WAVE ANGLE LEAVING the
PLANE OBJECT. This can be seen in the diagram of actual waves on a ripple tank
above.
SPEED, FRQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH STAY THE SAME.
2. REFLECTION OFF A CURVED SURFACE
Here, the waves are DIVERGING and SPREADING OUT. Again, SPEED, VELOCITY
AND WAVELENGTH STAY THE SAME.
Here, the waves are CONVERGING and get CLOSER TOGETHER.

SPEED, VELOCITY AND WAVELENGTH STAY THE SAME AGAIN.
REFRACTION OF WAVES IN SHALLOW WATER
In this example, SPEED DECREASES, WAVELENGTH DECREASES, FREQUENCY

UNCHANGED AND DIRECTION UNCHANGED.
This happens whether the waves are travelling in a STRAIGHT LINE into shallow
water or travel into shallow water AT AN ANGLE.
DIFFRACTION
With a LARGE GAP, waves are only BENT AT THE EDGES. The wave travels
STRAIGHT ON. This is called RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION
With a SMALL GAP, the waves are curved. The GAP BETWEEN THE WAVES IS
EXACTLY THE SAME AS THE WAVELENGTH.
Diffraction also occurs in SOUND WAVES.

LIGHT can also be DIFFRACTED through a VERY NARROW GAP.
This shows that LIGHT IS A WAVE.
QUESTIONS ON WAVES
1. Some water waves pass through a gap between two stepping stones
across a small stream.
a) Finish the diagram to show what happens to these waves after they
pass through the gap.
b) Write down two factors that affect the amount of diffraction of the
waves.
Factor 1...............................................................................................
Factor 2...............................................................................................
Answer outline and marking scheme for question: 1
a) Curved waves (1)
consistent wavelength (1)
(2 Marks)
b) Diameter / width of gap (1)
wavelength / frequency of waves (1)
(2 Marks)
(Marks available: 4)
2. The diagram shows a transverse wave.
a) Which of A, B, C or D is:
i) The wavelength
ii) The amplitude
b) Light waves carry different information to sound waves.
Give two other ways in which light waves are different to sound waves
LIGHT
Objects that make their own light are called LUMINOUS OBJECTS. Examples of
luminous objects are the SUN and a LIGHT BULB.
Other objects are ILLUMINATED BY LIGHT. They are MADE VISIBLE TO OUT EYES
when LIGHT HITS THEM.
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
1. LIGHT TRANSFERS ENERGY and travels as PHOTONS

2. LIGHT TRAVELS AS WAVES – it travels as TRANSVERSE WAVES
3. LIGHT TRAVELS IN STRAIGHT LINES as a BEAM
4. LIGHT CAN TRAVEL IN A VACUUM (through space). Light occurs as an
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE.
5. LIGHT TRAVELS AT A FINITE SPEED called the SPEED OF LIGHT.
The speed of light is 186,000 miles per second.
6. LIGHT CAN PRODUCE SHADOWS because OPAQUE OBJECTS DO NOT let light
through.
7. Light can undergo REFLECTION, REFRACTION AND DISPERSION
REFLECTION
This occurs when LIGHT BOUNCES OFF the surface of an object.

There are two types of reflection – REGULAR AND DIFFUSE reflection.
Regular reflection of light is called SPECULAR REFLECTION.
Here is a diagram to show the diffuse reflection of light
NOTE THAT:
In REGULAR REFLECTION, light rays arte PARALLEL. The incoming and outgoing
angles are the SAME.
In DIFFUSE REFLECTION, the incoming rays are PARALLEL but the OUGOING
RAYS are NOT PARALLEL.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT IN A PLANE MIRROR
When light hits a PLANE (FLAT) MIRROR, the incoming ray (INCIDENT RAY) and
the outgoing ray (REFLECTED RAY) produce the SAME ANGLE.
The angles these rays produce are called THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE and THE
ANGLE OF REFLECTION.
The line which is at RIGHT ANGLES (90°) TO THE SURFACE OF THE MIRROR IS
CALLED THE NORMAL.
This produces THE TWO LAWS OF REFLECTION
1. ANGLE OF INCIDENCE (i) = ANGLE OF REFLECTION (r)

2. THE INCIDENT RAY, THE REFLECTED RAY AND THE NORMAL ALL LIE IN THE
SAME PLANE (all 3 can be drawn on the same flat piece of paper).
REFLECTION OF AN IMAGE IN A PLANE MIRROR
In a plane mirror, the image is:
1. UPRIGHT
2. THE SAME SIZE AS THE OBJECT
3. THE SAME DISTANCE AS THE OBJECT FROM THE MIRROR
4. LATERALLY INVERTED – RIGHT IS LEFT, LEFT IS RIGHT
(Look at the order of the letters in the diagram on previous page)
5. VIRTUAL – the image appears to come from BEHIND the mirror
6. THE LINE JOINING THE OBJECT TO THE MIRROR IS AT RIGHT ANGLES (90°) TO
THE MIRROR
EXPERIMENT TO FIND THE POSITION OF AN IMAGE IN A PLANE MIRROR
It is possible to find the position of an image in a plane mirror by using PINS and
a RULER.
There should be NO PARALLAX (RELATIVE MOVEMENT) when you are viewing
the pin from DIFFERENT POSITIONS.
1. Place a pin in front of a plane mirror. Mark the position of the pin and the
mirror.
2. Line up the edge of the ruler with the position of the pin. Draw a line to mark
it. Do the same again but from a different position.
3. Remove the rule, pin and mirror. Extend the two lines. The position of the
IMAGE is where the TWO LINES MEET.
REVISION QUESTIONS ON REFLECTION
1. Name 3 properties of an image in a plane mirror

2. Name the 2 laws of reflection
3. Name the 2 types of reflection and give an example of each.
REFRACTION
REFRACTION is the BENDING OF LIGHT due to a CHANGE IN SPEED
It occurs when light PASSES from ONE MEDIUM to ANOTHER
The MEDIUM is the MATERIAL that the LIGHT IS PASSING THROUGH e.g. air,
glass, water etc.
Light rays are BENT TOWARDS THE NORMAL when light passes from a LESS
DENSE TO A MORE DENSE MEDIUM e.g. AIR TO GLASS.
Light rays are BENT AWAY FROM THE NORMAL when light passes from a MORE
DENSE TO LESS DENSE MEDIUM e.g. WATER TO AIR
Angle i is called the ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
Angle r is called the ANGLE OF REFRACTION
The DENSER the medium, the SLOWER the light travels at.
The DENSER the medium, the light is refracted MORE.
The SPEED OF LIGHT in AIR and GLASS is DIFFERENT.

A number called the REFRACTIVE INDEX is a RATIO of the TWO SPEEDS.
Refractive index can be found from the following two formulae below:
REFRACTIVE INDEX (n)

= SPEED OF LIGHT IN AIR / SPEED OF LIGHT OF SUBSTANCE
SINE OF ANGLE OF INCIDENCE / SINE OF ANGLE OF REFLECTION = sin i / sin r
sin i / sin r = SNELL’S LAW.
COMPARISON OF REFRACTIVE INDEX
MEDIUM REFRACTIVE INDEX SPEED OF LIGHT (m/s)
DIAMOND 2.42 120,000,000
GLASS 1.50 200,000,000
WATER 1.33 225,000,000
PERSPEX 1.49 201,000,000
From this table we can see that:
DIAMOND has the HIGHEST REFRACTIVE INDEX

THE SPEED OF LIGHT IN DIAMOND is LESS THAN the SPEED OF LIGHT IN AIR
DIAMOND REFRACTS LIGHT THE MOST
CALCULATING THE REFRACTIVE INDEX USING SNELL’S LAW
The SINE of BOTH the ANGLE OF INCIDENCE and ANGLE OF REFRACTION can be
used to calculate the REFARCTIVE INDEX of a substance.
For any substance, sin i / sin r = CONSTANT
Let us look at 3 examples of light rays passing from air into glass.
Example 1
Angle of incidence = 15°, angle of refraction = 10°
Sin 15° / sin 10° = 0.26 / 0.17= 1.5
Example 2
Sin 15° / sin 10° = 0.71 / 0.47= 1.5
Example 3
Sin 27° / sin 18° = 0.45 / 0.30= 1.5
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A light ray strikes a transparent material at an angle of 34°. Its angle of

refraction is 22°. Find the refractive index of the transparent material.
Refractive index = sin i / sin r = sin 34° / sin 22° = 0.56 / 0.37 = 1.51
The material is glass.
2. Light (in air) strikes water with an angle of incidence of 45°. If the refractive
index of water is 1.33, calculate the angle of refraction.
Refractive index = sin i / sin r
1.33 = sin 45° / r
Sin r = sin 45°/ 1.33
Sin r = 0.71 / 1.33 = 0.532
R = sin-1 (inverse sin) 0.532 = 32°
QUESTIONS
1. The refractive index of water is 1.33. Calculate the angle of refraction if light
strikes water at an angle of incidence of a) 24° and b) 53°
2. Air enters substance x with an angle if incidence of 25°. The angle of

refraction in substance x is 35°. Calculate the refractive index of substance x.
3. The table shows some angles of incidence and refraction for substance y.
I 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
R 0 7 13 19 25 30 35 39 41 42
a) Plot a graph of i against r

b) What angle of incidence would give an angle of refraction of 10°?
c) What angle of refraction would give an angle of incidence of 36°?
d) Using any of the above angles of incidence, calculate the refractive index of
substance y.
e) What is the substance (use your table of refractive indexes to help you)
4. The refractive index of water is 1.33. Calculate the angle of refraction if the
angle of incidence is at 45°
5. A light ray strikes a Perspex block at an angle of 60°. The refractive index of
Perspex is 1.49.
a) Calculate the angle of refraction for this ray.

b) Calculate the angle of refraction if the angle of incidence is 39°
c) What would you expect to happen if the incident ray struck the block along
the normal?
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
This is a SPECIAL TYPE OF REFLECTION

It happens when ALL OF THE LIGHT IS REFLECTED BACK INSIDE A DENSER
SUBSTANCE
It is related to REFRACTION
The INSIDE SURFACE of WATER, DIAMOND OR GLASS can ACT LIKE A MIRROR.
This depends on the angle that light strikes it.
1. When a light ray emerges from denser glass into less dense air, it is
REFRACTED and BENDS AWAY FROM the NORMAL.
When this happens i < r.
THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE AT WHICH MAXIMUM REFRACTION OCCURS IS

CALLED THE CRITICAL ANGLE.
2. When i is made LARGER, THE REFRACTED RAY gets CLOSER AND CLOSER to
the SURFACE OF THE GLASS. When i EQUALS THE CRITICAL ANGLE, THE
REFRACTED RAY IS JUST TOUCHING THE SURFACE OF THE GLASS.
Total internal reflection is a difficult concept.
We can look at it another way in the following 3 steps.
1. When there is a small angle if incidence, the ray splits into a REFRACTED RAY
and a WEAKER REFLECTED RAY.
2. When there is a larger angle of incidence, we eventually get to a point called

the CRITICAL ANGLE, c. THE REFRACTED RAY RUNS ALONG THE SURFACE (of
water or the glass object). There is also a REFLECTED RAY.
3. When the ANGLE OF INCIDENCE is GREATER THAN the critical angle, ALL
LIGHT IS REFLECTED BACK into either the glass block or the water.
Here we can see total internal reflection when we use a torch.
CRITICAL ANGLE
This is the ANGLE AT WHICH LIGHT WILL MOVE ALONG THE SURFACE OF THE
MATERIAL
The critical angle DEPENDS LON THE TYPE OF MATERIAL WE USE:
Water 49°
Perspex 42°
Glass 41°
Diamond 24°
USES OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
1. REFLECTING PRISMS (seen in binoculars, periscopes and bicycle reflectors)
The inside of the prism is used as a MIRROR.

Total internal reflection takes place on the 45° face of the prism.
2. OPTICAL FIBRES
The outer casing (CLADDING) of the optical fibre has a LOW REFRACTIVE INDEX
and the centre of the optical fibre (CORE) has a HIGH REFRACTIVE INDEX.
QUESTIONS ON LIGHT
1. Is light a longitudinal or transverse wave?

2. Is light an electromagnetic wave?
3. Can light travel through a vacuum?
4. Does light travel faster than sound?
5. After reflection, has direction, speed, frequency or wavelength of light
changed?
6. What type of surface would be a good reflector of light?
7. Which light ray is called the incident ray?
8. For reflection, what does the angle of incidence equal?
9. What type of surface would cause diffuse reflection?
10. What is a virtual image?
11. When does refraction occur?
12. After refraction, has direction, speed, frequency or wavelength of light
changed?
13. Give two examples of transparent materials
14. Why does light travel at different speeds in different materials?
15. Does light travel faster in air or in glass?
16. What is a normal?
17. Does light change direction along a normal?
18. Does light change direction when it does NOT travel along a normal?
19. When does light bend towards the normal?
20. What is meant by the critical angle?
21. When does total internal reflection occur?
22. How can a periscope be used?
23. What is an optical fibre?
24. How can an optical fibre transmit light?
25. Can an optical fibre carry more information than a copper wire?
26. Who would use an endoscope?
27. How does an endoscope use optical fibres?
LENSES
Lenses are very useful. They BEND LIGHT and FORM IMAGES.
There are TWO TYPES OF LENSES – CONVEX lenses and CONCAVE lenses.
1. CONVEX LENS – CONVERGING LENS
In a convex lens, the lens BOWS OUTWARDS. Light RAYS CONVERGE. They come
together at a point called the FOCAL POINT or PRINCIPAL FOCUS.
The DISTANCE from the CENTRE OF THE LENS to PRINCIPAL FOCUS is the FOCAL
LENGTH.
2. CONCAVE LENS – DIVERGING LENS
With a CONCAVE LENS, the lens BOWS INWARDS and looks like it has CAVED IN.
The LIGHT RAYS DIVERGE and MOVE FURTHER APART.
The rays of light APPEAR TO COME FROM THE PRINCIPAL FOCUS (FOCAL POINT).
FORMATION OF IMAGES BY LENSES
The above diagram shows that the image formed by a CONVEX lens will be a
REAL IMAGE that is UPSIDE DOWN or INVERTED.
The image is REAL because it could be SHOPWN ON A SCREEN.
The image could be MAGNIFIED (made larger) or DIMINISHED (made smaller)
Now we will look at the IMAGE FORMED BY A CONCAVE LENS.
In the above diagram, the image is UPRIGHT (same way up as the real object),
VIRTUAL (cannot be shown on a screen) and DIMINISHED (smaller than the real
object).
IMAGES FORMED BY CONVEX LENSES
When a distant object is placed at MORE THAN TWICE THE FOCAL LENGTH of
the lens, an IMAGE IS FORMED that is between F (focal length) and 2F (twice the
focal length). The image is INVERTED (Upside down), DIMINISHED (smaller than
object) and REAL.
When an object is placed between F and 2F, an image is formed OUTSIDE 2F.
The image is INVERTED, MAGNIFIED AND REAL. This is used in SLIDE AND FILM
PROJECTORS.
When an object is placed BETWEEN F AND THE LENS, THE RAYS NEVER
CONVERGE. The image is VIRTUAL and APPEARS TO COME FROM BEHIND THE
LENS. The image is also UPRIGHT and MAGNIFIED. This is used in a
MAGNIFYING GLASS and the EYE LENS IN A TELESCOPE.
QUESTIONS ON LENSES
1. An object 2cm high stands on the principal axis at a distance of 9cm from a
convex lens. If the focal length of the lens is 6cm, what is the position, height
and type of the image?
2. Explain what is meant by:
a) Principal focus of a convex lens
b) Focal length of a convex lens
3. If a convex lens picks up rays from a distant object, where is the image
formed?
4. If the object is moved towards the lens, what happens to the size and position
of the image?
5. An object 4 cm high is placed 15cm from a convex lens of focal length 5cm.
On graph paper draw a ray diagram to show the position, nature and size of
the image formed.
6. An object 3cm high is placed 8cm from a convex lens of focal length 6cm.
Draw a ray diagram on graph paper to show the nature, position and size of
the object formed.
DISPERSION OF LIGHT
White light can be split up into different colours.

This is called DISPERSION.
The range of colours is called a SPECTRUM.
The spectrum is produced by using a TRIANGULAR GLASS PRISM.
In order, these seven colours are RED, ORANGE, YELLOW, GREEN, BLUE, INDIGO
AND VIOLET.
We can remember them by the phrase Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain
WHY IS A SPECTRUM PRODUCED?
A spectrum is produced because each of the seven colours has a DIFFERENT

WAVELENGTH. Different wavelengths are SLOWED DOWN by DIFFERENT
AMOUNTS. This causes DIFFERENT COLOURS to be REFRACTED through
DIFFERENT ANGLES. The angle at which the coloured light is RERACTED from
the NORMAL is called DEVIATION. The way in which the colours exit the prism
in a rainbow is called DISPERSION.
Wavelength of light is measured in units called NAMOMETRES (Nm).
One nanometer is 1 x 10-9m (very small indeed).
Violet light has the shortest wavelength of 400 Nm.
Red light has the highest wavelength of 700 Nm.
The 7 colours of white light form a small part of what is known as the
electromagnetic spectrum. This is shown below:
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
White visible light is part of a FAMILY OF WAVES which make up the

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE SPECTRUM. All electromagnetic waves can:
TRAVEL THROUGH A VACUUM, TRAVEL AT THE SPEED OF LIGHT,

ARE TRANSVERSE WAVES, CAN TRANSFER ENERGY
EACH DIFFERENT KIND OF WAVE HAS ITS OWN DIFFERENT WAVELENGTH.
SUMMARY OF EACH TYPE OF WAVE IN THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
GAMMA RAYS
• Very short wavelength

• Dangerous
• Come from radioactive substances like uranium
• Used to kill cancer cells and to sterilize hospital equipment (kill germs)
• Highly penetrating – only a lead block can stop them travelling
X RAYS
• Short wavelength
• Dangerous and penetrating
• Can be used for cancer treatment
• Used to photograph broken bones in hospitals
ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
• Relatively short wavelength

• Can cause sun tans and skin cancer
• Sources where they come from are mercury lamps, the sun and sparks
• They are used for ultraviolet lamps, sunbeds and detecting forged bank
notes
VISIBLE LIGHT
• Relatively short wavelength

• Composed of a spectrum of colours
• Sources are luminous objects like the Sun, light bulbs etc.
INFRA-RED RAYS
• Have a longer wavelength

• Sources are electric fires, the Sun and TV remote controls
MICROWAVES
• Long wavelength
• Sources are microwave ovens for cooking food, TV and satellite
communications
TV AND RADIO WAVES
• Very long wavelength

• Used for TV signals, radio broadcasting and mobile telephones.
QUESTIONS ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
1. List 3 properties common to all electromagnetic waves

2. Place the following in order of wavelength with the longest first:
Ultraviolet, x-rays, red light, violet light, gamma rays, radio waves,
infrared waves, visible light, microwaves.
3. What is the definition of dispersion?
4. Why are different colours produced through a glass prism?
5. a) Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum is between microwaves
and visible light?
b) Which part is between ultraviolet and gamma rays?
6. LESS THAN, THE SAME AS, GREATER THAN
Use the above words to complete the following sentences:
a) The wavelength of radio waves is …………………………………………….the
wavelength of ultraviolet radiation
6b) In a vacuum, the speed of ultraviolet radiation is ………………………..................
the speed of light
c) The frequency of gamma radiation is ………………………………….. the frequency
of infrared radiation
7. Name the spectrum (least first) in order of deviation.
8. Radio waves have the highest frequency and shortest wavelength. True or
false?
SOUND
Sound is caused by VIBRATIONS. This is what happens when we hear notes from
a stringed instrument or somebody talking.
Sound waves are LONGITUDINAL WAVES. The vibrations are PARALLEL to the
DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT.
Areas of a sound wave which are CLOSE TOGETHER are called COMPRESSIONS.
Here the PRESSURE is HIGH.
Areas BEHIND the COMPRESSIONS are called RAREFACTIONS. Here the wave is
STRETCHED and the PRESSURE is LOW.
SOUND WAVES CANNOT TRAVEL THROUGH A VACUUM. They need a MEDIUM
or MATERIAL to PASS THROUGH.
SOUND WAVES CAN TRAVEL THROUGH SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES.
The WAVELENGTH of a SOUND WAVE is the DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO
COMPRESSIONS.
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT AIR MOLECULES ARE NEEDED TO TRANSMIT A
SOUND WAVE
We use a vacuum pump. All AIR IS PUMPED OUT to form a VACUUM.

We can SEE THE BELL RINGING but we CANNOT HEAR THE NOISE.
THE VACUUM DOES NOT ALLOW THE SOUND WAVES TO TRAVEL.
If we LET THE AIR BACK IN, we CAN hear the sound waves again!
SPEED OF SOUND AND ECHOES
In air, the speed of sound is 330 m/s.
The speed of sound:
• Depends upon the TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR

• DOES NOT DEPEND on the PRESSURE of the air
• IS DIFFERENT IN DIFFERENT MATERIALS.
SOUND TRAVELS FASTEST IN SOLIDS, THEN LIQUIDS, THEN GASES.
MEASURING THE SPEED OF SOUND
We use the formula SPEED (m/s) = DISTANCE (m) / TIME (s)
A sound wave travels 2500 m in 10 seconds. What is the speed of the wave?
Speed = distance / time = 2500 / 10 = 250 m/s
REFLECTION OF SOUND AND ECHOES
HARD SURFACES can REFLECT sound waves

If the REFLECTED SOUND is HEARD A SHORT TIME AFTER THE ORIGINAL SOUND,
we hear an ECHO.
In an echo, the sound wave has to TRAVEL TO THE SURFACE and BACK AGAIN.
THE DISTANCE to the object can be MEASURED if the SPEED OF SOUND and the
ECHO TIME is known.
This process is used in ECHO SOUNDING.
WORKED EXAMPLES INVOLVING SOUND AND ECHOES
1. A man stands a certain distance in front of a wall. He hears the echo 0.6
seconds later. Calculate the distance that the man stands from the wall if the
speed of sound in air is 330 m/s.
Speed = distance / time
Rearranging the equation means distance = speed x time = 330 x 0.6 = 198m.
DON’T FORGET THAT SOUND TRAVELS TO THE WALL AND BACK AGAIN.
So, the distance to the wall = 198 / 2 = 99 m
2. A ship sends out a sound wave to the ocean floor and hears an echo 3
seconds later. What is the distance from the bottom of the ship to the ocean
floor if the speed of sound in water is 1500 m/s?
distance = speed x time = 1500 x 3 = 4500 m (there and back)
distance from ship to ocean floor = 4500 / 2 = 2250 m
3. A submarine send out a sound wave into the water and an echo is heard 0.1
seconds later. If the speed of sound in water is 1500 m/s, calculate the depth
of the water.
distance = speed x time = 1500 x 0.1 = 150 m (there and back)
distance from ship to ocean floor = 150 / 2 = 75 m
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND WAVES
There are 3 terms we use when we are referring to sound waves:
1. FREQUENCY – The number of waves passing a point EVERY SECOND.

Frequency is measured in HERTZ (Hz).
2. PITCH – how HIGH OR LOW a sound is. Pitch DEPENDS ON FREQUENCY.
3. AMPLITUDE – the VERTICAL SIZE of the wave from the REST POSITION
(NORMAL). Amplitude causes CHANGES in LOUDNESS.
OSCILLOSCOPE WAVE TRACES
The form of a wave on the oscilloscope screen is DIFFERENT and DEPENDS UPON
WAVELENGTH, AMPLITUDE AND FREQUENCY.
An oscilloscope looks like this:
Here are 3 oscilloscope traces
These diagrams show snapshots from oscilloscope traces of 3 different sounds.
Diagrams 1 and 2 show two sounds with the SAME FREQUENCY but DIFFERENT
AMPLITUDE. The amplitude is the HEIGHT OF THE TRACE.
Trace 1 comes from a sound with a SMALLER AMPLITUDE than trace 2.
SOUND 1 IS QUIETER THAN SOUND 2.
Diagrams 2 and 3 show two sounds with THE SAME APMPLITUDE BUT
DIFFERENT FREQUENCY. The FASTER the vibrations, THE HIGHER THE
FREQUENCY. This means that the HIGHER THE PITCH, THE HIGHER THE SOUND.
The trace on 3 comes from a sound with a HIGHER FREQUENCY THAN SOUND 2.
Sounds 2 and 3 have the SAME VOLUME (LOUDNESS) but 3 IS HIGHER PITCHED.
The NORMAL RANGE OF HUMAN HEARING is between 20 Hz and 20 kHz. This

range becomes LESS as we GET OLDER.
SOUNDS WITH FREQUENCIES ABOVE 20 kHz are called ULTRASOUNDS.
Other animals have different hearing ranges:
MORE QUESTIONS ON SOUND
1. What is the wavelength of a sound wave of frequency 100Hz if the speed of

sound in air is 330 m/s?
2. Define amplitude, wavelength and frequency.
3. Draw an oscilloscope trace for a loud, high pitch sound.
4. Describe how the sound from a vibrating tuning fork reaches the ear of a
listener.
5. Sound waves are emitted from a fishing boat. The echo from the shoal of fish
is heard 0.4 seconds later. Sound in water travels at 1500 m/s
a) How far has the pulse of sound waves travelled in 0.4 seconds?
b) Calculate the depth of the shoal of fish in the water.
6. Below are the frequencies of four sounds:
a) 400 Hz b) 150 Hz c) 500 Hz d) 200 Hz
a) Which sound has the highest pitch?
b) Which sound has the longest wavelength (speed of sound in air = 330 m/s)
7. Draw an oscilloscope trace for a low, quiet sound.
8. Distinguish between longitudinal and transverse waves.
9. Calculate the frequency of a sound wave with wavelength 0.02 m travelling in
air. Assume the speed of sound in air is 330 m/s.
10. A rod with a length of 2.4m is being hit with a hammer. Four measurements
of the time interval of hearing the sound were 0.44 ms, 0.50 ms, 0.52 ms and
0.47 ms.
a) Determine the average time interval for the four measurements
b) Calculate the speed of sound in the rod.
ELECTRICITY
AND
MAGNETISM
MAGNETS AND MAGNETISM
PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS
1. Have NORTH AND SOUTH POLES

2. LIKE POLES REPEL (MOVE AWAY), UNLIKE POLES ATTRACT (GET CLOSER)
3. Magnetic materials are FERROUS. They contain IRON
4. There are ONLY 4 magnetic materials: IRON, COBALT, NICKEL, STEEL
5. All magnets have a MAGNETIC FIELD. The FORCE LINES are called LINES OF
FLUX.
6. A magnet can INDUCE MAGNETISM into OTHER MAGNETIC MATERIALS
THEORY OF MAGNETISM
NEGATIVE ELECTRONS have a MAGNETIC EFFECT as they SPIN AROUND the

NUCLEUS of an ATOM.
Each atom acts AS A SMALL MAGNET.
ATOMIC MAGNETS lie up in SMALL GROUPS called DOMAINS.
Before they are magnetized, the domains ACT IN ALL DIRECTIONS.

After magnetization, the DOMAINS ALL POINT IN THE SAME DIRECTION.
FERROMAGNETICS
If a magnetic material is made from iron, cobalt or nickel it is called

FERROMAGNETIC and the object is a FERROMAGNET.
Ferromagnets are called HARD or SOFT magnets depending on HOW EASILY they
KEEP THEIR MAGNETISM.
HARD AND SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS
HARD MAGNETS SOFT MAGNETS

Examples include steel and alcomax Examples are iron and mumetal alloy
alloy
Difficult to magnetize Easy to magnetize
Keep their magnetism Lose their magnetism
Used for permanent magnets Used in transformers
Used for compasses for direction – Used in electromagnets
point to magnetic north pole of Earth
MAGNETIC INDUCTION
There are 2 main methods – the stroking method and the electrical method
1. STROKING METHOD
A steel or iron bar is stroked with a bar magnet. This causes north and south
poles to be induced.
2. ELECTRICAL METHOD
A length of steel or iron is placed inside a coil of wire. A direct (d.c) current is
passed through that induces magnetism into the iron/steel bar and makes a
temporary electromagnet. The d.c current can come from a Duracell.
DESTROYING MAGNETISM
There are 3 ways of destroying magnetism:
1. Hammering
2. Heating
3. Using a coil of wire that contains an a.c. (alternating) current
MAGNETIC FIELDS
All magnets have MAGNETIC FIELD LINES.

The LINES OF FLUX run from NORTH TO SOUTH.
Field lines are shown by SPRINKLING WITH IRON FILINGS.
The filings LINE UP ALONG THE FIELD LINES.
PLOTTING COMPASSES can be used to PLOT THE MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A
bar magnet.
The magnetic field is STRONGEST AT THE POLES
If two magnets are placed next to each other, their magnetic fields COMBINE to
make a SINGLE MAGNETIC FIELD.
In the last two pictures above there is a space between the lines of magnetic
force. This space is called the NEUTRAL POINT.
At the neutral point, there is ZERO MAGNETIC FIELD. Both magnetic fields
CANCEL EACH OTHER OUT at the neutral point.
The Earth has a magnetic field. Compass needles are attracted to the MAGNETIC
NORTH of PLANET EARTH.
This is shown in the diagram on the next page.
PLOTTING THE MAGNETIC
FIELD
Field lines can be plotted by using a small compass called a PLOTTING

COMPASS.
1. Place the plotting compass at the North Pole
2. Mark the position of the needle with 2 dots
3. Move the compass so that the needle lines up to the previous dot
4. Join the dots to produce a magnetic field line
FURTHER FIELD LINES CAN BE DRAWN BY STARTING THE COMPASS IN

DIFFERENT POSITIONS.
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF A CURRENT
If a CURRENT is passed through a WIRE, a WEAK MAGNETIC FIELD is produced.

This magnetic field has 2 important features:
1. THE MAGNETIC FIELD IS STRONGEST WHEN IT IS CLOSEST TO THE WIRE

2. INCREASING THE CURRENT MAKES THE MAGNETIC FIELD STRONGER
THE DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD CAN BE FOUND BY USING THE RIGHT
HAND GRIP RULE.
“IF THE WIRE IS GRIPPED SO THAT YOUR RIGHT HAND IS POINTING IN THE
DIRECTION OF THE CURRENT, YOUR FINGERS CURL UP IN THE DIRECTION OF THE
MAGNETIC FIELD LINES”
THE COIL OR SOLENOID
The magnetic field around a coil or solenoid has the same shape as the field
around a bar magnet.
However, in a coil, the situation is REVERSED.

In a coil:
1. THE FINGERS SHOW THE DIRECTION OF THE CURRENT

2. THE THUMB SHOWS THE DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD
ELECTROMAGNETS
Electromagnets have a magnetic effect that can be SWITCHED ON OR OFF by

using a CURRENT OF ELECTRICITY.
Electromagnets make use of a SOFT IRON CORE and A COIL.
A CURRENT FLOWS in the COIL and produces a MAGNETIC FIELD.
This MAGNETIZES THE CORE and produces a magnetic field that is 1000x
STRONGER.
The STRENGTH of the electromagnet can be increased by:
1. INCREASING THE CURRENT

2. INCREASING THE NUMBER OF TURNS ON THE WIRE
REVERSING THE CURRENT REVERSES THE DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD
USES OF ELECTROMAGNETS
1. MAGNETIC RELAYS
This device uses switches and an electromagnet to TURN ON THE CURRENT in a
MORE PWERFUL CIRCUIT.
Usually, when the SWITCH IS CLOSED, a current can flow around the circuit.
When the COIL IS MAGNETIZED, the IRON ARMATURE is PULLED CLOSE
When the CONTACTS CLOSE, there is a LARGER CURRENT in the MAIN CIRCUIT.
2. ELECTRIC BELL
An electric bell is a ‘MAKE OR BREAK CIRCUIT’
When the SWITCH IS CLOSED, a CURRENT FLOWS in the ELECTROMAGNET
This makes the HAMMER TO BE PULLED ACROSS to STRIKE THE GONG
When the CONTACTS SEPARATE, the ELECTROMAGNET IS SWITCHED OFF
The hammer will eventually SPRING BACK AND CLOSE THE CONTACTS when the
CURRENT IS SWITCHED ON again.
3. CIRCUIT BREAKERS
A CURRENT FLOWS through 2 CONTACTS AND AN ELECTROMAGNET
If the current is TOO HIGH, THE PULL OF THE ELECTROMAGNET is enough to
RELEASE THE IRON CATCH
When the CONTACTS OPEN the CURRENT STOPS
The contacts CAN BE CLOSED by PRESSING THE RESET BUTTON
ELECTROSTATICS
Some MATERIALS can be ELECTRICALLY CHARGED by RUBBING THEM

This ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE is often called STATIC ELECTRICITY
ELECTROSTATIC MATERIALS include POLYTHENE AND PERSPEX
1. POLYTHENE
When it is RUBBED WITH A WOOLEN CLOTH, THE POLYTHENE ROD PULLS
ELECTRONS from the WOOL. This leaves the wool with a POSITIVE CHARGE and
the POLYTHENE GETS A NEGATIVE CHARGE.
Remember that EXTRA ELECTRONS give an object MORE NEGATIVE CHARGE and
that FEWER ELECTRONS give an object MORE POSITIVE CHARGE (LESS NEGATIVE
CHARGE).
2. PERSPEX
When RUBBED WITH A WOOLEN CLOTH, the WOOL gets EXTRA ELECTRONS
from the PERSPEX. This means that the Perspex gets a POSITVE CHARGE and
the wool gets a NEGATIVE CHARGE.
PUTTING THE RODS TOGETHER
Two polythene rods together = repulsion – they move apart

Two Perspex rods together = repulsion – they move apart
Polythene and Perspex = attraction – moving closer together
WHERE DO THE CHARGES COME FROM?
The charges are related to the structure of the atom
Please remember that the NUCLEUS contains POSITIVE PROTONS AND NEUTRAL
NEUTRONS
Also, NEGATIVE ELECTRONS ORBIT the NUCLEUS in ENERGY LEVELS called
SHELLS
Electrons have a negative charge

Neutrons have no charge and are uncharged
Protons have a positive charge
Usually atoms have the SAME NUMBER OF PROTONS AND ELECTRONS so the
overall NET CHARGE is ZERO
Rubbing SEPARATES the charges due to ELECTRON TRANSFER which leaves ONE
MATERIAL WITH A POSITIVE CHARGE and ONE MATERIAL WITH A NEGATIVE
CHARGE.
CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
CONDUCTORS INSULATORS
- Metals like silver and copper are - Materials like plastic, rubber,
very good conductors wool and glass are very good
insulators
- Conductors have loosely held - Insulators have tightly held
electrons electrons
- The electrons are free-moving - Electrons in an insulator are not

electrons free-moving electrons
- Conductors are difficult to - Insulators are easy to charge by
charge by rubbing rubbing
ATTRACTION OF UNCHARGED OBJECTS
Charged objects will attract uncharged objects that are close to them
If a rod has a positive charge and a piece of uncharged foil is brought up close to
it, the ELECTRONS IN THE FOIL are PULLED TOWARDS the rod.
This means that the BOTTOM OF THE FOIL BEGINS TO HAVE A NET POSITVE
CHARGE as the ELECTRONS HAVE MOVED AWAY FROM IT.
This means the TOP OF THE FOIL IS ATTRACTED and the BOTTOM OF THE FOIL IS
REPELLED.
EARTHING AN OBJECT
If enough charge builds up on an object, ELECTRONS CAN BE POULLED

THROUGH THE AIR. This CAUSES SPARKS.
This means that OBJECTS MUST BE EARTHED.
Earthing causes UNWANTED ELECTRONS TO FLOW TO EARTH safely through a
CONDUCTING MATERIAL.
THE VAN DER GRAAF GENERATOR
This object is used to demonstrate electrostatic charges

The generator has 4 parts- a motor, metal dome, rubber bands and carbon
brushes.
The CARBON BRUSHES REMOVE ELECTRONS from the RUBBER BAND

The RUBBER BAND is TURNED by the MOTOR
The ELECTRONS PASS to the METAL DOME
THE DOME BECOMES NEGATIVELY CHARGED
CHARGING BY INDUCTION
Charges that occur on UNCHARGED OBJECTS due to a CHARGED OBJECT NEARBY
are called INDUCED CHARGES.
UNIT OF CHARGE
The S.I. UNIT of CHARGE is the COULOMB (C)

Charge is usually VERY SMALL and measured in MICROCOULOMBS (µC)
One microcoulomb (µC) is ONE MILLIONTH OF A COULOMB.
USES OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE
There are 4 main uses of electrostatic charge:
1. CAR PAINTING
The paint is CHARGED. The CAR BODY is given an OPPOSITE CHARGE.

The PAINT MOLECULES are ATTRACTED to the CAR BODY.
2. ELECTROSTATIC DUST PRECIPITATORS
Electrostatic dust precipitators are fitted to the CHIMNEYS of POWER STATIONS.
AIR POLLUTION is REDUCED by REMOVING ASH from WASTE GASES.
Ash is CHARGED and ATTRACTED TO THE METAL PLATES OF THE ELECTROSTATIC
DUST PRECIPITATOR and is REMOVED from the AIR.
3. INKJET PRINTERS
These use FORCES BETWEEN CHARGES to VARY and CHANGE where the CHARGE
GOES TO.
4. PHOTOCOPIERS
Use CHARGED PLATES that are SENSITIVE TO LIGHT to ATTRACT POWDERED INK
DUST made from CARBON.
QUESTIONS ON ELECTROSTATICS
1. Give an example of where electrostatic charge might become a hazard

2. How can the build-up of charge be prevented?
3. Imagine that a negatively charged metal rod is brought next to an uncharged
metal can.
a) Draw a diagram to show any charges that ARE INDUCED onto the can
b) Why is the can attracte4d to the rod even though the net charge on the can is
zero?
c) In which direction will the flow of electrons be if you were to touchy the can
with your finger?
d) What type of charge is left on the can after it has been touched with the
finger?
4a) Why does a balloon always become negatively charged after it has been
rubbed through your hair? b)Why does the balloon then stick to the ceiling?
CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE
CURRENT
Current is defined as A FLOW OF CHARGE

Current is measured in AMPERES or AMPS
Smaller currents are measured in MILLIAMPS.
1000 Milliamps (1000 mA) = 1 amp (1A)
Current is measured with an AMMETER
In a circuit, the CURRENT IS NOT AFFECTED BY THE AMMETERS IN IT.

THE CURRENT IS THE SAME IN ALL PARTS AROUND THE CIRCUIT
CHARGE AND CURRENT
There is a LINK between CHARGE AND CURRENT
CHARGE (Q) = CURRENT (I) x TIME (t)
A charge of ONE COULOMB flowing EVERY SECOND IS CALLED ONE AMPERE
A charge of TWO COULOMBS flowing every second is TWO AMPS etc. etc.
Example:
If a current of 3 amps flows for 4 seconds, the charge is 12 coulombs.
CURRENT DIRECTION
Some circuit diagrams have arrows.

These arrows show the CONVENTIONAL DIRECTION OF CURRENT.
CONVENTIONAL CURRENT DIRECTION SHOWS ELECTRONS FLOWING FROM + TO

–
CONVENTIONAL CURRENT DIRECTION IS AN OLD IDEA
IN REALITY, NEGATIVE ELECTRONS FLOW FROM – TO +
QUESTIONS ON CURRENT
1. Convert these currents into amperes:
a) 500 mA b) 30 mA c) 4 mA d) 567 mA
2. What charge is delivered if:
a) A current of 11 Amps flows for 6 seconds

b) A current of 250 mA flows for 40 seconds?
3. Calculate the current in mA if:
a) Q = 75C and t = 5 s
b) Q = 24 C and t = 6s
c) Q = 130 C and t = 0.02 s
4. Calculate time t in seconds if Q = 8C and I = 0.04 A
VOLTAGE
Voltage is defined as THE AMOUNT OF ENERGY GIVEN TO ELECTRONS IN A

CURRENT
Voltage is measured in VOLTS (V)
Voltage is also known as ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (e.m.f.) OR POTENTIAL
DIFFERENCE (p.d.)
Voltage is measured by using a VOLTMETER
IN A CIRCUIT, VOLTMETERS ARE ALWAYS PLACED ACROSS THE CIRCUIT

COMPONENTS e.g. a bulb or a bell
THE TOTAL VOLTAGE ACROSS THE BULBS IS THE SAME AS THER VOLTAGE IN THE
MAIN CIRCUIT
NO ENERGY IS LOST in the main circuit but SOME IS LOST in the FIRST BULB and
MORE is LOST in the SECONDE BULB.
IF THE VOLTAGE ACROSS THE CELL IS ONE VOLT (1V), THEN 1 JOULE (1J) OF
ENERGY IS GIVEN TO EACH COULOMB (1C) OF CHARGE IN THE CELL.
CIRCUITS
There are two types of circuit

SERIES CIRCUIT and a
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
SERIES CIRCUITS
In a series circuit, the circuit components (parts of the circuit) are NEXT TO EACH
OTHER.
VOLTAGE is SHARED from the BATTERY
BULBS in the circuit GLOW DIMLY (NOT VERY BRIGHT)
THE CIRCUIT IS BROKEN IF A COMPONENT IS REMOVED
Examples of a series circuit would be CHRISTMAS TREE LIGHTS or a TORCH
BATTERY.
CURRENT IS ALWAYS THE SAME AT ALL POINTS IN A SERIES CIRCUIT BUT THE
VOLTAGE MAY VARY AND CHANGE.
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
In a parallel circuit, the CIRCUIT COMPONENTS EACH HAVE THEIR OWN CIRCUIT
FROM THE BATTERY.
EACH COMPONENT ALSO HAS THE FULL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE FROM THE
BATTERY.
BULBS IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT GLOW BRIGHTLY
IF ONE BULB IS REMOVED FROM A PARALLEL CIRCUIT THEN THE BULBS IN THEIR
OWN CIRCUIT STAY ON like HOUSEHOLD LIGHTING or CAR HEADLIGHTS.
IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT, THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE ACROSS THE
COMPONENTS IS THE SAME BUT THE TOTAL CURRENT IN THE MAIN CIRCUIT IS
THE SUM OF THE CURRENT IN EACH OF THE INDIVIDUAL BRANCHES.
THIS MEANS THAT THE CURRENT CAN BE OF DIFFERENT VALUES IN DIFFERENT

PLACES in a PARALLEL CIRCUIT.
RESISTANCE
IT MUST BE STRESSED THAT RESISTANCE IS A VITAL CONCEPT TO UNDERSTAND

ON THE IGCSE SYLLABUS AND IS THOROUGHLY EXAMINED EVERY YEAR
WITHOUT FAIL ON BOTH CORE, ALTERNATIVE TO PRACTICAL AND EXTENDED
PAPERS
DEFINITION OF RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE IS THE DEGREE TO WHICH A CURRENT IS REDUCED WHEN IT IS

FLOWING THROUGH A CONDUCTOR MATERIAL.
Copper has LOW RESISTANCE. CURRENT EASILY FLOWS THROUGH COPPER when
a VOLTAGE IS APPLIED.
NICHROME wire has HIGH RESISTANCE. LESS CURRENT flows through it than in
the copper wire when the SAME VOLTAGE is applied.
The unit of resistance is the OHM (Ω)
RESISTANCE (R) = VOLTAGE (V) / CURRENT (I)
This is called OHM’S LAW and we can use OHM’S TRIANGLE
Cover over the term you need and carry out the resulting calculation.
FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE
1. LENGTH – If you DOUBLE the LENGTH of the wire, you DOUBLE the
RESISTANCE.
2. CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA – If you HALVE the ‘end-on’ area of a wire, you will
DOUBLE THE RESISTANCE.
3. MATERIAL – Nichrome wire has a HIGHER RESISTANCE than copper wire, for
example.
4. TEMPERATURE – Resistance INCREASES as TEMPERATURE increases.
THE HEATING EFFECT OF RESISTANCE
When a current flows through a resistance, a HEATING EFFECT is PRODUCED.

This is seen in electric toasters, hair-dryers etc.
Why does this happen?
The ELECTRONS COLLIDE with the ATOMS INSIDE the CONDUCTOR MATERIAL.
The electrons LOSE ENERGY. The ATOMS GAIN ENERGY and VIBRATE FASTER
providing MORE HEAT.
RESISTANCE COMPONENTS
RESISTOR – Provides resistance and reduces the current. Here is its symbol.
VARIABLE RESISTOR – also known as the RHEOSTAT. Used for VARYING

CURRENT. They are used as volume controls in hi-fi equipment etc.
THERMISTOR – have HIGH RESISTANCE when COLD and .LOW RESISTANCE when
HOT. They are used in temperature gauges.
LIGHT-DEPENDENT RESISTORS – have HIGH RESISTANCE in the DARK and LOW

RESISTANCE in the LIGHT. They are USED AS STREET LIGHTS.
DIODES – Allow current to flow in ONLY ONE DIRECTION. They are used in
circuits.
QUESTIONS
1. 240 V, 3 A – calculate resistance

2. 70 Ω, 12 A – calculate voltage
3. 12000 V, 36000 Ω – calculate current
4. Name 2 other components that use the heating effect of resistance.
5. Name 2 reasons why tungsten wire is used as the filament wire kin an electric
light bulb.
RESISTANCE AND OHM’S LAW
In a metal conductor, current will VARY with the POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE ONLY
IF THE TEMPERATURE OF THE CONDUCTOR IS KEPT THE SAME.
Ohm’s Law states that CURRENT IS PROPORTIONAL TO POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE,

PROVIDED THAT THE CURRENT IS KEPT CONSTANT.
This produces a STRAIGHT LINE THROUGH THE ORIGIN IF PLOTTED ON A GRAPH.
From the above graph, we can see that as VOLTAGE DOUBLES, CURRENT
DOUBLES.
METAL CONDUCTORS OBEY OHM’S LAW provided that the TEMPERATURE
REMAINS CONSTANT.
These metals are called OHMIC CONDUCTORS.
CURRENT AND P.D. GRAPHS
These are seen in a TUNGSTEN FILAMENT and a SEMI-CONDUCTOR DIODE.

In both, resistance will VARY depending on the P.D.
1. THE TUNGSTEN FILAMENT
As CURRENT INCREASES, the TEMPERATURE RISES. This INCREASES THE

RESISTANCE. But, CURRENT IS NOT PROPORTIONAL TO POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
due to the HEATING EFFECT IN THE WIRE.
This produces a CURVE.
2. THE SEMI-CONDUCTOR DIODE
The diode ALLOWS CURRENT TO FLOW IN ONLY ONE DIRECTION.
CURRENT IS NOT PROPORTIONAL TO P.D. IF THE CURRENT IS REVERSED, THE

P.D. IS ZERO.
QUESTIONS
1. In which of these graphs is Ohm’s Law obeyed?
2. A resistor has a resistance of 8Ω.

a) If the current is 2A, what is the voltage?
b) What voltage is required to produce a current of 4A?
c) If the voltage falls to 6V, what is the current?
3. Calculate the resistance of a tungsten filament wire:

a) At 1500°C if V = 2V and I = 1A
b) At 3000°C if V=12V and I=3A
4. In the diode graph above in question 1, does the diode have its highest
resistance in the forward direction or in the reverse direction? Explain your
answer.
5. In a current-carrying wire, name 3 ways in which you can reduce the

resistance.
RESISTORS IN CIRCUITS
1. RESISTORS IN SERIES
If two or more resistors are in series, a HIGHER TOTAL RESISTANCE is produced.
R=R1 + R2
2. RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
a) WITH THE SAME RESISTANCE
When two resistors are placed in parallel with the same resistance, their
COMBINED RESISTANCE IS HALF THE SINGLE RESISTANCE.
If 3 are placed in parallel, the COMBINED RESISTANCE IS ONE THIRD of the final
resistance etc. etc.
b) WITH DIFFERENT RESISTANCE
When 2 or more resistors are placed in PARALLEL with DIFFERENT resistances,

their combined resistance can be found by the equation:
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2
In this equation 1/R is the COMBINED RESISTANCE
For example, 2 resistors are in parallel with values of 4Ω and 6Ω
1/R = 1 /4 + 1/6
1/R = 0.25 + 0.16
1/R = 0.416
R = 1/0.416 = 2.4 Ω
Similarly, 2 resistors are in parallel with values of 5Ω, 3Ω and 7Ω
1/R = 1/5 + 1/3 + 1/7
1/R = 0.20 + 0.33 + 0.14
1/R = 0.67
R = 1/0.67 = 1.5Ω
3. WHEN PLACED IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
With DIFFERENT PARALLEL RESISTANCES in a DIFFERENT CIRCUIT to the SERIES,

firstly calculate the parallel resistance and then add it to the series resistance.
For example, 2 resistors in parallel have resistances of 6Ω and 8Ω are connected
in series to a resistor with a value of 2Ω. Calculate the total resistance in the
circuit.
For resistors in parallel:
1/R = 1/6 + 1/8
1/R = 0.160 + 0.125 = 0.285
R = 1/0.285
R= 3.5 Ω to be added to the series resistor of 2Ω to give a total resistance of

5.5Ω
With different parallel resistances in the SAME CIRCUIT as the SERIES, firstly
calculate the SERIES resistance and then ADD IT to the parallel.
Two resistors with values 5Ω and 3Ω are in series. A further resistor with value
of 7Ω is parallel to them
a) Draw a circuit diagram of this (this should not be too taxing for you)
b) Calculate total resistance
Series resistance is easy, it’s just as simple as adding 5Ω and 3Ω = 8Ω
Resistance in parallel is thus 1/R = 1/8 (just calculated) + 1/7
1/R = 1/8 + 1/7
1/R = 0.125 + 0.140
1/R = 0.265
R = 1/0.265 = 3.77 Ω
TEST QUESTIONS
1. Which copper wire has the lowest resistance?

1 metre of 1 mm diameter wire.
0.5 metre of 0.5 mm diameter wire.
0.5 metre of 1 mm diameter wire.
2. What is the total resistance in ohms of these two resistors?
5
6
9
3. Which component is represented by this graph?
A resistor at a constant temperature.

A filament lamp.
A diode.
4. What happens to the resistance of a resistor when the temperature is increased?

It decreases.
It stays the same.
It increases.
5. What happens to the resistance of a thermistor when the temperature is increased?

It decreases.
It stays the same.
It increases.
6. What is the current in this circuit?
6A
2A
0.5 A
7. What is the resistance in ohms in this circuit?
20
1.8
0.05
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
The energy that is CHANGED or TRANSFORMED by an electrical appliance is

given by the formula:
ENERGY TRANSFORMED (J) = POWER (W) x TIME (s)
Power = Voltage x Current
So the equation can be re-written as:
ENERGY TRANSFORMED = VOLTAGE (V) x CURRENT (A) X TIME (s)
EXAMPLES
1. If a 12 Volt heater using a 2 Amp current is switched on for 60 seconds, what

thermal energy is produced?
Energy = Voltage x Current x Time = 12 x 2 x 60 = 1440 J
2. A coil has a resistance of 6Ω and the current through it is 0.5A.
Calculate the heat energy produced by the coil in 30 seconds
Firstly use Ohm’s Law
Voltage = Current x Resistance

= 0.5 x 6 = 3 V
Then Energy = Voltage x Current x Time

= 3 x 0.5 x 30 = 45 J
ELECTRICAL POWER
The DEFINITION of electrical power is THE RATE AT WHICH ELECTRTICAL ENERGY

IS TRANSFORMED.
Power is measured in units called WATTS (W)
ONE WATT IS EQUAL TO ONE JOULE OF ENERGY TRANSFERRED EVERY SECOND
POWER = ENERGY TRANSFERRED / TIME TAKEN
EXAMPLE
A toaster provides 30 Joules of energy every second. Its power rating is 30

Watts.
ALL ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES HAVE A POWER RATING MEASURED IN WATTS.

AN ELECTRIC KETTLE HAS A POWER RATING OF 2.4 KILOWATTS – 2.4 kW.
THIS KETTLE TRANSFERS 2400 JOULES OF ENERGY TO HEAT UP WATER EVERY
SECOND.
ELECTRICAL POWER IN CIRCUITS
In circuits, both power and voltage are involved.
The equation we use is

POWER = VOLTAGE x CURRENT
WATTS = VOLTS x AMPS
This is one of the MOST IMPORTANT EQUATIONS in electricity and magnetism.
Here are 3 questions for you to try:
1. If the current is 0.1A and the power is 400 W, find the voltage.
2. If the p.d. is 24 V and power is 360 W, calculate the current.
3. If power is 2kW and the current is 3A, What is the voltage (p.d)?
POWER IN RESISTORS
Due to the HEATING EFFECT of RESISTANCE in a RESISTOR, ELECTRONS LOSE

POTENTIAL ENERGY. This potential energy is transferred into THERMAL ENERGY.
Energy is said to be DISSIPATED in the resistor. The formula we use is:
POWER = CURRENT2 X RESISTANCE.

YOU HAVE TO SQUARE THE CURRENT!!
Example: What power is dissipated in a 5Ω resistor when the current through it

is a) 2A and b) 4A?
a) Power = 22 x 5 = 4 x 5 = 20 Watts
b) Power = 42 x 5 = 16 x 5 = 80 Watts
It is IMPORTANT TO NOTE that when we DOUBLED THE CURRENT, we made
FOUR TIMES AS MUCH POWER!!
QUESTIONS
1. A hairdryer takes 10,000 Joules of energy from the mains electricity supply in
5 seconds. Calculate its power in a) Watts and b) Kilowatts
2. An electric heater used 5A connected to 240 V mains electricity. Calculate its
power in Kilowatts.
3. A light bulb is rated at 36 Watts. It is connected to a 12V supply. Calculate the
current through it.
4.How much voltage does a line with a resistance of 10 Ohms and a current of
20 Amps?
5) How much current does a line with a voltage of 200 volts and a resistance of
40 Ohms?
6.) How much resistance does a line with a voltage of 400 volts and a current of
100 amps?
7.) How much power does the appliance from question number one give off?
8.) How much power does the appliance from question number two give off?
9.) How much power does the appliance from question number three give off?
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Electrical safety involves FUSED PLUGS and CIRCUIT BREAKERS.
1. CIRCUIT BREAKER
This is an AUTOMATIC SAFETY SWITCH that SWITCHES OFF with EXCESS

CURRENT.
2. FUSES AND FUSED PLUGS
Here is the circuit symbol for a fuse.
A fuse is DELIBERATELY put into a circuit as a WEAK LINK

The FUSE WIRE MELTS IF THE CURRENT PASSING THROUGH IT IS TOO BIG
THE FUSE STOPS ELECTRICAL FIRES
A fused plug has many safety features as shown below.
1. LIVE WIRE – Brown colour. Brings LIVE VOLTAGE to the plug.

2. EARTH WIRE – colour coded in yellow and green stripes. Safety wire.
The Earth wire connects the plug to Earth so Excess current brought to Earth.
3. NEUTRAL WIRE – Is blue in colour. The neutral wire COMPLETES THE CIRCUIT
and is KEPT AT ZERO VOLTAGE.
4. The CABLE GRIP stops bare wires being exposed and minimizes safety risks.
5. OUTER INSULATION is PLASTIC to prevent electric shocks.
6. FUSE – Placed alongside live wire. Fuse wire melts if excess current flows.
7 CONNECTING SCREWES – hold each of the 3 wires firmly in place.
8. DOUBLE INSULATION – around the main cable to the plug.
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
HAZARD DANGER
DAMAGED INSULATION Electrical shock is highly possible

CABLES OVERHEATING Excess current in thin cables causes the
plastic to catch fire
DAMP CONDITIONS Water is an excellent conductor of
electricity
SHORT CIRCUIT Electrical current would travel along
the path that has the lowest resistance
SWITCHES Live current is present if the switch is
accidentally left on
EFFECTS OF ELECTROMAGNETISM
Magnetism can be used to produce electricity.

Let us investigate how.
When a wire is moved across a magnetic field, a SMALL CURRENT is

produced. This current is called INDUCED CURRENT.
The effect shown in the diagram on the previous page is called
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION.
The INDUCED CURRENT AND VOLTAGE CAN BE INCREASED BY:
1. MOVING THE WIRE FASTER

2. USING A STRONGER, MORE POWERFUL MAGNET
3. INCREASING THE LENGTH OF THE WIRE
The MAGNETIC FIELD gives the electrons in the wire A SMALL PUSH which
PRODUCES ELECTRIC CURRENT.
THE SIZE OF THE CURRENT INCREASES AS THE FIELD LINES ARE CUT FASTER
This is a LAW which is known as FARADAY’S LAW
HOW TO FIND DIRECTION OF THE INDUCED CURRENT
To do this we use a special rule known as FLEMING’S RIGHT-HAND RULE.
Movement of wire = thumb
Field is First Finger
SeCond finger = induced Current
THE THUMB, FIRST FINGER AND SECOND FINGER MUST ALL BE AT RIGHT
ANGLES FROM EACH OTHER.
INDUCED CURRENT IN A COIL
Electromagnetic induction can also be produced in a coil.

Here, the WIRE REMAINS STATIONARY but the MAGNET MOVES
The direction of the INDUCED CURRENT is REVERSED when the MAGNET IS

PULLED OUT OF THE COIL.
The SAME EFFECT HAPPENS when the SOUTH POLE of the MAGNET is PUSHED
INTO the coil.
NO INDUCED CURRENT FLOWS IF THE MAGNET IS NOT MOVING INTO THE COIL.
HOW TO FIND THE DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT IN COIL
We use a concept called LENZ’S LAW.
LENZ’S LAW STATES THAT THE DIRECTION OF THE INDUCED CURRENT OPPOSES
THE CHANGE CAUSING IT.
If the NORTH POLE of a magnet moves INTO the coil, a NORTH POLE is produced
AT THE END OF THE COIL NEAREST to the NORTH POLE of the magnet.
THE CURRENT IS OPPOSING THE MOVEMENT OF THE MAGNET AS IT IS TRYING
TO REPEL IT.
If the NORTH POLE of a magnet moves OUT OF the coil, the current FLOWS IN
THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION. A SOUTH POLE IS PRODUCED AT THE END OF THE
COIL. THE SOUTH POLE IS OPPOSING THE MOVEMENT OF THE MAGNET BY
TRYING TO ATTRACT IT.
USE OF INDUCED CURRENTS
Tape recorders
Video camcorders
Moving coil microphones
QUICK QUESTIONS
1. Name 3 ways to increase the size of an induced current

2. State Lenz’s Law
3. Why is a North Pole produced in a coil if a magnet is moved into the coil,
North Pole first?
WHAT IF A CURRENT IS ALREADY FLOWING IN THE WIRE?
If a COPPER WIRE is placed in a MAGNETIC FIELD BETWEEN TWO MAGNETS, it

EXPERIENCES A FORCE.
The FORCE is produced because THE CURRENT in the WIRE produces ITS OWN
MAGNETIC FIELD.
The magnetic field produced in the coil ACTS ON THE POLES OF THE MAGNET.
THE FORCE EXPERIENCED PRODUCES MOVEMENT.
The force which is shown in the diagram above is an UPWARD force and can be
INCREASED by:

2. USING A STRONGER MAGNET
3. INCREASING THE LENGTH OF THE WIRE
HOW TO PREDICT THE DIRECTION OF FORCE
- This can be calculated by using FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE.

- Here, the FIELD DIRECTION is from NORTH TO SOUTH
- The CURRENT SHOWN is the CONVENTIONAL CURRENT DIRECTION (from
+ to -)
Here is a diagram to show Fleming’s LEFT hand rule:
Field is First Finger

Current is seCond finger,
ThuMb is Movement (direction of force)
To use Fleming’s left hand rule, the CURRENT and DIRECTION OF FIELD must be
at RIGHT ANGLES (90°) TO EACH OTHER.
NO FORCE IS PRODUCED IF THE CURRENT AND THE FIELD ARE IN THE SAME
DIRECTION
TURNING EFFECT IN A COIL
When a COIL is placed BETWEEN the POLES of a MAGNET, a TURNING EFFECT is

produced.
The CURRENT flows in OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS along the SIDES of the coil.
As the MAGNETIC FIELD IS AT RIGHT ANGLES to the CURRENT, a FORCE is
produced.
One side MOVES UP and the other side MOVES DOWN.
USES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
The two main uses of electromagnetic induction are GENERATORS AND

MOTORS.
1. THE A.C. GENERATOR (ALTERNATOR)
This device produces ALTERNATING CURRENT (a.c.) which is a CURRENT THAT

FLOWS BACKWARDS AND FORWARDS.
Generators use a ROTATING COIL between a FIXED MAGNET.
As the COIL ROTATES, it CUTS LINES OF FORCE and an EMF is INDUCED. The
induced e.m.f. makes the CURRENT FLOW.
SLIP RINGS rotate (spin round) with the coil.
CARBON BRUSHES act as the CONTACTS. They keep the coil connected to the
outside parts of the circuit. The coil is made from an excellent metallic
conductor of electricity – COPPER WIRE.
HOW DOES IT WORK?
The coil rotates in the magnetic field.

It cuts the magnetic field lines and an e.m.f is induced.
This produces an a.c. (alternating) current.
Each side of the coil goes UPWARDS THEN DOWNWARDS through the magnetic
field. The current will flow BACKWARDS THEN FORWARDS.
This can be seen on a SINE CURVE GRAPH.
THE SINE CURVE GRAPH
This shows how the CURRENT VARIES through ONE ROTATION or CYCLE.
It is important to note that:

THE CURRENT IS AT A MAXIMUM WHEN IT IS IN THE HORIZONTAL POSITION.
Here, the FIELD LINES ARE BEING CUT at the FASTEST RATE.
The current is ZERO when VERTICAL. When the current is ZERO in the VERICAL
POSITION, the field lines are NOT being cut.
The amount of E.M.F and CURRENT can be increased by:
1. INCREASING THE NUMBER OF TURNS ON THE COIL

2. INCREASING THE AREA OF THE COIL
3. USING A STRONGER MAGNET
4. ROTATING THE COIL FASTER
2. THE D.C. MOTOR
This device uses DIRECT CURRENT so the CURRENT CAN ONLY FLOW IN ONE
DIRECTION.
If a COIL is CARRYING A CURRENT, the FORCES ON IT produce a TURNING
EFFECT.
A SPLIT-RING COMMUTATOR is FIXED TO THE COIL and rotates with it.
CARBON BRUSHES are CONNECTED to the COMMUTATOR
The carbon brushes keep the COIL CONNECTED to the BATTERY.
The coil is also made from COPPER WIRE (excellent conductor of electricity).
HOW DOES THE D.C. MOTOR WORK?
The forces have MAXIMUM TURNING EFFECT when the COIL IS HORIZONTAL.
As the COIL PASSES THE VERTICAL, THE COMMUTATOR CHANGES THE CURRENT
DIRECTION.
The forces now also change direction.
The FORCES PUSH the coil FURTHER AROUND until it is VERTICAL AGAIN.
As a result, the COIL CONTINUES TO ROTATE (SPIN ROUND).
There are 4 WAYS of INCREASING the TURNING EFFECT:

2. INCRE4ASING THE AREA OF THE COIL
3. USING STRONGER MAGNETS
4. INCREASING THE NUMBER OF TURNS OF WIRE ON THE COIL
FURTHER QUESTIONS ON MOTORS
1.
a) List 3 ways to increase the current from an a.c. generator
b) What is the position of the coil when the current is at a maximum?
c) Why is the current at its maximum in this position?
2. A copper wire is placed between the poles of a magnet. When a current (I)
flows in the wire, a force acts on it causing it to move.
a) Use Fleming’s left hand rule to find the direction of the force on the wire.
Draw this on a sketch diagram and label the force F.
b) State what happens to the force on the wire if
i) The size of the current is increased
ii) The direction of the current is reversed.
iii) A weaker magnet is used.
TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are used to change VOLTAGE and CURRENT in a wire.

They are composed of a SOFT IRON CORE with a PRIMARY INPUT COIL and a
SECONDARY OUTPUT COIL.
HOW A TRANSFORMER WORKS
- When an ALTERNATING CURRENT (a.c.) flows in the PRIMARY COIL, an

ALTERNATING MAGNETIC FIELD is produced in the CORE.
- This INDUCES an ALTERNATING VOLTAGE in the OUTPUT COIL.
- Using a magnetic field to CHANGE CURRENT AND INDUCE A VOLTAGE is
called MUTUAL INDUCTION.
STEP-UP AND STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMERS
1. STEP-UP TRANSFORMER
In this step-up transformer, the turns ratio is 5:20 or 1:4

Secondary turns are MORE THAN the primary turns
Secondary voltage is MORE than the primary voltage
This produces a TURNS RATIO
2. STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER
In the diagram of the step-down transformer on the previous page, the turns
ratio is 1000:200 or 5:1
The secondary turns are less than the primary turns
The secondary voltage is less than the primary voltage
The RELATIONSHIP between VOLTAGE and NUMBER OF TURNS can be shown in

the TRANSFORMER EQUATION
OUTPUT VOLTAGE/INPUT VOLTAGE = TURNS OUTPUT COIL/TURNS INPUT COIL
OR
V2/V1 = N2/N1
EXAMPLE
A transformer transforms 240 V a.c. to 12V a.c. for a model railway. Calculate
the number of turns on the secondary coil if the primary coil has 1000 turns
V2/V1 = N2/N1
12/240 = N2/1000
N2 = (12 X 1000) / 240
N2 = 50 turns
QUESTIONS ON TRANSFORMERS
1. A transformer has a turns ratio of 1:4. Its input primary coil is connected to a
12V supply.
a) Calculate the output voltage

b) What turns ratio would be required to produce an output voltage of 36V?
2. A simple transformer has 1000 turns on the primary coil and 50 turns on the
secondary coil.
a) Is the transformer a step-up or step-down transformer?
b) Calculate the output voltage
c) Explain the term ‘mutual induction’
3. A transformer has 22,000 turns on its input coil with a voltage of 6000 Volts.
The voltage on the secondary coil is 1800 Volts.
a) Calculate the turns on the secondary coil.
b) What is the turns ratio for this transformer?
c) Is this a step-up or step-down transformer?
4. A power station produces electricity at 50,000 Volts. This is increased to

400,000 Volts by a transformer.
a) Use V2/V1 = N2/N1 to calculate the number of turns on the secondary coil
if N1 is 2000.
b) Calculate the turns ratio for this transformer
c) Is this a step-up or step-down transformer?
POWER THROUGH A TRANSFORMER
Transformers are very efficient. Their efficiency is usually 95%.

The power output of a transformer is NEARLY AS HIGH as the power input.
It is POSSIBLE to calculate either the CURRENT or the VOLTAGE using the
POWER EQUATION.
INPUT VOLTAGE x INPUT CURRENT = OUTPUT VOLTAGE x OUTPUT CURRENT
V1I1=V2I2
If no energy is wasted and the transformer is 100% efficient, the POWER will be
the SAME on both the OUTPUT and the INPUT coils.
EXAMPLE
A step-up transformer has an input voltage of 12V carrying a 2 A current. There

are 50 turns on the primary coil. There are 1000 turns on the secondary coil
producing 24 Volts and a current of 1 Amp.
Power V1A1 = 12 X 2 = 24 Watts

Power V2A2 = 24 X 1 = 24 Watts
However, transformers are NEVER 100% EFFICIENT due to heating effects in the
CORE and COIL by:
1. RESISTANCE – Coils are not perfect electrical conductors

2. EDDY CURRENTS – currents are induced into the core by the changing
magnetic field.
3. FIELD LINE LEAKAGE – energy is wasted as field lines in the primary coil MAY
NOT CUT THOSE in the secondary coil.
EXAMPLE
A transformer has 2000 turns on the primary coil. 100 Turns on the secondary
coil produce a voltage of 10 Volts across a 40 Watt light bulb.
Calculate the voltage supplied and the current supplied.
To calculate the voltage supplied,
Use V2/V1 = N2/N1 where V1 is the supply voltage we are trying to calculate
So 10/V1 = 100/2000
Re-arranging this equation gives (10 x 2000) / 1000 = 20000 / 1000 = 200 Volts
To calculate the current supplied,
Use V1I1 = V2I2 where V2I2 is 40 Watts
So 200 V x I1 = 40 Watts
I1 = 40 / 200 = 0.2 Amps
THE NATIONAL GRID SYSTEM – PROVIDING ELECTRICITY ACROSS A COUNTRY
Electrical power for the 240 Volt a.c mains electricity supply in the home is
GENERATED in POWER STATIONS , TRANSMITTED by LONG-DISTANCE CABLES
and DISTRIBUTED to CONSUMERS.
An ELECTRICAL SUB-STATION acts as a STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER and makes
the HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRICITY IN AN OVERHEAD WIRE become only 240 VOLTS
electricity coming into your house.
Electricity that is produced is ALTERNATING (A.C.) CURRENT AS TRANSFORMERS
DON’T WORK ON DIRECT CURRENT.
WHY DO WE USE STEP-UP TRANSFORMERS TO INCREASE VOLTAGE?
- The transmission cables OFFER HIGH RESISTANCE

- Energy is WASTED due to the HEATING EFFECT of the CURRENT
- POWER is TRANSMITTED at HIGH VOLTAGE to REDUCE heating effect of
current
- THE CURRENT BECOMES GREATLY REDUCED so we can use THINNER,
LIGHTER AND CHEAPER cables.
UNDERGROUND CABLES
- Used in areas of OUTSTANDING NATURAL BEAUTY like NATIONAL PARKS

to protect the scenery and the environment.
- The cables are MORE DIFFICULT to INSULATE.
- Transmit electricity at LOWER VOLTAGE but HIGHER CURRENT
- THICKER, MORE EXPENSIVE CABLES are used.
QUESTIONS ON TRANSFORMERS
1. Complete the following table:
PRIMARY SECONDARY PRIMARY SECONDARY STEP UP OR

P.D. P.D. TURNS TURNS STEP DOWN
TRANSFORMER?
100 Volts a.c 10 100
100 Volts a.c 100 10
240 Volts a.c 12 Volts a.c 200
11000 V a.c 132,000 V a.c 12000
2. A transformer uses 240 Volts a.c. to power a heater. A step-down transformer

is used with 4600 turns on the primary coil carrying a 0.1 A current. There are
only 200 turns on the secondary output coil.
a) Draw a diagram to show this information to help you solve the problems
b) Calculate the voltage across the heater
c) Calculate the power supplied by the mains
d) Calculate the power delivered to the heater
e) Calculate the current through the heater
3. Explain the following:
a) A transformer will not work on d.c.

b) If a transformer increases current, it reduces voltage
c) Transformers are never 100% efficient
d) Electricity is transmitted at high voltage
4. Calculate the power loss from a cable carrying a 10 A current and a resistance
of 5 Ω.
ELECTRONICS
Most electronic circuits run on VERY LOW CURRENT.

Some electronic devices MAGNIFY low current into high current.
Electronic devices that CONVERT ELECTRICAL SIGNALS into another form are
called TRANSDUCERS.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
All control systems have an INPUT SENSOR sending signals to a PROCESSOR. The
processor controls the FLOW OF CURRENT to an output device.
INPUT → PROCESSOR →OUTPUT
Input devices include LDR, thermistor, capacitor, transistor, variable resistor

Output devices include LED, bulb, bell, motor, relay
MAIN CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
1. RESISTORS – change current and voltage for other circuit components

2. CAPACITORS – store electrical charge
3. DIODES – allow current to flow in only one direction
4. TRANSISTORS – amplify signals
5. RELAYS – act as electromagnetic switches
6. POTENTAIL DIVIDERS – allow only a small percentage of the battery voltage
to be used.
1. DIODES
- Allow current in only one direction

- Act as protective devices
- Can be used to change alternating current to direct current (a.c. to d.c.)
- Diodes act as rectifiers
- Diodes change a.c. to d.c.
- Diodes are found in T.V’s, computers and motors
- The process of changing a.c. to d.c. is called RECTIFICATION
The d.c. current can be SMOOTHED OUT by using a CAPACITOR. A capacitor

COLLECTS current when the current SURGES (extra current produced) and
RELEASES current when the current FALLS.
- In d.c. current, there are SURGES OF CURRENT with periods of ZERO

CURRENT inbetween.
- This is known as HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
- When DIODES REVERSE the BACKWARD PART of the A.C. CURRENT, this
KEEPS THE CURRENT FLOWING FORWARDS.
- This is known as FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION
2. TRANSISTORS
- Used to AMPLIFY small amounts of current in one circuit into large

amounts of current in another circuit
- Most are known as NPN TRANSISTORS
- NPN transistors are used in ALL ITEMS OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
- NPN transistors have 3 parts – EMITTOR, BASE AND COLLECTOR
Some circuit components need a low amount of current to work, others need a
high amount of current to work.
An example of that is that a transistor can CHANGE a SMALL AMOUNT of BASE
CURRENT into a LARGER COLLECTOR CURRENT.
IT IS VERY IMPORTANT THAT THE CONVENTIONAL CURRENT DIRECTION MUST

BE IN THE SAME DIRECTION AS THE TRANSISTOR ARROW.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLE – THE MOISTURE DETECTOR
- The probes detect moisture

- A current only flows through the probes when the probes are WET
- The current flows into the BASE of the TRANSISTOR
- The TRANSISTOR BOOSTS THE COLLECTOR CURRENT so that the BULB
LIGHTS UP
The CURRENT GAIN is given by the formula:
CURRENT GAIN = COLLECTOR CURRENT / BASE CURRENT
QUESTIONS INVOLVING TRANSISTORS
1. In a transistor, if the base current is 0.05mA and the collector current is

4.95mA, calculate a) the emitter current and b) the current gain.
2. Define
a) Rectification
b) Half-wave rectification
c) Full-wave rectification
3. Draw a circuit diagram to show 3 bulbs in parallel and diodes in each of the
circuits, all forward-biased. How many of the bulbs will light?
4. Name the following:

a) An input device which detects changes in light
b) An output device which amplifies signals
c) An input de3vice which stores electrical charge
5. Which is a capacitor often used in a rectifier circuit?
6.
a) What do the letters E,B and C stand for when talking about an NPN
transistor?
b) Use the formula IB = IB + IC to calculate IB if IE = 27mA and IC = 25.2mA
7. What is the purpose of a rectifier?
3. LIGHT-DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR)
- Resistance DECREASES when the LDR is illuminated (light shines on it)

- In the dark with an LDR, there is HIGH RESISTANCE and LOW CURRENT.
- An LDR is also known as a PHOTO-CONDUCTING CELL in street lights etc.
Here is the circuit symbol for an LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)
An LDR is also used in a BURGLAR ALARM CIRCUIT and in PHOTOGRAPHY.
Here is a typical burglar alarm circuit.
The circuit illustrated here is used as an Burglar alarm. LDR is kept at such a
place that when thief enters our house then a shadow will fall on the LDR
and make the alarm go off.
In the above circuit, the LDR acts as part of a POTENTIAL DIVIDER CIRCUIT.
The voltage in the battery is SHARED BETWEEN the LDR and BULB
RESISTORS are placed in the circuit to PREVENT EXCESSIVE BASE CURRENT
flowing into the TRANSISTOR and PERMANENTLY DAMAGING IT.
HOW DOES AN LDR WORK?
In daytime, the LDR has LOW RESISTANCE and a LOW SHARE of the battery
voltage. The TRANSISTOR STAYS OFF.
In the dark, the LDR has high resistance and a high share of the battery
voltage. The TRANSISTOR COMES ON AND THE BULB LIGHTS UP.
4. TIME-DELAY SWITCH
- Used in STREET LIGHTS

- It needs to be dark for a certain length of time before the lights come on
and burglar alarms
- It uses a CAPACITOR in the circuit.
CAPACITANCE is the units of measurement for a CAPACITOR.

Capacitance = charge /area and the units are FARADAYS OR MICROFARADS µF.
This is how a time-delay circuit works
- The main switch is CLOSED but there is a TIME DELAY before the bulb
lights up.
- The time delay is due to the CAPACITOR in the circuit.
- The capacitor SLOWLY charges up.
- It takes SEVERAL SECONDS before the voltage is HIGH ENOUGH to switch
the TRANSISTOR ON.
5. THE THERMISTOR
- Used as a TEMPERATURE SENSITIVE SWITCH

- The RESISTANCE DEPENDS ON TEMPERATURE
- Used in AUTOMATIC FIRE ALARMS
Here is the circuit symbol for a thermistor
- RESISTANCE DECREASES AS THE TEMPERATURE RISES
Here is a circuit diagram for an AUTOMATIC FIRE ALARM
Here is a description of how the automatic fire alarm circuit works:
- The THERMISTOR is PART OF the POTENTIAL DIVIDER

- At ROOM TEMPERATURE, the THERMISTOR has HIGH RESISTANCE
- Thermistor also HAS MOST OF THE BATTERY VOLTAGE
- LOWER RESISTOR hasn’t enough VOLTAGE to turn on the transistor
- When heated, the RESISTANCE of the THERMISTOR FALLS
- LOWER RESISTOR now has ENOUGH RESISTANCE to TURN ON THE
TRANSISTOR and RING THE BELL
- The RELAY SWITCH turns on the BELL by ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
- The DIODE PROTECTS THE TRANSISTOR from the VOLTAGE produced in
THE COIL
6. THE LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
- GIVES OUT LIGHT when a CURRENT PASSES THROUGH IT

- Used in TV and HIFI REMORE CONTROLS and INDICATOR LAMPS
Here is the circuit symbol for a LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (L.E.D)
HOW DOES AN L.E.D WORK?
- The LCD needs about 2V from the battery to be able to light up

- A PROBLEM IS THAT 6V OR MORE FROM THE BATTERY WOULD
PERMANENTLY DAMAGE THE LED
- A solution to this is to place the LED in a DIVIDER CIRCUIT where the
VOLATGE IS LOWERED for the LED
- The resistor that is in SERIES with the LED is a PROTECTIVE RESISTOR
- This resistor ENSURES AGAINST TOO MUCH VOLTAGE DAMAGING THE
LED
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
- All telecommunications systems TRANSMIT INFORMATION over LARGE

DISTANCES
- The SIGNAL that is TRANSMITTED can be either ANALOG or DIGITAL
1. ANALOG TRANSMISSION
The signals are CHANGES in the VOLTAGE
During analog transmission the signals LOSE POWER.

Tis loss of power is called ATTENUATION.
The SIGNAL QUALITY is LOWERED by NOISE (ELECTRICAL INTERFERENCE).
2. DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
In a digital transmission, the SIGNALS are REPRESENTED by NUMBERS.

The signals are EITHER 0 OR 1
This is called BINARY CODE
In digital transmission, the signals are sent in a SERIES OF PULSES.
The digital signals can easily be AMPLIFIED with NO LOSS IN QUALITY.
LOGIC GATES
Logic gates are ELECTRONIC SWITCHES

They are used in NUMEROUS ITEMS of ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
Logic gates make use of the binary numbers 0 (OFF) or 1 (ON).
EXAMPLE
Draw a simple circuit diagram to show two open switches.
Both switches must be closed (ON = 1) for the bulb to light up.
A TRUTH TABLE can be drawn TO SHOW ALL OF THE POSSIBLE SWITCH
SETTINGS.
A B LAMP
OPEN OPEN OFF
CLOSED OPEN OFF
OPEN CLOSED OFF
CLOSED CLOSED ON
A B LAMP
1 1 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1
The above is an example of an AND logic gate.

The bulb will only light up if SWICH A AND SWITCH B ARE CLOSED.
This is seen in WASHING MACHINE DOORS.
In a washing machine, the washing machine only works if THE MAINS IS
SWITCHED ON AND THE DOOR IS CLOSED.
There are also OR, NOT, NAND and NOR logic gates.
2. OR GATES
In an OR gate, the bulb only lights if SWITCH A OR SWITCH B (OR BOTH) ARE
CLOSED.
This is seen in CARS – the LIGHT INSIDE THE CAR will only come ON if the
PASSENGER DOOR OR DRIVER DOOR OR BOTH ARE OPENED.
3. NOT GATE (CALLED AN INVERTER)
In a NOT gate, the OUTPUT IS ALWAYS OPPOSITE to the INPUT.

THE OUTPUT IS 1 WHEN INPUT IS ZERO
THE INPUT IS ZERO WHEN OUTPUT IS 1
NOT gates are often seen in STREET LIGHTS. Street lights DO NOT come on in
daylight.
4. NAND GATE
This is a combination of NOT and AND gate.
Here is the truth table for a NAND gate.
COMBINING LOGIC GATES
An example of this is a plant sprinkler system.

A plant sprinkler system will only come on at NIGHT when it is COLL AND DARK.
There is NO SIGNAL from the HEAT AND LIGHT SENSOR when it is COLD AND
DARK.
NOT GATES INVERT so there is a SIGNAL TO THE AND GATE.
The diagram below shows a complex logic gate combining three simple gates.
Altogether there are three inputs and eight possible outcomes. To complete a
truth table do a whole column before moving to the next column. To solve the
table below first find D, then E and finally Z. D depends only on A, E depends on
B and C, and X depends on E Or D.
QUICK QUIZ ON LOGIC GATESTop of Form
1. An electronic signal that can be either ON or OFF is called:
An analogue signal
A fluctuating signal
A busy signal
A digital signal
A flashing signal
2. A NOT logic gate is often called an inverter: true or false?

True
False
3. Which logic gate gives a high output when one, or both of the inputs are
high?
AND gate
NAND gate
OR gate
FOR gate
NOR gate
4. What sort of logic gate needs both inputs to be ON for an output to occur?
OR
AND
NOR
NAND
5. A signal that is ON can be represented by a number 1: true or false?

True
False
Bottom of Form
THE CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
This machine works by using CATHODE RAYS.

Cathode rays are produced by THERMIONIC EMISSION.
THERMIONIC EMISSION
- Electrons are BOILED OFF A HOT NEGATIVE ELECTRODE (CALLED A

CATHODE) AND ATTRACTE4D TO A POSITIVELY CHARGED ELECTRODE
(CALLED AN ANODE)
- The CATHODE is a TUNGSTEN FILAMENT
- The CATHODE GETS HOT when a CURRENT passes through it.
- This gives the electrons THERMAL ENERGY
The cathode rays are detected using a FLUORESECENT SCREEN.

The screen is placed between TWO HORIZONTAL METAL PLATES, ONE +, ONE -.
The electron beam (CATHODE RAY) is DEFLECTED in TWO WAYS:
1. ELECTROSTATIC DEFLECTION – BASED ON CHARGES. This is used in CATHODE

RAY OSCILLOSCOPES.
2. MAGNETIC DEFLECTION – Using BAR MAGNETS or COILS.
The direction of movement of the cathode rays is found using Fleming’s left-
hand rule.
EXAMPLE
Imagine that a cathode ray passes HORIZONTALLY between the NORTH POLE
AND SOUTH POLE of two bar magnets.
The current will pass horizontally back towards the bar magnets.
The movement will be out of the paper away from the bar magnets at 90°
The field will be VERTICALLY DOWNWARDS towards the south pole of the bar
magnet.
THE CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
This uses CATHODE RAYS to trace out WAVEFORMS and other signals onto a
fluorescent screen.
The beam appears as a SPOT on the screen.
The beam is DEFLECTED using TWO SETS OF DEFLECTION PLATES.
The plates can be charged to DEFLECT the BEAM to ANY POSITION on the
screen.
The screen below shows a graphical form called THE GRID.
The grid controls the NUMBER OF ELECTRONS passing through it. This will, in
turn, control the BRIGHTNESS of the BEAM.
The Y plates of the CRO move the BEAM in an UP/DOWN position.
The X plates of the CRO move the BEAM in a LEFT/RIGHT position.
Other oscilloscope controls are the Y-GAIN, TIME BASE, Y-SHIFT AND X-SHIFT.
Y-GAIN is connected to the Y plate and CONTROLS THE VERTICAL DIRECTION OF

THE BEAM.
TIME BASE – Connected to the X plate and controls the HORIZONTAL DIRECTION
OF THE BEAM.
Y-SHIFT controls the amount of VERTICAL DIRECTION

X-SHIFT controls the amount of HORIZONTAL DIRECTION
STUDYING WAVEFORMS ON THE C.R.O
This shows the trace of an a.c. signal when the controls of the oscilloscope are
set correctly.
This a.c. signal is when the Y amplifier is 2 Volts per second and timebase is
5ms/cm.
Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is determined by the
TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control. The time period (often just called period) is the
time for one cycle of the signal. The frequency is the number of cycles per
second, frequency = 1/time period
Ensure that the variable timebase control is set to 1 or CAL (calibrated) before
attempting to take a time reading.
Time = distance in cm × time/cm

Example: time period = 4.0cm × 5ms/cm = 20ms
and frequency = 1/time period = 1/20ms = 50Hz
TIME BASE AND TRIGGER CONTROLS
With a slow time base with no input the dot moves across the screen from left
to right as there is no signal.
With a fast time base with no input, the dot is too fast to be seen with the
naked eye and so appears as a line.
The oscilloscope sweeps the electron beam across the screen from left to right
at a steady speed set by the TIMEBASE control. Each setting is labelled with the
time the dot takes to move 1cm, effectively it is setting the scale on the x-axis.
The timebase control may be labelled TIME/CM.
At slow timebase settings (such as 50ms/cm) you can see a dot moving across
the screen but at faster settings (such as 1ms/cm) the dot is moving so fast that
it appears to be a line.
The VARIABLE timebase control can be turned to make a fine adjustment to the
speed, but it must be left at the position labelled 1 or CAL (calibrated) if you
wish to take time readings from the trace drawn on the screen.
The TRIGGER controls are used to maintain a steady trace on the screen. If they
are set wrongly you may see a trace drifting sideways, a confusing 'scribble' on
the screen, or no trace at all! The trigger maintains a steady trace by starting the
dot sweeping across the screen when the input signal reaches the same point in
its cycle each time.
For straightforward use it is best to leave the trigger level set to AUTO, but if
you have difficulty obtaining a steady trace try adjusting this control to set the
level manually.
An oscilloscope trace for DIRECT CURRENT (d.c.) is ALWAYS POSITIVE
THE AC/GND/DC SWITCH
The normal setting for this switch is DC for all signals, including AC!
Switching to GND (ground) connects the y input to 0V and allows you to quickly
check the position of 0V on the screen (normally halfway up). There is no need
to disconnect the input lead while you do this because it is disconnected
internally.
Switching to AC inserts a capacitor in series with the input to block out any DC
signal present and pass only AC signals. This is used to examine signals showing
a small variation around one constant value, such as the ripple on the output of
a smooth DC supply. Reducing the VOLTS/CM to see more detail of the ripple
would normally take the trace off the screen! The AC setting removes the
constant (DC) part of the signal, allowing you to view just the varying (AC) part
which can now be examined more closely by reducing the VOLTS/CM. This is
shown in the diagrams below:
Displaying a ripple signal using the AC switch
Switch in normal DC position. Switch moved to AC position. VOLTS/CM reduced to

The ripple is difficult to see, The constant (DC) part of the enlarge the ripple.
but if VOLTS/CM is reduced signal is removed, leaving The ripple can now be
to enlarge it the trace will just the ripple (AC) part. examined more closely.
disappear off the screen!
MEASURING VOLTAGE
It is possible to measure the PEAK VOLTAGE by studying the AMPLITUDE of the

WAVEFORM on the screen.
Let us imagine that the GAIN CONTROL is set at 5 V per cm.
This means that for every 5V, the spot will be deflected vertically by 1cm.
The PEAK VOLTAGE is REPRESENTED BY THE AMPLITUDE.
Therefore, the peak voltage is 2cm x 5Volts/cm = 10 Volts
QUICK QUESTIONS ON OSCILLOSCOPE
1. Define the term ‘thermionic emission’

2. The amplitude of a wave on the oscilloscope is 2.4 cm. Calculate the peak
voltage if the gain is set to 12V/cm.
END OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
ATOMIC
PHYSICS
ATOMIC PHYSICS
The word ‘atom’ is the Greek word for ‘indivisible’.

This means that the word atom has been known for centuries to be something
that cannot be split up.
Scientists still wish to release energy by splitting the atom.
It has still never been achieved to this day!
ATOMIC MODEL
Atoms are composed of a CENTRAL NUCLEUS made of POSITIVELY CHARGED

PROTONS AND NEUTRONS (ZERO CHARGE).
ELECTRONS (NEGATIVE CHARGE) ORBIT the NUCLEUS in ENERGY LEVELS called
ELECTRON SHELLS.
IMPORTANT TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
NUCLEON NUMBER – Total number of NUCLEONS (PROTONS AND NEUTRONS)

In the nucleus of the atom.
ATOMIC NUMBER – Number of protons
MASS NUMBER – Total number of nucleons
NUCLIDE – An element with KNOWN MASS AND ATOMIC NUMBER
ISOTOPES – Atoms of the SAME ELEMENT with SAME NUMBER or PROTONS and
ELECTRONS but a different number of NEUTRONS.
Nuclides are written as follows:
EVIDENCE FOR THE NUCLEAR ATOM
This evidence came from Rutherford’s alpha particle experiment.

An alpha particle has TWO PROTONS AND TWO NEUTRONS.
An alpha particle has a CHARGE OF +2 and is the SAME AS A HELIUM NUCLEUS.
In Rutherford’s alpha particle experiment, RADIUM was used as the source of

the alpha particles. The alpha particles were fired at GOLD FOIL. A moveable
detector tracked the path of the alpha particles after they hit the foil.
INSERT DIAGRAM FOR RUTHERFORD’S ALPHA PARTICLE EXPERIMENT – SLIDE
193.
The results of Rutherford’s alpha particle experiment were as follows:
ANGLE OF 0° 1-90° ABOVE 90°

SCATTER
NUMBER OF 1641 54 3
ALPHA (α)
PARTICLES/MIN
These results show that MOST ALPHA PARTICLES WENT THROUGH

UNDEFLECTED. Although some were deflected, VERY FEW were REBOUNDED.
CONCLUSION
1. Most of the alpha particles went through the gold foil. This means that
ATOMS MUST BE MOSTLY MADE OF EMPTY SPACE.
2. Alpha (α) particles bounce back which suggests an atom contains an area
WHERE MOST MASS IS CONCENTRATED. This is obviously the NUCLEUS of the
atom.
ISOTOPES
Isotopes are ATOMS of the SAME ELEMENT with DIFFERENT NUMBERS OF

NEUTRONS. They have the SAME NUMBER of PROTONS AND ELECTONS.
There are TWO ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN called DEUTERIUM and TRITIUM
1
H is normal, stable hydrogen. 2H is deuterium (radioactive and unstable).
Tritium is also radioactive and unstable 3H.
NAME OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF
SUBSTANCE PROTONS NEUTRONS ELECTRONS
HYDROGEN 1 0 1
DEUTERIUM 1 1 1
TRITIUM 1 2 1
As you can see, the only number that changes in the above table is the NUMBER
OF NEUTRONS which shows that DEUTERIUM AND TRITIUM are ISOTOPES of
HYDROGEN.
DETECTION OF RADIOACTIVITY
Radiation that is all around us in the air is called BACKGROUND RADIATION

Background radiation is at a LOW LEVEL and is CONSTANT
Background radiation comes from 3 places:
i) COSMIC RAYS from the SUN

ii) RADIACTIVE ROCKS
iii) RADON (a radioactive gas)
There are 3 types of NUCLEAR RADIATION:
1. ALPHA (α) PARTICLES

2. BETA (β) PARTICLES
3. GAMMA (γ) RAYS
All 3 types of radiation have different penetrating powers.

Alpha particles (helium nuclei) are stopped by A SHEET OF PAPER.
Beta particles (electrons) are stopped by A SHEET OF ALUMINIUM FOIL.
Gamma rays are only stopped by A SHEET OF LEAD.
All 3 particles behave differently in a MAGNETIC FIELD and an ELECTRIC FIELD.
Here is a diagram to show what happens to nuclear radiation in an electric field.
Here is a diagram to show what happens to nuclear radiation in a magnetic
field.
We can use Fleming’s left hand rule to work out the direction of movement.
Alpha particles travel in ONE DIRECTION.
Even though alpha particles are POSITIVELY CHARGED, They ACT LIKE A
CONVENTIONAL CURRENT which is like a FLOW OF CHARGE (whether that be +
or -).
GAMMA RAYS pass STRAIGHT THROUGH and there is NO DEFLECTION.
BETA PARTICLES are NEGATIVELY CHARGED ELECTRONS.
Beta particles flow AGAINST THE CURRENT and travel in the OPPOSITE
DIRECTION to the alpha particles.
There is GREATER DEFLECTION OF BETA PARTICLES as they have LESS MASS than
the alpha particles.
QUESTIONS ON RADIOACTIVITY
1. An alpha particle moves horizontally from left to right between the North and
South poles of two bar magnets. Use Fleming’s left hand rule to predict the
movement of a beta particle between the same poles. You may wish to draw
a diagram to illustrate your answer.
2. Complete the table below:
MASS CHARGE
PROTON
NEUTRON
ELECTRON
ALPHA PARTICLE
BETA PARTICLE
GAMMA RAY
3. Draw a diagram to show how an alpha particle, beta particle and gamma ray
undergo electrostatic deflection.
4. The numbers 35 and 17 can go below or above the symbol for Cl (Chlorine).
Draw a diagram to show the symbol, atomic number, mass number and
charge of this isotope of chlorine.
a) How many protons, neutrons and electrons are there in a chlorine atom?
b) How many particles are found in the nucleus of one atom of chlorine?
5. Radiation from a rock underground was taken over a period of 6 years. The
table shows the results taken for the sample. The background radiation count
is shown below.
TIME IN 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
YEARS
ACTIVITY 124 80 52 34 23 16 12
IN
COUNTS
PER MIN
ACTIVITY
DUE
ONLY TO
SAMPLE
THE COUNT RATE WAS 4 COUNTS PER MINUTE.
a) Complete the table by calculating the activity due only to the sample.
b) Plot the values of the activity due only to sample (y axis) against time (x axis)
c) Join the points with a smooth curve
d) Give your graph a suitable title and label each of the axes.
IONISING EFFECTS OF RADIATION
Radiation can knock out electrons from atoms and REDUCE THE ATOM’S
STABILITY. This leaves the atom with a POSITVE CHARGE (LESS NEGATIVE
CHARGE AS ELECTRONS HAVE GONE). The charged atom is termed an ION.
By the ionization of atoms, radiation causes CHEMICAL REACTIONS to occur in
BODY CELLS. This damages the D.N.A of the cell and causes MUTATIONS.
Mutations CAUSE CANCER.
SUMMARY TABLE OF PROPERTIES OF ALPHA, BETA AND GAMMA RADIATION
PROPERTIES ALPHA BETA GAMMA
Nature Positive helium Negative electron Electromagnetic

nucleus wave
Affected by Yes Yes, strongly No
electric and
magnetic fields?
Penetration Stopped by paper Stopped by 3mm Reduced by lead
thick aluminium
foil
Causes ionization? Strongly Weakly Very weakly
Dangerous Yes Yes Yes
speed 10% light speed 50% light speed Speed of light
Detectors Photographic Photographic Photographic
paper, cloud paper, cloud paper, cloud
chamber, G-M chamber, G-M chamber, G-M
tube. tube. tube.
RADIATION DETECTION
There are 5 main instruments that are used for the detection of radiation.
1. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM
A radioactive substance is placed on top of photographic paper that has been

kept in the dark. The paper TURNS BLACK in the PRESENCE OF RADIATION.
2. GOLD-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE
The electroscope is NEGATIVELY CHARGED.

The LEAF FALLS when a radioactive source is brought NEAR TO IT.
This is due to the air being IONIZED by the RADIOACTIVITY.
A negative electroscope ATTRACTS POSITIVE IONS like ALPHA PARTICLES and
causes the LEAF TO FALL.
3. GEIGER-MULLER (GM) TUBE
INSERT DIAGRAM OF GM TUBE – SLIDE 199
The GM tube is used to detect all 3 types of radiation – alpha, beta and gamma.
When radiation enters the tube, it IONIZES the ARGON GAS.
This produces a HIGH VOLTAGE SPARK across the gas and a PULSE OF CURRENT
in the circuit.
The tube is connected to:
a) RATEMETER – gives a reading in COUNTS/SECOND so 50 alpha particles

passing a point every second is effectively 50 counts/second.
b) A SCALAR counts the TOTAL NUMBER OF PARTICLES DETECTED.
c) An AMPLIFIER AND LOUDSPEAKER – the loudspeaker makes a loud ‘CLICK’
when a particle is detected.
4. THE CLOUD CHAMBER
INSERT A DIAGRAM OF THE CLOUD CHAMBER – SLIDE 200
A radioactive source IONIZES THE AIR IN THE CLOUD CHAMBER.

ALCOHOL VAPOUR CONDENSES on the IONS to form a CLOUD.
In a cloud chamber:
Alpha particles have STRAIGHT, THICK TRAILS.

Beta particles make WAVY, THIN TRAILS.
Gamma rays make FAINT, WAVY TRAILS.
5. THE SPARK COUNTER
INSERT A DIAGRAM OF THE SPARK COUNTER – SLIDE 200
A high voltage between the wire and the gauze is adjusted so it is NOT QUITE
SPARKING. The RADIOACTIVE SOURCE IONIZES THE AIR so it is a BETTER
CONDUCTOR and SPARKS ARE PRODUCED.
USES OF RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactive isotopes are called RADIOISOTOPES. They have 6 main uses.
1. TRACERS
Radioisotopes can be detected in SMALL AND SAFE quantities.

Their MOVEMENTS can be TRACKED.
Examples of this are:
a) CHECKING THE FUNCTIONS OF BODY ORGANS using iodine-123.

b) TRACKING A PLANT’S UPTAKE OF FERTILIZER FROM THE ROOTS TO THE
LEAVES.
c) DETECTING LEAKAGE IN UNDERGROUND PIPES.
2. RADIOTHERAPY
This uses COBALT-60 which is an ISOTOPE that is a STRONG GAMMA EMITTOR.

It is used to KILL CANCER cells.
3. THICKNESS MONITORING
This ensures a steady thickness in some production techniques like PAPER

PRODUCTION OR STEEL PRODUCTION.
If the STEEL from the ROLLERS becomes TOO THIN, more BETA RADIATION
reaches the detector.
SIGNALS are SENT TO the CONTROL UNIT which ADJUSTS THE GAP BETWEEN
THE ROLLERS.
4. CARBON DATING
The amount of carbon-14 in plants and animals STAYS CONSTANT when the
plant or animal is ALIVE.
After death, the amount of carbon-14 in animals and plants GETS LESS due to
RADIOACTIVE DECAY.
By measuring the activity of the sample, the AGE OF THE REMAINS can be
estimated.
5. DATING ROCKS
The age of rocks can be determined by MEASURING THE AMOUNT OF

RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES contained within them.
6. STERILIZATION
Food and medical equipment like SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS, BANDAGES AND

PLASTERS can be kept FREE FROM GERMS AND BACTERIA by using GASMMA
RAYS. This is called IRRADIATION.
1. The table below shows the values for the activity of an isotope over time.
TIME IN 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
MINS
ACTIVITY 96 78 62 54 40 32 26 21 15 14
COUNTS/SEC
a) Plot a graph of time (x axis) against activity (y axis) to show how the activity
of the sample changes with time.
b) Use the graph to produce a count rate after 100 minutes.
2. A radioactive substance emits beta particles only. The count rate was taken
every 20 minutes.
COUNTS 330 231 165 120 90 71 57

/ MIN
TIME IN 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
MINS
A count rate of 30 counts / minute was obtained even without the beta source.
a) What was the cause of the 30/minute count rate?

b) Draw a table to show how the count rate due to the beta source only varies
with time.
c) Plot a graph to show the beta count rate against time.
d) What effect does the emission of a beta particle have on the atom?
3. Name 4 uses of radioisotopes

4. Give two uses of gamma radiation
5. Why are gamma rays rather than alpha particles or beta particles used to kill
cancer cells?
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING RADIOACTIVE SOURCES
There are 6 main precautions.
1. USED SEALED CONTAINERS
The containers should be made from LEAD, especially if using BETA or GAMMA
RADIATION. The person should also WEAR A LEAD APRON.
2. USE TONGS
Use tongs to handle the radioactive substance and STAND WELL BACK.
3. DISPLAY THE WARNING SIGN
Always display the hazard symbol (warning sign) to warn of possible dangers of
radioactivity.
4. WEAR A RADIATION BADGE
The badge will show the amount of radiation that you have actually received.
The badge can also be DEVELOPED to show the AMOUN T OF EXPOSURE to
RADIATIONM that the user has had.
5. MINIMIZE EXPOSURE TIMES
Keep the exposure time to radiation AS SHORT AS POSSIBLE. This is seen in

hospitals when X-RAYS are being taken.
6. NO EATING OR DRINKING
ALPHA PARTICLES CAUSE DAMAGE IF THEY ARE INGESTED (EATEN OR DRANK).

ALWAYS wear a MASK to PREVENT INHALATION (BREATHING IN) of RADIACTIVE
DUST.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Some elements undergo RADIOACTIVE DECAY.

Their atoms are UNSTABLE so they BREAK UP and DECAY to form STABLE
NUCLEI. The3 decay is RANDOM and allows for NEW ELEMENTS to be formed.
1. ALPHA DECAY
A substance loses TWO PROTONS AND TWO NEUTRONS when an ALPHA

PARTICLE is GIVEN OFF.
The MASS NUMBER is REDUCED BY 4 and the PROTON NUMBER IS REDUCED BY
2.
Here is a typical equation to show alpha decay.
2. BETA DECAY
A substance that undergoes beta decay will have a NEUTRON changed into a
PROTON AND AN ELECTRON.
Therefore, as there is now AN EXTRA PROTON IN THE NUCLEUS, ATOMIC
NUMBER INCREASES BY 1.
The MASS NUMBER STAYS THE SAME.
The electron leaves the nucleus at high speed.
3. GAMMA EMISSION
Gamma rays are given off when some isotopes have an ALPHA OR BETA
PARTICLE LEAVING THE NUCLEUS.
The PROTONS AND NEUTRONS become MORE STABLE and they LOSE ENERGY as
GAMMA RADIATION.
GAMMA EMISSION CAUSES NO CHANGE TO MASS NUMBER OR ATOMIC
NUMBER.
RATE OF DECAY AND HALF-LIFE
Elements have DIFFERENT RATES OF DECAY depending on the STABILITY of their

ATOMS.
This rate produces a HALF-LIFE.
HALF LIFE IS THE TIME FOR 50% OF THE NUCLEI IN A RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE TO
DECAY.
TYPICAL HALF-LIFE DECAY CURVE
The half-life can also be shown as a GRAPH.

The graph shows a DECAY CURVE.
As the decay is RANDOM, the curve is actually a LINE OF BEST CURVE.
It is possible to find the half-life of an isotope WITHOUT A GRAPH.
For this, two things are needed.
1. The count rate before and after

2. The total time that has taken place
EXAMPLE
In an experiment, the count rate of a radioactive isotope falls from 200 counts
per second to only 25 counts per second. This takes place in 75 minutes.
Calculate the half-life of the radioactive isotope.
200 counts → 100 counts →50 counts → 25 counts = 3 half-lives.
Three half-lives = 75 minutes. HALKF LIFE = 75/3 = 25 minutes.
It is also possible to calculate the COUNT RATE after a PERIOD OF TIME.
For this calculation, four things need to be known:
1. Half-life of the substance

2. Starting count rate
3. The background count
4. The time duration
EXAMPLE
The half-life of a substance is 3 days. If the count rate starts at 2050 counts per
minute and the background count is 50 counts per minute, what will the count
rate be in 9 days’ time?
2000 counts / min to 1000 counts / min = 3 days

1000 counts / min to 500 counts / min = 3 days (6 days in total)
500 counts to 250 counts = 3 days (9 days in total)
The count rate is 250 counts per minute after 9 days.

We must add the background count of 50 counts per minute to this
So the actual reading obtained is 300 counts per minute.
1. A milk sample from the 1985 nuclear disaster at Chernobyl, Ukraine

contained the radioisotope iodine-131. It has an activity of 1600 counts per
litre. The activity of the sample was measured every 7 days and the results
are shown in the table below:
TIME IN 0 7 14 21 28 35
DAYS
ACTIVITY 1600 875 470 260 140 77
(UNITS /
LITRE)
a) Draw a graph of activity (y axis) against time (x axis)

b) Estimate the half-life of the iodine-131 sample
2. Explain why some elements are radioactive and some are not.
3. State the causes of background radiation.
4. Americium-241 (Am) loses an alpha particle and decays into a new element
Neptunium. Produce an equation to show this if the atomic number of
Americium is 95.
5. Carbon-14 is radioactive and decays by beta emission. It has an atomic

number of 6.
a) What new element is formed when carbon-14 decays by beta emission?
b) Produce a symbol equation for this decay.
6. Why would a radioisotope that emits alpha radiation be unsuitable as a tracer

to monitor the heart?
7. Radioactive iodine-131 decays by beta emission and by emitting gamma
radiation also.
a) Write an equation to show this radioactive decay if iodine has atomic number
53.
b) What is the atomic number and nucleon number of the xenon produced?
c) How many neutrons are found in the nucleus of an atom of xenon?
d) The half-life of iodine-131 is 8 days. The total dose that is given to a patient
emits 4 x 108 gamma rays per second. How many gamma rays does the total
dose emit after 24 days?
END OF SYLLABUS
PLEASE REVISE THOROUGHLY AND OFTEN
THIS GIVES YOU A HIGHER CHANCE OF A HIGHER GRADE
ANDREW RICHARD WARD

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE, ENGLAND, UK
JANUARY 20TH, 2014

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IGCSE PHYSICS – 8TH EDITION

A COMPLETE REVISION GUIDE

ANDREW RICHARD WARD

The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (Kg)

The SI unit for time is the second (s)

The SI unit for length is the metre (m)

The number given is always to TWO SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

e.g. 65900 = 6.59 x 105

0.0038 = 3.8 x 10-3

Mass is measured with a mass balance or a bean balance

This is a digital mass balance

This is a beam balance

1 gram is 1/1000 kilogram = 10-3 kg

1 milligram is 1/1000 gram = 10-6kg

Time is measured on a clock that can be digital or analog

Digital times could be a stopwatch or a stopclock

Analog timers could be a clock or a watch

1 millisecond (ms) = 1/1000 second = 10-3 s

1 microsecond (µs) = 1/1000 millisecond = 10-6s

1 nanosecond = 1/ 1,000,000,000 second = 10-9s

There are 3 ways of measuring length

1. RULER – This must touch the object measured. The

3. MICROMETER This is a very accurate piece of equipment

1 kilometre (km) = 1000 metres = 103 m

1 centimetre (cm) = 1/100 m = 10-2 m

1 millimetre (mm)= 1/1000 m = 10-3 m

1 micrometer (µm) = 1/1,000,000 m = 10-6 m

1. Write down the value of 1678mm in m

km, µg, s, mm, km, m, ms, g, mg, mm, cs, µs

LENGTH DISTANCE TIME

5. Which of the following terms are correct?

a) One mg = one million

6. An athlete completes a marathon race of distance 36,000 m in 21600 s.

7. Calculate the amount of seconds in January (31 days); 100600 g into kg

A force is a push or pull. Forces are measured in NEWTON (N) using a

The force of GRAVITY acts on an object’s MASS and produces WEIGHT ON

It is also interesting to note that gravity produces ACCELERATION.

WHAT CAN FORCES DO?

1. Speed things up or slow things down

If we apply a STRETCHING force to a spring, the result is an EXTENSION.

K = F/e where F=Force and e = extension

A spring is stretched 0.02m by a weight of 2.0 N.

a) Calculate the force constant, k

a) k = F/e = 2.0 N / 0.02 m = 100 N/M

Here are some calculations for you to try:

1. Calculate the force constant, k, for the following stretches of a spring

2. Calculate W for the following:

3. Calculate e for the following:

These 2 quantities are NOT the same.

FORCES WILL CHANGE THE MOTION OF AN OBJECT

Sir Isaac Newton discovered 3 Laws of Motion

Newton’s First Law of Motion is:

Balanced forces result in a net force of zero.

This law states that UNBALANCED FORCES PRODUCE ACCELERATION.

This is shown on a diagram by UNEQUAL arrows.

The larger the force gets, the larger the acceleration.

If the mass is larger, the acceleration gets smaller as a mass RESISTS

The formula for calculating a resultant force is FORCE = MASS x ACCELRATION.

Rearranging this gives us MASS = FORCE / ACCELERATION and ACCELERATION =

1. Calculate the force needed to accelerate a mass of 10 Kg at 12 m/s2

Force = mass x acceleration = 10 x 12 = 120 N

3. If a force is 5000 N and mass is 250 kg, what is acceleration?

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

REACTION FORCES ARE EQUAL AND OPPOSITE