Professional Documents
Culture Documents
D EPARTMENT OF E NERGY
D OCTORAL P ROGRAMME I N
E NERGY A ND N UCLEAR S CIENCE A ND T ECHNOLOGY
Supervisor:
Prof. Gianluca Montenegro
Tutor:
Prof. Angelo Onorati
The Chair of the Doctoral Program:
Prof. Carlo Bottani
2017 – 29
Acknowledgements
.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to:
my supervisor Dr. Gianluca Montenegro, for his constant professional and human
support and for all the things he taught me in these last three years;
my tutor Prof. Angelo Onorati, for his precious guidance, continuous interest and
valuable suggestions;
my advisor Dr. Augusto Della Torre, for his valuable contribution and great advises;
Finally, I would like to thank all the people in the Internal Combustion Engine
Group. It has been a real pleasure to work with them in these years.
I
Abstract
D OWNSIZING the internal combustion engines has been a major topic of study,
recently. Among different techniques and technologies introduced through the
time, using turbochargers is considered quite a demanding strategy. However,
various consideration about the application of turbocharger and matching of the system
have to be investigated.
Nowadays, numerical modeling of turbochargers is a popular tool to provide a pre-
cise and useful study criteria to investigate the performance and dynamic phenomena
inside a system of engine/turbocharger.
Through this research various characteristics and aspects of turbocharger has been
studied numerically. Needless to say that the current project is an introduction to vari-
ous applications of CFD in turbocharger study.
The first part of the project is about the study of turbocharger compressors in steady-
state operational condition. A pressure-based CFD solver in OpenFOAM platform has
been progressed and used. In the second part of the research, fouling phenomena and
deposition mechanism has been studied. A predictive CFD model has been proposed
and evaluated. Finally, in the third part of the research, a 1D-3D coupling solver has
been modified and used to study the interference between engine and turbocharger as
well as collateral effects which could be a possible topic for future work.
III
Contents
V
Contents
4 Fouling phenomena 43
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.2 Deposition models for turbomachines - A state of the art . . . . . . . . 43
4.3 Multiphase flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.4 Governing equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.4.1 Equations of species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.4.2 Equations of momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.5 Turbulence problem in multiphase flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.6 multiphase flow Boundary problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.7 Particle deposition theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.7.1 Sedimentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.7.2 Interception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.7.3 Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.7.4 Inertial impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.8 Introduction to contact mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.8.1 Hertz theory of contacting elastic solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.8.2 Non-Hertzian elastic models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.9 particle surface interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
VI
Contents
Bibliography 95
VII
Nomenclature
kg
ρ0 Bulk initial density of the fluid [ m 3]
2
Θ Granular temerature [ ms2 ]
Cl Lift coefficient
Cvm Virtual mass coefficient
Dp Particle Diameter [m]
e coefficient of restitution
FD Drag force [N]
g0 Acceleration of gravity [ sm2 ]
l0 Characteristic length scale [m]
U0 Bulk initial velocity of the fluid [ ms ]
Urel Particle-fluid relative velocity [ ms ]
Vp Particle volume [m3 ]
α volume fraction
τ̄¯ Flow stress tensor [P a]
δ Approach distance [m]
γ heat capacity ratio
W
κ Thermal conductivity [ m.K ]
µ Dynamic viscosity [Pa.s]
2
ν Kinematic viscosity [ ms ]
kg
ρ Density [ m3]
IX
Contents
H Enthalpy [m3 ]
J
h Specific enthalpy [ kg ]
L Equilibrium molecular Distance [m]
l Geometry length scale [m]
M Mach number
m Mass [kg]
N Rotational speed [ rad
s
]
p Pressure [Pa]
Q Heat transfer [J]
J
R Gas constant [ kg.K ]
T Temperature [K]
t Time [s]
U Gas absolute velocity [ ms ]
U+ Dimensionless velocity ratio
Urot Blade linear speed [ ms ]
V Volume [m3 ]
W Work done [J]
Y+ Dimensionless wall distance
Co Courant number
2
K Boltzmann constant [ msKkg ]
X Distance [m]
1
CHAPTER 1
Turbocharging internal combustion engines
1.1 Introduction
The history of turbocharger is as old as the beginning of internal combustion engine
creation. In the end of 19th century just after the creation of first automobiles Alfred
Buchi proposed the first idea of the turbocharger to boost up the engine power output.
Although according to some technical problems the practical use of turbochargers post-
poned to the early 1900s, when General Electric used turbochargers in aviation engines.
Initially practical application of turbochargers were limited to marine industry and
avionics . By the mid of 1950s automobile industry started to use turbochargers for
diesel engines.
Nowadays, turbochargers are widespread in automobile industry, used for all diesel or
spark ignition engines, as well as in industrial and marine applications of internal com-
bustion engines.
The main advantage of turbochargers are downsizing the engine and reducing specific
fuel consumption.
3
Chapter 1. Turbocharging internal combustion engines
As indicated in figure 1.1 inside a four stroke IC engine as piston moves from BDC
toward TDC, the existing gas (fuel-air mixture for Spark Ignition and air for Compres-
sion Ignition engines ) is compressed. Usually, the ignition starts before reaching TDC.
After reaching TDC the expansion process start. During this phase, the driving power
is generated. After next BDC (point 3 in figure 1.1), the exhaust valve opens to push
out the burned gas out of the cylinder. Finally, just before point 4 the intake opens and
the unburned mixture is sucked to the cylinder.
The net work in a cycle will be
4
1.3. Compressor and turbine efficiency
Turbocharging the engine will shift the whole processes to a higher pressures. If be-
cause of restriction in design and materials, the maximum available pressure of the cy-
cle remains unchanged, it is called constant pressure turbocharging. Normally, adding
turbochargers increase the maximum pressure of the cylinder. Additional to thermo-
dynamic efficiency increase, this will potentially improve the ability of downsizing the
engine thanks to increase in expansion work due to higher density of fuel and air enter-
ing in the cylinder.
Normally, a turbucharger system consists of a compressor and a turbine, which are con-
nected by a single shaft. The compressor usually is a single stage centrifugal model,
while both the axial and radial turbines are widespread.
The most critical point in designing a turbocharger as well as in matching process is that
turbocharger compressors are mostly unable to operate in the wide operational range
of an IC engine.Therefore, using multistage compressors or variable geometry type are
introduced to cover this weakness.
The other recent choice is electrically driven supercharger. In this model the compres-
sor is driven by an electromotor, which is powered by battery or other electric source.
5
Chapter 1. Turbocharging internal combustion engines
Figure 1.2: Heat transfers for a sample turbocharger compressor, as functions of turbine inlet tempera-
ture and external ventilation [4]
T02s − T01
ηc T T = (1.5)
T02 − T01
P02
P2
h
02
02s
2
2s
P01
P1
01
6
1.4. Non-dimensional characterizing
called small stage efficiency. For compression process small stage efficiency is defined
as
dTs
ηcp = (1.6)
dT
For infinitesimal stage, isentropic process assumption is still valid. Therefore
T γ−1
dTs = dp (1.7)
p γ
Hence, from equation 1.6 we have
T dp γ−1
ηcp = (1.8)
dT p γ
Integrating equation 1.8 between inlet and outlet of the compressor
γ−1
ln(p2 /p1 )( γ )
ηcp = (1.9)
ln(T2 /T1 )
Applying this equation to equation 1.5, a relation between isentropic and polytropic
energy is concluded.
γ−1
(p02 /p01 )( γ )−1
ηc T T =
γ−1
(1.10)
(p02 /p01 ) γηcp
−1
1 − (T04 /T03 )
ηt T S = γ−1 (1.11)
1 − (p /p )( γ )
4 03
ṁ = ρU An (1.13)
7
Chapter 1. Turbocharging internal combustion engines
An = kD2 (1.15)
Where k is the non-dimensional geometry coefficient. By moving all dimensioned
parameters to the left side of the equation we can extract a non-dimensional equivalent
expression for mass flow rate
√ −(γ+1)
ṁ RT0 √ γ − 1 2 2(γ−1)
= kM γ 1 + M (1.16)
p0 D 2 2
Note that the same expression is valid also in relative reference frame coordinates.
Deriving the conservation equation, the same non-dimensional expression for enthalpy
change in turbomachines can be defined. Rewriting the equation 1.4 we have
T02
− Ẇ = ṁ∆h0 = ṁCp T0 −1 (1.17)
T01
Therefore
" γ−1 #
∆h0 γ p02 γ
= −1 (1.18)
RT01 γ−1 p01
Another important design parameter for turbomachines that are working with com-
pressible fluid is stage loading, ψ .
∆h0 2
ψ= (1.19)
Urot
In this equation Urot is the blade linear speed. Stage loading is nonlinear parameter
itself, but it can help us to study the effect of blade speed in the turbomachine. Rear-
ranging equation 1.19 we have
2 " γ−1 #
1 ∆h0 RT01 γ p02 γ T01
Urot 2 = DN = = −1 (1.20)
4 RT01 ψ γ−1 p01 ψR
8
1.5. Project Outline
Finally
γ−1 12
γ p02 γ
4 γ−1 p01
−1
ND
√ = (1.21)
T01 ψ
For a specific engine since the chemical composition of air and burnt gas are known,
the parameter R is usually neglected. Also, since the geometric property D is constant
for each specific turbomachine and also removed from the performance calculations.
An example of turbocharger compressor performance map is shown in Figure 1.4.
9
Chapter 1. Turbocharging internal combustion engines
• Chapter 3 introduces the case study for the performance prediction of the tur-
bocharger compressor. Then, the generated grid and solution settings are intro-
duced. The results are correlated with the experimental available data. Finally,
the main physical and modeling challenges have been discussed.
10
CHAPTER 2
An introduction to numerical modelling of
turbomachines
2.1 Introduction
Generally two different strategies are possible to predict a phenomenon: experimen-
tal investigation and theoretical calculation. Each method brings some advantage and
some drawbacks. For the theoretical calculation normally mathematical models are
developed. These models usually provide low cost, fast, detailed information and are
applicable for both realistic and ideal conditions [5]. However, they are restricted to the
knowledge of the user as well as computational capacity.
In recent decades, according to high demands for reliable accurate models even for
complex cases, numeric methods have become increasingly popular in various research
and industrial problems. One of the main fields of study, in which numeric methods
are highly used, is study of fluid systems. In order to have an accurate prediction and
according to nonlinear complex behavior of these systems, several numerical methods
and algorithms are developed through years, which are categorized as Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Computational Fluid Dynamics is the art of study a system of
fluid flow or heat transfer phenomena using numeric computational methods.
The first attempt to use this approach for turbomachine analysis was performed at
1950’s by Wu [6]. He applied inviscid simplified Navier-Stokes equations in steady
state situation. In this approach stream functions were derived assuming steady state
situation at blades, as well as extreme thin blades with narrow blade-to-blade passage.
Then, the equations were solved in two axial and radial directions. To solve this sim-
plified problem he derived all the equations for a rectangular array of the points at rz
plane as figure 2.1.
11
Chapter 2. An introduction to numerical modelling of turbomachines
Since 1980s with the significant improve in the potential of calculating machines,
also the design of turbomachines were influenced by the possibility of numerical mod-
els.
The first attempts were mostly restricted to inviscid flow in a passage or simplified 2D
models [7–9].
During last two decades with a great enhancement in application of numerical methods
in mechanical engineering and introduction of several industrial CFD codes, the use of
this method has become widespread. Now, without using computational fluid dynamic
models the design of different turbomachines are almost impossible. A detailed review
of state-of-the-Art is presented Ansari et. al. [10].
Through this chapter the governing equations and relations are introduced. Then, dif-
ferent approaches and assumptions to deal with the turbomachine modeling problems
are discussed.
The base of computational methods are the discretization of physical rules in the do-
main, containing conservation equation and transport equations. To approach the so-
lution different techniques are used, which are described carefully in several refer-
ences [11], [5] and [12]. In this section a brief review of the equation is described,
based on finite volume approach.
12
2.2. Governing equations
∂ρ
+ ∇.ρU = 0 (2.1)
∂t
This equation is general three dimensional continuity for compressible flows.
DU
ρ + ∇.ρU U = −∇p + ∇.(µ∇U ) + SM (2.2)
Dt
In this equation s is the additional source term.
13
Chapter 2. An introduction to numerical modelling of turbomachines
Various approaches has been introduced to model different phenomena inside turbo-
machines. One of the first models was developed by Von Karman [13]. Through that
study the analytical approach is applied to solve simplified incompressible equation for
2-D non uniform airfoils. However, during these decades most of the models for design
of the turbomachines were relied on empirical correlations [14]. Other analytical stud-
ies have been conducted [15–17] to present simplified methods for turbomachine flow
modeling. Using the analytical models are still common for design and analysis turbo-
machines [18–21]. Later with developing of computers and Computational Fluid Dy-
namic methods, more sophisticated models have been developed. A review of different
numerical approaches is represented by pinto et al. [10]. CFD study of turbomachines
performed for several reasons, such as design, optimization and study of heat transfer,
aerodynamics, cavitation, erosion and fouling. Also, different strategies has been used
to cover the complex nature and behavior of various turbomachines [22]. However,
in general applications, CFD provides a three dimensional scope of the turbomachine
to avoid undesirable phenomena as well as exploiting details on complex nature of the
flow. There are other advantages of using CFD in recent studies. Highly costs of testing
compressors and turbines far from design working points is leading to use numerical
approach as a substitute. Analytical and empirical methods cannot reveal the true per-
formance deviation reasons in detail, while using three dimensional numerical methods
help the designers to dominate the fact behind these parameters. The same story goes
for small local mechanisms such as flow transition at the tale of the blades, or flow
inside tip clearance gap, or local secondary flows. Moreover, study of high frequency
and low frequency instabilities and unsteadiness of the turbomachines is more reason-
able to be performed through CFD programs. There are some certain phenomena that
are extremely hard to measure in experiments or impossible to introduce reliable and
precise analytical model, such as phase interchange high velocity flows inside turbo-
machines or particle transport mechanisms. Finally, CFD can help us in more advanced
procedures such as design optimization and geometry evolution of the turbomachines.
As indicated before, the first attempts to use computational fluid dynamic approaches
started in 1950s. Then other strategies has been introduced such as 2d potential flow
models, blade to blade potential solvers, inviscid solvers, 2D viscous model, etc [23].
Ni et al. [24] used inviscid Euler equations to solve the flow over a 3D blade to bade
channel in an axial compressor
Adamczyk [25] solved the viscous flow equations in a multi-stage compressor and
numerically studied the effect of first row of the blades on the second row. Also, in an-
other research the rotor-stator interaction is investigated [26] in an axial turbine. This
study was using three-dimensional grid. The finial difference approach is used and the
effect of hub and shroud is taken into account for inviscid unsteady situation. In the
work of Chima [27] also stream-wise viscous terms are neglected (Thin-layer assump-
tion). The zero-dimensional Baldwin-Lomax turbulence model is applied to model
three-dimensional row of blades in an axial turbine. These early works were highly re-
stricted by the low capacity of the computational technology of that period. Years after,
with significant improving in the computational devices more complicated methods and
geometries are studied numerically [28–31]. Also, various computational codes have
14
2.3. Turbomachine modeling
been developed to model turbomachines. Pinto et al. [10] compared several softwares
for modeling different turbomachines.
15
Chapter 2. An introduction to numerical modelling of turbomachines
Figure 2.3: Schematic diagram of a turbocharger test facility (courtesy of University of Genoa) [33]
One of the main consideration to model turbomachines is how to link the fields inside
stationary region with the moving (rotating) region. There are various approaches to
handle this problem which will briefly discussed in this section.
• Multi Reference Frame approach: Multi Reference Frame (MRF) model is the
most popular and the simplest approach for multiple zones. The idea behind this
approach is to solve the governing equations separately for stationary and moving
regions. For the moving part, system of coordination is relative. Then, to integrate
16
2.3. Turbomachine modeling
the solution relative coordinates of the moving part is translated to absolute coor-
dinates of the stationary part. Specifically, for rotating cases the Coriolis terms
will be added to momentum equation. Therefore, the governing equations will
have a new form. Rewriting equation 2.2 for relative coordinate, we will have
DUrel
ρ + ∇.ρUrel Urel = −∇p + ∇.(µ∇Urel ) + SM (2.6)
Dt
Supposing a rotation with rotational speed of ω, translating it to absolute coordi-
nates we will have
DU
ρ + ∇.ρ (U U + ω × (ω × x) + 2ω × U ) = −∇p + ∇.(µ∇U ) + SM (2.7)
Dt
In this equation x is the transport vector between the absolute and relative co-
ordinates. The new additional terms can be added implicitly or explicitly to the
standard equation.
The main advantage of using this approach is to solve the steady-state problem
with steady-state solvers. Also, this method can save the generated grid in solid
optimal form. However, MRF cannot predict the unsteady phenomena for a cer-
tain time (e.g. blade to blade interaction in multistage machines).
• Mixing Plane Model: The serious disadvantage of MRF to face unsteady prob-
lems lead to use another approach to simplify the situation un unsteady situations,
which is called MPM. In MPM a virtual plane is defined between two sliding and
stationary zones (see figure 2.4). Then, the governing equations and fields are
solved separately at each time step. Finally, the results for each region will be
corrected in a way to reach a convergence (unique results) for the mixing plane.
Figure 2.4: Sample of schematic illustrating the mixing plane concept [39]
This method can be useful to solve unsteady problem, specially when using mov-
ing mesh strategies are so costly. However, a lot of restrictions happens when
dealing with this approach. All the multiphase solvers which are working with
phase interface cannot work with MPM. Also LES turbulence model is not com-
patible with MPM [39].
17
Chapter 2. An introduction to numerical modelling of turbomachines
• Dynamic mesh: The straight strategy to solve the problem with partially moving
regions is using dynamic mesh. Although, this methodology is time consuming
and complex, but it is necessary to apply during study of unsteady phenomena
inside a time-variant problem. Shock transmission between stationary and rotary
blades of a turbomachine is a clear example of such phenomena. Mesh motion
problems can be categorized as mesh deformation and sliding mesh. In the sliding
mesh strategy to cell zones are used these cell zones will have relative motion with
respect to each other. Therefore the equations for each cell zone will be solved
separately. The data of the fields will be translated between cell zones through a
non-conformed interface.
18
CHAPTER 3
Compressor performance modeling
3.1 Introduction
Turbocharger compressor performance behavior is the critical issue in matching a tur-
bocharger to an engine. As explained in chapter 1 the performance of the compressor
is influenced by various operational parameters such as rotational speed and the engine
intake valves, as well as inlet manifold condition. Therefore, for various operational
engine the turbocharger efficiency will be affected significantly.
Although, experimental study of turbocharger behavior is a very widespread approach,
using other prediction methods like numerical models can be useful specially for study
of marginal behavior and unsteady phenomena.
Through this chapter, the applied CFD model and the general assumptions are reviewed.
Then, a specific turbocharger compressor has been studied and the model results has
been validated with the experimental data.
Various boundary conditions were applied and tested to ensure the robustness of the
solver and provided geometry, which will be discussed in more details through this
chapter.
19
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling
grid quality. To do so, the mesh is directly constructed inside OpenFOAM platform.
By default OpenFOAM defines a mesh of arbitrary polyhedral cells in 3-D, bounded by
arbitrary polygonal faces. This type of mesh offers great freedom in mesh generation
and manipulation in particular when the geometry of the domain is complex or changes
over time [40].
As stated previously the geometry of the compressor is quite complex. In order to cap-
ture the whole geometry of the compressor a 3D shell, made with CAD softwares, is
used
Figure 3.1: Compressor model No.1 3D profile: compressor housing and compressor impeller
20
3.3. Steady-state solvers
∇.U = 0 (3.1)
DU ∇p
+ ∇.U U = − + ∇.(ν∇U ) + SM (3.2)
Dt ρ
21
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling
Discretization and solving these equations does not necessary lead to consistent precise
solution. Therefore, several approaches has been developed to simplify and improve the
consistency of the problem. In this research, the SIMPLE algorithm as one the most
popular and reliable approaches is selected.
Through the solver, it is assumed that the exact solution of pressure and velocity
fields is constructed from a calculated value, p∗ , in addition to a correction term , p0
p = p ∗ + p0 (3.4)
U = U∗ + U0 (3.5)
Finally, by removing the neighbor cell flux in discretized equation and driving the
continuity equation correction terms are calculated [5] (see figure 3.3).
p*
U*
SIMPLE p’
iteration
loop
pressure
Flux correction correction
loop
p,U
final results
22
3.3. Steady-state solvers
and chaotic. The motion becomes unsteady even with constant boundary conditions.
Through this point the flow is called turbulent.
This three-dimensional random behavior of turbulent is preventing an exact predic-
tion of the flow. However, according to the conservation rules the average velocity of
the fluid is identical to the laminar relations. Therefore, the local velocity for each point
at a certain time is defined as a combination of an average term and a fluctuation term
u(t) = U + u0 (3.6)
This relation is called turbulence decomposition. The turbulent flow illustration
shows rotational flow structures. These rotating phenomena are called turbulent eddies,
with a wide range of length scales [11]. For large eddies a turbulent Reynolds number
can be defined as follow
Ul
Rel = (3.7)
ν
In this equation U is the characteristic velocity, l is the length scale of the eddy
and ν demonstrates the kinetic viscosity of the flow. This parameter depicts that large
eddies do not depend on viscosity and are dominated by inertia. They are stretched by
the bulk flow. However, smaller eddies are stretched strongly by these larger eddies and
less with the mean flow. In this way the kinetic energy is handed down from large eddies
to progressively smaller eddies in what is termed the energy cascade [11]. The smallest
scales of motion in a turbulent flow are completely dominated by viscous effects. The
turbulent Reynolds number of the smallest eddies is equal to 1, so the smallest scales
present in a turbulent flow are those for which the inertia and viscous effects are of
equal strength. These scales are named the Kolmogorov micro-scales.
Turbulence models
23
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling
relatively simple sub-grid scale models. Since through this strategy the number of
grids and the amount of calculations will be reduced significantly, the investigation of
turbulent flows at much higher Reynolds numbers becomes feasible. However, LES
is inherently three-dimensional and unsteady, it still remains computationally very de-
manding. Thus, LES is still far away from becoming an engineering tool. LES is well
suited for detailed studies of complex flow physics.
In order to provide a more practical strategy, the so-called Reynolds- Averaged
Navier-Stokes equations (RANS) is presented. This approach, which was presented
by Reynolds in 1895, is based on the decomposition of the flow variables into mean
and fluctuating parts (equation 3.2). In cases where the density is not constant, it is
advisable to apply the density (mass) weighted (Favre decomposition) to the velocity
components. Otherwise, the averaged governing equations would become consider-
ably more complicated due to additional correlations involving density fluctuations. It
is common to assume that Morkovin’s hypothesis is valid, which states that the tur-
bulence structure of boundary layers and wakes is not notably influenced by density
fluctuations for Mach numbers below 5. By inserting the decomposed variables into
the Navier-Stokes equations and averaging, we obtain formally the same equations for
the mean variables with the exception of two additional terms. The tensor of the viscous
stresses is extended by one term of the Reynolds-stress tensor:
∂(ρ̄U
e) ∂ p̄ ∂(ρ̄u0 2 ) ∂(ρ̄u0 v 0 ) ∂(ρ̄u0 w0 )
+∇. ρ̄U
eUe = e + −
+∇. µ∇U − − +SM x
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
(3.9)
24
3.4. Case solution settings
Various models been proposed to solve the unknown Reynolds-stress terms in RANS
approach, such as mixing length model (zero equation), Sparlat-Allmaras (one equation),k−
and k − ω (two equations), etc. The main fundamental assumption for almost all
RANS approach models is introduced by Boussinesq. He proposed there is a direct re-
lation between the deformation in the flow and Reynolds-stress terms. This idea reveals
that this mechanism works like the effect of viscosity force.
0 0 ∂Ui ∂Uj 2
¯
τij = −ρ̄u i u j = µt + − ρkδij (3.12)
∂xj ∂xi 3
In this equation k is defined as turbulent kinetic energy and is equal to
1 02 2 2
k= ū + v̄ 0 + w̄0 (3.13)
2
and the Kronecker delta function δij reveals that this value appears in the equation
if only i = j .
The same procedure is consider to predict the turbulence heat flux vector, by defining
an equivalent turbulent or eddy diffusivity
∂φ
− ρui 0 φ0 = Γt (3.14)
∂xi
Then a Prandtl/Schmidt number can be defined to relate the turbulence viscosity and
turbulent eddy diffusivity
Γt
σt = (3.15)
µt
In the most CFD cases the value of σt is considered to be about 1 [11]. Therefore,
various RANS models attempt to provide the more precise and more realistic value for
turbulent viscosity. Through this research second order models of RANS approach have
been utilized. The most popular model of this category is k− model, which is based on
solution of two PDE equations for turbulence kinetic energy, k and rate of dissipation
of the turbulent energy, . However, in some cases such as curved geometries and near
the walls the model is not working fine and are substitutes with some modified models
such as k − w presented by Wilcox [41].
25
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling
Figure 3.4: compressor zones in MRF approach: rotating parts are red and stationary parts are gray
To do so, the generated 3D geometry is separated into two stationary and rotating zones
as depicted in figure 3.4
In order to have a satisfying translation results between the rotating zone and the
stationary zone, two cell zones were defined using TopoSet, which is available inside
OpenFOAM platform.
Defining pressure and velocity boundary conditions are also critical for this case. To
study the more realistic situation at entrance and exit of the compressor, various com-
binations are considered which are presented in table 3.2
Table 3.2: Applied boundary conditions to the solution
The entrance temperature was fixed from the experiment. The wall temperature
condition is assumed zero gradient, that implies no heat transfer through the walls.
Also, for the outlet no heat transfer is considered.
For the turbulence setting near the wall, the conditions are more complex. Normally
there are three different regimes near the wall. The first regime is laminar viscous
sublayer (Y + < 5), buffer layer (5 < Y + < 30), and inertial layer (30 < Y + < 200).
In the viscous sublayer the effect of turbulence is negligible, therefore the ratio of bulk
velocity to friction velocity, U + has a linear relation with Y + . while in the inertia
sublayer there is a logarithmic relation between them.
The "law of wall" introduced by Prandtl, suggest that the near the wall boundary
26
3.4. Case solution settings
Figure 3.5: U-velocity profile with linear and log-law approximation [42]
Therefore, the boundary condition law of wall is considered in this research in ac-
cordance with the various wall boundary cell size. It is tried to decrease the boundary
cell’s Y + near the buffer layer, since as it is depicted in figure 3.5, there is a big differ-
ence between the assumed values and the physical values (look at the DNS results) in
that range.
In order to achieve the best convergence the initial values are set from the results of
potential flow solution.
The other important setting for the solution is to manage the non-orthogonality. For
this reason, several correction loops are added to the solution, in order to decrease the
errors come from non-orthogonality.
The data in table 3.3 presented in raw form and is not translated to multidimensional
values, since without the availability of the exact velocity magnitude, total values for
pressure and temperature are not calculable. However, in the final comparison with
27
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling
Impeller rotational speed [krpm] mass flow rate [kg/sec] Inlet temperature [K] Inlet pressure [P a]
120 0.0546 298.95 96864
120 0.0588 298.65 96467
120 0.0615 298.05 96059
120 0.0608 300.55 96242
120 0.0673 300.25 95117
120 0.0634 300.15 95610
120 0.0719 299.45 94346
80 0.04 298.55 98094
80 0.0437 298.55 97958
80 0.0468 298.45 97733
80 0.0494 298.35 97438
80 0.0525 298.15 97201
80 0.0565 298.25 96849
80 0.0558 298.25 96828
60 0.0288 298.55 98532
60 0.0317 298.55 98453
60 0.035 298.55 98343
60 0.0377 298.45 98223
60 0.0402 298.35 98088
60 0.0439 298.25 97884
60 0.046 298.15 97700
the calculation of tangential component of velocity vectors the corrected results are
calculated. The generated model is used to solve the operational points to cover the
performance lines of experimental data. Therefore, in order to provide a correct cor-
relation the same rotational speed number (see equation 1.21) is selected. Then, for
a wide range of corrected mass flow rate, the behavior of compressor is studied. The
stated corrected numbers are calculated from the available experimentally measured
mass flow rate, inlet static pressure and inlet temperature mentioned in the table.
Performance study
The stagnation pressure ratio, β, is calculated as the main characteristic of the compres-
sor. For the first boundary condition setting, the mass flow rate is fixed at inlet as well
as the pressure at outlet. The total pressure ratio is simply calculated from the average
values of pressure and velocity at each patch, as following
1
p0 = p + ρU 2 (3.16)
2
For the three reported rotational speeds a wide range of mass flow rates are assumed
and the flow fields are calculated. However, as the flow approached close to the choking
condition, the convergence of the models were harder to achieve.
Figure 3.6 shows the comparison between the experimentally achieved values and the
results of the model in non-dimensional format. The parameters have already intro-
duced in chapter 1.
The corrected mass flow rate is calculated from equation 1.16 for a specified gas
constant and a fixed geometry.
28
3.4. Case solution settings
Figure 3.6: Comparison of calculated pressure ratio values with the experimental data
It is illustrated that as the corrected mass flow rate increases, the stagnation pressure
ratio will reduce for each rotational speed. However, the calculation is extended to very
low mass flow rates.Then positive slopes are appeared in pressure ratio curves. Such
behavior is observed near the stall zone, which will be discussed in detail in chapter 6.
The other possible physical boundary condition setting which is applied to the model
(as stated in table 3.2) is applying the total pressure (infinity atmospheric condition) at
inlet and fix the mass flow rate at outlet. Theoretically all boundary conditions should
provide almost the same results. However, they can affect the stability of the solution.
In figure 3.7 this boundary condition results are compared with the first boundary con-
dition.
Figure 3.7: Comparison of boundary pressure ratio for boundary conditions stated in table 3.2
29
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling
In BC No.1 mass flow rate is fixed at entrance of the compressor, which provide a
quite stable boundary condition for the compressible SIMPLE solver. The fixed mass
flow rate is a direct boundary condition for the velocity vector field that imposes an
average normal component of velocity over the boundary patch. Hence, the flow rate
changes in accordance with each cell’s patch face area. For the outlet patch the static
pressure is fixed, In this situation the outlet applied pressure will regulate the value of
suction pressure at inlet.
Although this boundary condition is highly consistent and stable, there is no control
over the tangential component of the velocity, while the effect of impeller back-flow
vorticity can be very critical for the inlet patch at marginal operational range.
The second applied boundary condition is much closer to the physical operation of a
turbocharger compressor. The air is sucked in at atmospheric condition; Therefore, the
total pressure is fixed at inlet while the mass flow rate at outlet patch is manipulated by
the intake engine valves. Therefore, the mass flow rate is constrained at outlet.
Experimental data illustrate that for high mass flow rates at a certain point, the pres-
sure ratio is suddenly decreasing as it is closing to the choking condition. However,
this condition is highly critical for steady-state pressure-based solvers such as SIMPLE
algorithm.
Study the efficiency of the compressor is also part of performance analysis. The effi-
ciency calculated rearranging the equation 1.5 as
γ−1
(p02 /p01 )( γ ) − 1
ηc T T = (3.17)
(T02 /T01 ) − 1
which states 01 and 02 are addressing to the total values at inlet and outlet, respec-
tively.
Figure 3.8 shows the calculated efficiency curves and its contour inside the performance
map.
Figure 3.8: Total to total efficiency of the compressor lines and contours, calculated by the model
30
3.4. Case solution settings
the efficiency suddenly drops due to chocking effect and local supersonic flow irre-
versible behavior at the tail of impeller blades.
The same trend is also appears at very low mass flow rates when the compressor works
near the surge line, impeller stall (mostly rotating stall) has a tremendous effect on
abrupt decrease in efficiency.
Looking at the figure, it is revealed that for this specific compressor the lower rotational
speeds can provide a higher efficiency at optimum operational points. moreover, as it
can be observed in contour diagram, as rotational speed decrease, the optimum point
moves closer to the surge line. The reason is that at the optimum kinematic condition
there is a linear dependency between rotational speed and absolute velocity of gas en-
tering the impeller. The absolute velocity is product of combination of mass flow rate
and the induced vorticity. However, the surge is only affected by the absolute velocity.
Direct measurement of total to total efficiency is not posibble experimentally. Then,
according to equation 3.17 it can be seen that the for a specific compressor with a cer-
tain working condition the efficiency is a function of total pressure ratio and the outlet
total temperature. Since, to study the performance of the compressor, pressures are al-
ready measured, then, the efficiency mostly is measured by increase in enthalpy which
is presented in terms of total temperature. Therefore, in order to compare the results of
efficiency with experimental data, the outlet average total temperatures are compared,
In figure 3.9
Figure 3.9: Comparison of calculated total temperature values with the experimental data
Calculated results of the temperature shows a satisfying compatibility with the ex-
perimental data. As the mass flow rate increases the temperature decreases, which
seems to be contradictory to the increasing transferred momentum. However, increase
in mass flow rate also increases the output kinetic energy which significantly affects the
outlet temperature.
Other useful information is study of transfered torque from the impeller to the fluid.
It simply presents the mechanical work done by the impeller shaft. The results are
presented in figure 3.10
31
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling
Unfortunately, for this case the experimental data is not available. However, the
applied torque which provides the mechanical power transferred to the flow, shows a
polynomial relation with mas flow rate. Not only the mass flow rate directly convects
the applied momentum through touching blade surface, but also, as mass flow rate en-
hances, according to the increase in velocities the progressive pressure gradients will be
observed in the suction and pressure side of the blades, which leads to more momentum
transfer.
32
3.4. Case solution settings
aligned grid usually solver’s convergence improve and it can produce more accurate
results.
As it is shown in the figure 3.12 the griding over the blades have two more levels of
refinement and near the stationary walls one level of refinement is performed.
This refinement can help to capture and control the wall boundary condition and
turbulent effects.
The complexity in the centrifugal compressor flow study is that even ignoring the effect
of secondary flows, the main flow enters axially and exits completely tangential. Then,
constructing a flow oriented grid is very hard to achieve.
To do so, the mesh is constructed in two separate blocks. Rotating zone which should
be highly refined and have high quality cells because of high flow speed and extremely
sophisticated geometry, and the stationary part which does not require special refine-
ment, but has a specific curvature.
Also, the interface should be defined in a way that even after merging the two vari-
ous grid regions, the interfacing patches will have complete adaptivity and maximum
compatibility can be reached (see figure 3.13). Although, there are various strategies
to match the interface patches and translate data between them, but the sophisticated
methods will lead to more computational costs. Therefore, in this study the geometri-
33
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling
(a) (b)
Figure 3.13: Separate block mesh generation strategy: (a) rotary zone (b) stationary zone
In order to validate the new generated mesh, the same operational points has been
numerically studied. The predicted pressure ratio and outlet average temperature are
correlated with the original mesh (figures 3.14 and 3.15)
The results show a slight increase in pressure ratio especially for very high rotational
speed. As it was stated before for this situation, there is a certain uncertainty appears
in SIMPLE algorithm which makes it hard to precisely judge about the precision of the
results. For the lower impeller speeds the results are almost identical. For the energy
equation, the results are in agreement with the pressure ratio. However, the trends of
both solutions for all the studied performance fields are the same.
The efficiency diagram with new mesh also reveals that the compressor can reach higher
efficiency at lower rotational speed. The computed efficiency lines and contours are
34
3.4. Case solution settings
Figure 3.14: Comparison of calculated total pressure ratio with the original mesh results
Figure 3.15: Comparison of calculated total temperature values with the original mesh results
35
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling
Figure 3.17: A sample profile of flow Mach number distribution at 120krpm rotational speed and
0.08kg/sec mass flow rate
36
3.4. Case solution settings
effect.
ρ = ρ∗ + ρ0 (3.18)
However, the density correction terms later can be translated into pressure correctors
by defining the compressibility of the flow. Figure 3.18 shows the flowchart diagram of
the modified approach. *
P is guessed in the first iteration
p*
U*
T*
SIMPLE *
iteration
loop
pressure
p’ correction
loop
Flux correction
p,U
final results
Figure 3.18: Corrected SIMPLE algorithm for all range of flow velocity [43]
Applying this modification to the SIMPLE algorithm and explicitly adding the com-
pressible term to the conservation equations, practically affects the margin of instability
of the solution. Therefore, SIMPLEC algorithm is substituted the previous solver. Fig-
ure 3.19 depicts the pressure ratio of the corrected approach in comparison with the
experimental data.
The results shows a higher compatibility in high rotational speed and high mass flow
rates with the experimental data, comparing the SIMPLE results.
The first reason is that in SIMPLEC algorithm the effects of cell neighbor’s velocity
correction terms are not neglected. Therefore, it is less simplified than SIMPLE al-
gorithm. The second and more important reason is calculating the density correction
term implicitly. In the cases that the compressibility of the flow is highly significant,
the change in the density not only affects the energy equation, but also is important in
calculation of pressure-velocity coupling.
Taking into account density effect in pressure-based compressible solver shows more
reliable and more accurate results, than the standard solver. However, due to multiple
effects of density, the convergence is harder to achieve; Hence, the solution is quite
extremely slow compared to SIMPLE method.
37
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling
Figure 3.19: Comparison of calculated pressure ratio values from modified SIMPLEC solver with the
experimental data
Transient solvers are normally much slower than steady state solvers, because they
are restricted to flow Courant number.
∆tU
Co = (3.19)
∆X
In order to achieve a convergence, the Courant number, which is also called CFL
condition is restricted to an amount. By its definition, it is revealed that for highly
refined cells which, in the case of turbocharger compressor, contain high speed flow the
allowable time step is infinitesimal. It directly affects the solution speed.
Therefore, the reduced mesh case (see table 3.4) is considered for all the transient
solutions.
Two various strategies have been utilized to study the compressor problem: using static
grid with Moving Reference Frame and dynamic mesh.
38
3.5. Transient solvers
Figure 3.20: Field profile distribution resulted with static mesh and transient solver usinf MRF approach
(120krpm and 0.04kg/sec)
pressure rises and velocity reduces. The ideal situation is that all the kinematic energy
produced in the rotating stage, converts to pressure increase through the volute; How-
ever, this condition is not achievable in all the operating points, due to geometrical and
design restrictions.
The maximum temperature is mostly observed also at the end of expansion process.
Considering an isentropic expansion process in the stationary region, it is expectable,
if the enthalpy increases as the velocity decreases.
Using MRF approach for transient solution theoretically is not the best possible method.
However, it can guaranty a very fast and stable solution.
39
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling
Through this approach, the solution is performed separately in different regions. For
the impeller side the moving mesh kinematic terms are appeared directly in the momen-
tum and even energy equation. Therefore, simplification is avoided for non symmetric
geometry of centrifugal compressor. While, in both regions the absolute governing
equations are solved. The solutions are implicitly connected through a couple of inter-
face patches.
The interface is called arbitrary, because there is no constraint in defining patch grids.
The algorithm is based on geometric mapping and interpolation of the field data be-
tween two patches.Therefore, the resulted field values are simply appear as boundary
condition for neighbor cells.
In figure 3.22 the velocity and pressure profiles are shown.
Comparing figure 3.22 and 3.20, it can be seen that the pressure results are almost
identical. However, the maximum values for the velocity are slightly different as well
as maximum temperature which are almost negligible. Considering the same setup and
boundary condition, the slight difference can only happens due to solution strategies,
specially taking into account the effect of complex grid system.
In figure 3.23 the pressure rise through the blades and volute is illustrated.
As it can be found from the figure, the rotating zone mostly has the duty to apply ex-
ternal work and increase the kinetic energy. However, the kinetic energy is transformed
to pressure in the following stationary part.
Also, near the tail of the blades there is a gradient of pressure in the space between two
blades. The gradient is caused by aerodynamic behavior of the system. The existence
of this gradient is leading to form the secondary local flows, which have a critical role
in some phenomena inside the compressor. In chapter 5 it will be discussed in detail.
Also, there are other mesh strategies such as solution-dependent mesh or stretching grid
strategies. However, each of these methods have some advantages and some disadvan-
tages, which can be a work of future similar projects.
40
3.5. Transient solvers
Figure 3.22: Field profile distribution resulted with static mesh and transient solver using dynamic mesh
approach (120krpm and 0.04kg/sec) after 0.05 sec
41
CHAPTER 4
Fouling phenomena
4.1 Introduction
The behavior of solid particles inside the flow has been a major of study for several
decades. The produced knowledge can be used in different fields of research and vari-
ous industrial applications.
To capture the phenomena several consideration such as study of multiphase flows and
particle surface interaction mechanisms should be investigated. Each aspect has ex-
treme complexity and specific considerations. Through this chapter, a couple of models
and theories are introduced to study the dominant fouling phenomena in turbomachines.
43
Chapter 4. Fouling phenomena
bomachines. Damages are presented as cracks and plastic deformation in the bulk of
blades and other parts.
Finally, abrasion which is not the product of a foreign body interaction, but, it happens
between moving parts and stationary parts at geometrical interfaces. This can result in
change in clearance and mechanical unbalance.
To predict the fouling behavior inside turbomachines various models has been de-
veloped. Tarabrin and schurovsky studied the deposition phenomena for an axial tur-
bomachine [46]. Their model is an analytical model presented for prediction of fouling
in axial compressors. The model is based on Fuks’ deposition theory.
Through this model the coefficient of entrainment, E, is defined as the ratio between the
number of particles colliding with the surface of the body and the number of particles
which could fall on the body surface if the streamlines were not delivered by the body.
The coefficient was defined as a function of Stokes number. Other modifications are
suggested later to improve this method [47]. However, all of these theories are based
on extremely simplified assumption and are useful just for overall estimation and bulk
calculation.
44
4.4. Governing equations
Environmental Control like HVAC systems [64], dust collectors [65], sewage treatment
plants [66], etc.
Geo-Meteorological Phenomena such as sedimentation [67], soil erosion and transport
by wind in the earth [68] and on the other planets [69], ocean waves [70], snow
drifts, kinematics and dynamics of rain droplets [71], physics of clouds [72], air
pollution [73], etc.
Biological Systems such as respiratory system [74], blood flow [75], etc.
It might appear that for these applications the rules and phenomena are completely
irrelevant. However, all of them are governing by continuity, momentum and energy
conservation laws. The main idea of multiphase flow theory is based on finding a set of
common relations to predict behavior of such different systems generally.
It is to be expected, therefore, that the conceptual models for multiphase flow should
also be formulated in terms of the appropriate field and constitutive relations. However,
the derivation of such equations for a multiphase flow is considerably more complicated
than for a single-phase flow [76].
As a result of study phase interface parameters, most cases of multi-phase flows
have many common characteristics and behavior in general and can be classified as
separated flow, transitional or mixed flow and dispersed flow.
Despite single-flow problems, several parameters in different scales influencing the
physics and governing relations of multi-phase flows. It is one of the origins of com-
plexity in multi-phase flows. At least four critical different scales can be considered in
multiphase flow. These are (1) system scale, (2) macroscopic scale required for contin-
uum assumption, (3) meso-scale related to local structures, and (4) microscopic scale
related to fine structures and molecular transport [76].
Various physical phase of each part, can imply distinguished situations to the system.
Due to three different normal states that we have for material we can divide two-phase
flows into four separate categorizations:
• Gas-solid mixture;
• Gas-liquid mixture;
• Liquid-solid mixture;
• Immiscible liquid-liquid mixture.
45
Chapter 4. Fouling phenomena
The continuity equations for both models are identical and is written for each specie
∂αf
+ ∇. (αf Uf ) = 0 (4.1)
∂t
∂αp
+ ∇. (αp Up ) = 0 (4.2)
∂t
46
4.7. Particle deposition theory
Figure 4.1: Influence of impact velocity and particle size on features of interaction between the particle
and impacted solid surface [86]
sometimes very corruptive, such as cold welding, fouling, erosion, physical coating,
chemical coating and deforming.
There is a common point in all of these phenomena: The particles leave the flow
streams of media to interact the boundary. The particle-fluid interface is governed by
the momentum transfer between two separate phases. The particle deviation usually
happens when the balance between Inertia and surface forces disappears. Then, the
particle leaves the flow streamline. Such behavior is generally quantified as dimension-
less Stokes number. Stokes number is defined as the ratio between the characteristic
time of the particle and characteristic time of the fluid. apparently, if the moment of in-
ertia for the particle is high, then the particle cannot synchronize its motion fast enough
as the fluid does and deviate it.
τp
Stk = (4.8)
τf
Usually, the characteristic time for the flow is defined as the ratio between the char-
acteristic length and characteristic velocity. For the particles the characteristic time is
proportional to the drag of the particles (and in the case of Stokes flow inversely pro-
portional to particle Reynolds number). Therefore, normally for these flows we have
U0 Dp 2 ρ0
Stk = (4.9)
18l0 µ
47
Chapter 4. Fouling phenomena
probably they have a great chance to collide to the boundaries. The other possibility is
due to diffusivity of the particle. The main reason is Brownian motion of the particle,
which is random movement of it due to collision with atoms and molecules inside the
media. For high speed particulate flows the inertia of the particle can cause it to leave
the flow and impact the boundary, called inertia impaction. Finally, other source terms
and body forces can also cause deposition such as electrostatic or magnetic attraction.
4.7.1 Sedimentations
As discussed before, sedimentation happens when the dominant applied force to the
particle is gravity. Of course, buoyancy, lift and drag force are also effective.
4.7.2 Interception
This phenomena mostly happens for particles with geometrical irregularity. The main
effective force is friction. After physical collision between the particle and the surface
the friction at contact point (due to surface roughness) makes the particle to settle down.
4.7.3 Diffusion
The random movement of particle inside the flow increase the chance of wall collision
close to the boundaries. This stochastic trace is because of impact with fluid molecules
and other particles. There are various theories about Brownian motion prediction. Ein-
stein calculated the diffusion of the particles as [87]
kT
D= (4.13)
3πµDp
In this equation k is the Boltzmann’s constant. According to his theory the mean
squared displacement will be
2kT t
x¯2 = 2Dt = (4.14)
3πµDp
Einstein’s model is not based on physics of phenomena, but it tries to roughly predict
the effect of molecular impact on the particle motion. On the other hand, Smoluchowski
used the momentum transfer for the prediction [88]. Also, various models based on
stochastic theories are developed through the time.
48
4.8. Introduction to contact mechanics
From the equilibrium position if the distance of the atoms increase the required
force increases to a certain point. The maximum required force is called bond strength.
Inside this range we have
πx
F = Fmax sin (4.15)
2L
Therefore, around the equilibrium point for very small movement (x << L) we will
have
πFmax
F = (4.16)
2L
49
Chapter 4. Fouling phenomena
Since L and Fmax are constant for a particular material, the relation between force
and distance will be positive linear. This relation is called Hooke’s law.
From the equation 4.16 we can extract the same equation in the terms of stress.
πσ
max
σ= x (4.17)
2L
For L0 as equilibrium distance, the strain rate is defined as
x
= (4.18)
L0
Combining the equations 3 and 4 a constant can be defined which is particular for
each material, called Yaung modulus
σ L0 πσmax
E= = (4.19)
2L
The stress increase due to elastic contact first investigated by Hertz. Then other
more complex and more advance theories were developed through the time.
1. The displacements and stresses must satisfy the differential equations of equilib-
rium for elastic bodies, and the stresses must vanish at a great distance from the
contact surface.
2. The contact is frictionless.
3. The normal pressure at free surfaces is zero and at interface pressures are equal
and opposite.
4. The distance between the surfaces of the two bodies is zero inside and greater than
zero outside the circle of contact.
5. The integral of the pressure distribution within the circle of contact with respect
to the area of the circle of contact give the force acting between two bodies.
In fact, the calculation is driven for the contact of two large elastic spheres, while
the contact area is very small.
According to his calculation
4 1 3
F = E ∗R 2 δ 2 (4.20)
3
In this equation, F is the impact force, δ is the total deformation after contact and
E ∗ is equivalent elastic (Yaung) modulus (see equation 4.19).
1 1 − ν1 2 1 − ν2 2
= + (4.21)
E∗ E1 E2
50
4.8. Introduction to contact mechanics
a2 = Rδ (4.23)
Combining equations 4.20 and 4.23 we have
13
3F R
a= (4.24)
4E ∗
Therefore,
13
9F 2
δ= (4.25)
16RE ∗ 2
For two big spheres with infinitesimal contact angle the impact pressure will be
r2
p = pmax 1 − 2 (4.26)
a
While
3F
pmax = (4.27)
2πa2
w = γ = γ1 + γ2 + γ12 (4.29)
γ is specific surface adhesion energy. A model of the adhesion force was developed
by Bradley for rigid spheres which gives [91]
51
Chapter 4. Fouling phenomena
" −2 #
−8
−8πwR 1 z z
p= − (4.30)
3 4 z0 z0
pc = 2πwR (4.31)
Two main different models were proposed for the contact of elastic spheres. These
models were due to Johnson, Kendall and Roberts (JKR) [92] and Derjaguin Muller
and Toporov (DMT) [93]. These theories appeared at first to be contradictory until it
was pointed out by Tabor [94] that they both can be consistent for different ratios of
elastic deformation to surface force.
JKR theory
In this theory light loading between elastic bodies is assumed. The theory implies that
in this situation the experiments shows deviation from Hertz model.
After contacting of two spheres the equilibrium condition will be obtained in a state
that no significant change appears in total energy as the radius of contact changes.
dUT
=0 (4.32)
da
According to this theory total energy includes three main terms: the stored elastic
energy, UE , mechanical energy in the applied load, UM and surface energy US .
The elastic term can be calculated using Hertz theory. But the effect of other terms
of course will affect the contact radius, and hence the values of Hertz loading term.
According to figure 4.3 the Hertz model predict the equilibrium happens at the point C,
while by adding attractive forces between two surfaces the contact radius will increase
from a0 into a1 . Then the corresponding Hertzian force will be F1 (Point A ) that is
not the physical elastic force, then with new contact radius the force will reduce to real
value F0 [95] (point B).
52
4.8. Introduction to contact mechanics
UE = U1 − U2 (4.33)
While, according to Hertz theorem 4.23
δ2 F1 13 31
9F −1
Z Z
2 9 5
U1 = F.dδ = F. dF = F1 3 (4.34)
δ1 3 0 16RE ∗ 2 250RE ∗ 2
With constant a1 , combining equations 4.23 and 4.24 for the final transition state
(point A to point B) we will have
3F
a1 δ = (4.35)
4E ∗
Then, substituting this amount in elastic energy equation we will have
Z δ2 Z F1 Z F1
2 F
U2 = F.dδ = δ.dF = dF (4.36)
δ1 F0 3 F0 2E ∗ a1
The main assumption in this theory is that in the transition between point A and B
the contact radius is constant (a1 ). Then using 4.17, the 4.29 can be reduced to
F1
F1 2 − F0 2
Z
F 1
U2 = 13 dF = 2 1 1 (4.37)
F0 2E ∗ 3F1 R 48E ∗ 3 R 3 F1 3
4E ∗
16 31 "
# 23
F1 − F0 11 F1 − F0 3F1
UM = −F0 (δ1 − ) = −F0 −
RE ∗ 2
1
2E ∗ a1 6 F1 3 4
(4.40)
According to definition of specific surface energy (equation 4.29), the surface En-
ergy will be
23
3RF!
US = −γπa1 2 = −γπ (4.41)
E∗
Therefore, the total energy term will be
53
Chapter 4. Fouling phenomena
31 2
F1 − F0 2
9 5 1
UT =UE + UM + US = F1 3 −
250RE ∗ 2
2 1 1
48E ∗ 3 R 3 F1 3
13 " 2 16 # 2
1 3F1 3 1 F1 − F0 3RF! 3
− F0 − − γπ (4.42)
RE ∗ 2
1
4 6 F1 3 E∗
The JKR model is disregarding the energy of the noncontact adhesion forces acting
within the ring-shaped zone surrounding the contact area [93]. In order to overcome
this problem, it is proposed to calculate interface energy both inside contact surface
and outside it. Therefore, the equations is solved for both zones, separately. The first
step is to precisely calculate the contact margin. DerJaguin considered an elastic sphere
impacting a solid wall (see figure 4.4)
According to Hertz theory the normal pressure all over the contact area is distributed
as a function of normal force, F , contact radius, a, and distance from contact center, ρ.
1
ρ2 2
3F
pz (ρ) = 1− 2 (4.50)
2πa2 a
54
4.8. Introduction to contact mechanics
1 pz ds
dw = (4.51)
E ∗ R0
While R0 is the distance between the point that the force is applied and where the
deformation happens ( 4.4). Therefore, R0 will be
2
R0 = (r̄ − ρ̄)2 + z 2 = r2 − 2rρ cos φ + ρ2 + z 2 (4.52)
Integrating the deformation over the contact surface we will have
12
ρ2
1
Z
pz (ρ) 3F
Z aZ 2π 1− a2
δ(R0 ) = ds = ρdpdφ (4.53)
E∗ S R 0 2πE ∗ a2 0 0 R0
For the points inside the contact area, z = 0. Then, we obtain
1
a π
(a2 − ρ2 ) 2
Z Z
3F
δ= 1 ρdpdφ (4.54)
πE ∗ a3 0 0 ρ2 + (r2 − 2rρ cos φ) 2
hence, calculating the deformation of the origin at (r = z = 0), it will be the same
as the equation 4.35.
At contact edge r = a
3F
δ= (4.55)
8E ∗ a
Applying some simple mathematical techniques, for the outer points
a2
3F 2
1
2 2 2 2
δ= 2a r − a + 2a − r arccos 1 − 2 2 (4.56)
8E ∗ a3 r
If we define the local deformation as α, according to figure 4.4 we will have
55
Chapter 4. Fouling phenomena
z = z0 + δ − α (4.57)
While we can simply show that at non-contact area
r2
z0 = (4.58)
2R
At the contact edge (z = 0)
a2
z0 = (4.59)
2R
Substituting equations 4.55 and 4.37 into equation 4.57 we obtain
a2 3F 3F
+ ∗
−+ ∗ =0 (4.60)
2R 4E a 8E a
Which resembles equation 4.24.
Considering this value for a the equation 4.56 will be simplified as
a2
1 2
1
2 2 2 2
δ= 2a r − a + 2a − r arccos 1 − 2 2 (4.61)
2πR r
This equation introduces an extra term in energy balance for solid contact phenom-
ena. In other words, the surface energy contains two separate internal and external
terms. In general, the surface energy can be calculated as integration of specific inter-
action energy over the surface.
Z ∞
WS = φ(H)2πrdr (4.62)
0
While H is the distance between surfaces. At contact zone, H = 0. Therefore,
specific interaction energy is constant
Z a
0
WS = φ()2πrdr = πa2 φ() = πδRφ() (4.63)
0
For non-contacting zone, looking at equations 4.57 and 4.61
" 1 #
2 2 2
1 1 (r − a )
a r2 − a2 2 + r2 − 2a2 arccos
H=z= + (4.64)
πR a
Defining x2 = r2 − a2 we have
Z ∞
00
W = 2π φ [H(x, a)] xdx (4.65)
0
and
1 h x i
ax + x2 − a2 arctan
H(x, δ) = + (4.66)
πR a
Thus, the force will be
56
4.8. Introduction to contact mechanics
dWS dW 0 S dW 00 S dW 00 S
FS = = + = πRφ() + (4.67)
dδ dδ dδ dδ
With respect to equation 4.65
∞
W 00
Z
dH(x, δ)
= 2π φ0 [H(x, δ)] xdx (4.68)
dδ 0 dδ
Assuming the contact area is very small, from equation 4.66 we will have
dH 1
|δ−→0 = − (4.69)
dδ 2
and
x2
H|δ−→0 = − + (4.70)
2R
Hence
Comparing equation 4.49 and 4.73, the two theories seem to be contradictory.
Tabor [94] indicated that this difference belongs to different assumptions in the models,
which affect the value of the surface energy. His experiments revealed that JKR model
is more compatible with the experiments for wide range of non-dimensional parameter
µ.
31
Rγ 2
µ= (4.74)
E ∗ 2 z0 3
When µ is close to unity the DMT theory seems more reliable [94].
Additional models
taking into account the effect of roughness, static and sliding friction, led to develop
more sophisticated models such as extended Johnson model [96], Greenwood and
Williamson (GW) model [97].
57
Chapter 4. Fouling phenomena
58
CHAPTER 5
Deposition Numerical modeling
5.1 Introduction
In this chapter the developed model of particle deposition and related applied equations
are introduced. Then, the model is evaluated with experimental data and is applied to a
compressor case. Also, the Eulerian-Lagrangian scheme is also applied and discussed.
It is necessary to clear out that for the cases studied in this chapter, the effect of de-
position film on the deformation of boundary is completely neglected for various rea-
sons. Firstly, for applying the mesh motion solution the wall patch cell faces should
be triangular. This will increase the number of cells inside the geometry significantly.
Secondly, the control over non-orthogonality would be more critical. Finally and more
importantly, as the solution is applied for few seconds or even less than one second,
the effect of mesh deformation on the aerodynamics of the surfaces are completely
negligible.
59
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling
The key point in this theory and definition of granular temperature is to evaluate
how much the particle motion is dominated by the collision phenomena. Therefore, it
can be useful to define solid phase stress tensors as a contribution between the kinetic
of the particles inside the flow and particle-particle collision.
According to this definition, the generation of granular energy and the dissipation rate
transport equation can be also derived as a function of granular temperature. To extract
the particle flow properties such as solid pressure and viscosity as a function of Θ
several other models have been developed [59, 102].
5.2.1 pressure
The particle-particle collision is applying dynamic force to the system. The term of
solid pressure is defined as the effect of normal derivative of these collision forces.
Therefore, it is also expressed as a function of granular temperature
5.2.2 viscosity
The viscosity of solid phase is defined as a shear resistance of particles against change
in motion. The expression used in this research study presented by Gidaspow [59]
Θ 1√ 1√ 10 √
r
4 2 ρ p dp
µp = ρp γp dp g0 (1+e) + Θπρp γp 2 dp g0 (1+e)+ Θπρp γp dp + Θπ
5 π 15 6 96 (1 + e)g0
(5.4)
5.2.3 conductivity
The effects of particles are also significant in energy transfer. For energy transfer also
both kinetic and collision contributions are playing important roles regarding to the par-
ticle density. The conductivity expression calculated by Gidaspow [59] is as following
60
5.3. Eulerian-Lagrangian approach
√
√ 9√ 2 15 √
2
2γp g0 (1 + e) 25 π
kp = ρp dp Θ √ + πγp g0 (1 + e) + πγp +
π 16 16 64 (1 + e)g0
(5.5)
The amount of granular energy is associated with the oscillation of the velocity and
should balance the governing equations of each phase (continuity, momentum equa-
tions and energy equation). Hence, a transport equation can be introduced as 5.6 to
describe the balance between the rate of change in the granular energy, the rate of gen-
eration due to stress tensor and heat transfer, and the rate of dissipation according to
particle-particle collision and phase relative velocity.
3 ∂
(γp ρp Θ) + ∇. (γp ρp ΘUp ) = −∇pp I¯ + τ¯p : ∇Up − ∇. (kp ∇Θ) − Γp − Jp
2 ∂t
(5.6)
The first term in the right hand side of the equation depicts the kinetic granular
energy generation in the particulate phase regarding to the introduced forces, while
the terms Γp and Jp are representing collision and interaction dissipation rates in the
granular energy, respectively.
In order to solve the transport equation and calculate the granular temperature, it is
mandatory to have an estimation about two latter terms. For low gradients of phase
change Lun [100] proposed
γp 2 ρp g0 3
Γp = 12 1 − e2 √ Θ2 (5.7)
dp π
While interaction dissipation term mainly is affected by the drug coefficient, CD
[104]
!
2
CD dp Urel
Jp = CD 3Θ − √ (5.8)
4γp ρp πΘ
61
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling
An additional source term is also added to the momentum equation, as can be seen in
equation 5.10
∂ρUi ∂Ui Uj ∂p τij
+ =− − + SM (5.10)
∂t ∂xj ∂xi ∂xi
SM is the momentum exchange between the phases and is completely described in
previous chapters.
3 ρ
SM = α C fp Ūr Ūr
4 p Dd
+ αp Cl ρf Ūr × ∇ × Ūf +
DŪf DŪp
ρ (5.12)
αp Cvm ρf Dt
− Dt
− CD 34 dfp Ūr ∇αp
The four terms in the right side of equation 5.12 are drag, lift, virtual mass and Basset
force, respectively. Through this study, the Wen-Yu [106] model is used for calculating
the drag force based on Rowe drag coefficient prediction (equations 5.13 and 5.14).
This relation is valid for low density gas particle flows. The other terms of lift, virtual
mass and Basset force are considered negligible for this study. The drag coefficient is
calculated as
(
24
1 + 0.15(αf Rep,rel )0.687
αf Rep,rel
if αf Rep,rel < 1000
CD = (5.13)
0.44 if αf Rep,rel ≥ 1000
62
5.4. Surface deposition calculation
and
3 αf αp ρf Ūr −2.65
F D = CD αf (5.14)
4 dp
In this equation Rep,rel is defined with the relative velocities.
dp Ūr
Rep,rel = (5.15)
ν
Figure 5.1: Schematic figure of the particle motion in a cell close to the wall
∂δp
= γp ρp Aw (Up .~n) (5.16)
∂t
63
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling
In this equation, Aw is the wall face area and ~n is its normal vector.
Then, the second question is that if all the particles which are meeting the surface will
stick to the surface or not. It is already discussed that there is a marginal velocity for
each specific particle with a specific size to reveal the answer. Considering the equation
4.80 it is observed that if the normal velocity magnitude of the particle will be less than
the critical value, the particle will remain on the surface, and if the value exceeds the
particle will leave bounce back from the surface.
Then, the cell points will be calculated by linear interpolation between the cell cen-
ter new positions (see figure 5.2). To secure the planarity of the face, for the linear
interpolation, the moving face should be triangular.
The deformation in boundary faces through the time will change the structure of the
generated grid, which can cause further mesh quality problems. To avoid the problem,
the deformation is dispersed through the geometry, through a Laplacian motion function
∇.(λUc ) = 0 (5.18)
In this equation, Uc is the rate of motion vector of the points and λ is dispersion coeffi-
cient.
Therefore, the whole internal mesh will be updated gradually and safely as shown
schematically in figure 5.3
64
5.6. Study of deposition in a 90◦ bend
ρp Dp 2 U0
Stk = (5.21)
18µat
Also, the particle Reynolds number will be
Dp U0
Rep = (5.22)
ν
The experiments has been conducted for both laminar and turbulent cases in stainless
steel and glass tubes.
65
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling
Based on experimental data [111] three geometries have been used for this study
which are presented in table 5.1.
Table 5.1: The characteristics of the test geometries [111]
In order to study the grid independence of the solution, three different grids are
constructed for related experimental apparatus. The specifications of grids for Re =
1000 are introduced in table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Specifications of the cases for grid independence study
comparing the flow fields, it seems that the coarse mesh, with about 100k cells
can completely satisfy the grid independence restriction. In figure 5.5 the profiles of
velocity at 45◦ and 90◦ are illustrated over A-A line (see also figure 5.6)
As it is shown in figure 5.5 the velocity profile inside the bend is slightly different
for the very coarse case, while two other cases are almost identical. The same trend is
achieved for efficiency of deposition, as stated in table 5.2.
66
5.7. Results and discussion
(a) (b)
Figure 5.5: The comparison of the velocity profile for three different mesh refinements for glass pipe at
Re = 1000 at (a) 45◦ and (b) 90◦
Figure 5.6: the configuration of 90◦ elbow and cutting planes at 45◦ and 90◦
both cases at inlet patch. In order to compare the results with previous works and
analytical models, the surface roughness of the pipes is neglected for both stainless
steel and glass tubes. To study of the turbulence case, Re = 6000 is considered. In
order to predict the turbulent velocity profile at entrance of the bend, an extension inlet
pipe is considered to capture the boundary layer development physically.
67
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling
(a) (b)
Figure 5.7: The comparison of the velocity profile with the results of Pilou [113] and Tsai [112] at
Re = 1000:(a) over B-B line at 0◦ , 45◦ and 90◦ (b) over A-A line at the same angles
In laminar flow test case, a big vortex appears upstream of the bend zone and causes
a significant velocity gradient inside it; However, when Reynolds number is higher (at
Re = 6000) the vortex is stretched out to the down stream and does not affect the flow
pattern inside the bend, as depicted in figure 5.9. Obviously, the former will cause
stronger secondary flow at bend which influences on the concentration of the particles
near the wall.
Also, looking into the concentration profile at low Stokes number illustrates and
approves these differences (see figure 5.10).
To deeply investigate the phenomena, secondary flow patterns are depicted in figure
5.11 for different projectile surfaces. Such behavior can play a game changing role in
particle deposition process and make it more complex than it normally is.
68
5.7. Results and discussion
(b)
(a)
(c) (d)
Figure 5.8: Flow pattern: (a) at 45◦ , Re = 1000 (b) at 90◦ , Re = 1000 (c) at 45◦ , Re = 6000 (d) at
90◦ , Re = 6000
69
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling
(a) (b)
Figure 5.9: Flow streamlines inside the bend for (a) Re = 1000 (b) Re = 6000
Figure 5.10: Particle concentration profile near the bend wall for (a) Re = 1000 (b) Re = 6000 at
Stk = 0.33
As stated before, there is a slight difference between the results of two geometries
even with the same test conditions. The difference can be seen in both model and ex-
periment. This various behavior can be described through the effect of particle/surface
interaction.
Normally, there are two major parameters affecting particle/wall interaction. The first
one is surface roughness (or smoothness). This factor can serve various roles. Not
only surface roughness can change the particle impact probability [114], but also they
can affect behavior of the boundary layer [115]. In this case, according to the litera-
ture [114, 116], the effect of surface roughness can be moderate or even negligible.
The other critical parameter is the particle/surface adhesion force, which can be com-
pletely different for stainless steel and glass. The adhesion energy can significantly
change the sickness mechanism.
The results of deposition efficiency from this model within an Eulerian-Eulerian ap-
proach is compared with the experimental results and available analytical and Eulerian-
Lagrangian models. The results show that the model can predict the deposition effi-
70
5.7. Results and discussion
(b)
(a)
(c)
(d)
Figure 5.11: Secondary flow pattern: (a) at 45◦ , Re = 1000 (b) at 90◦ , Re = 1000 (c) at 45◦ ,
Re = 6000 (d) at 90◦ , Re = 6000
71
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling
(a) (b)
Figure 5.12: Particle deposition pattern near the bend wall for (a) Re = 1000 (b) Re = 6000
(a) (b)
Figure 5.13: Comparison of deposition efficiency results for (a) glass and (b) stainless steel test cases
at Re = 1000
is used. The grid is described and the performance results are validated in previous
chapters.
To do so, both Eulerian-Eulerian and Eulerian-Lagrangian schemes are considered.
However, as described before, various modifications are applied to the solvers to achieve
more physical results.
The Eulerian-Eulerian approach is used in this section. Applying dynamic mesh with
a sophisticated geometry of compressor to a multiphase solver encountering particle
wall interaction is an extremely costly computational problem. Therefore, only the few
milliseconds of operation is calculated to study the mechanism of deposition.
The particles are considered one micron uniform spheres. The selected material is alu-
minum oxide which has a specific surface energy almost similar to the dust aerosols in
the atmosphere. the entrance particle concentration is assumed to be identical to the lo-
cal mean flow velocity. In order to reduce the computational process, the concentration
is assumed to be 0.001 which can satisfy the dilute flow (one-way coupling) assump-
tion.
72
5.7. Results and discussion
Figure 5.14: Comparison of the results with experiment and other models at Re = 1000
In reality concentration of the particle phase is dominated by the high inertia of the
moving impeller blades and magnified by the secondary flows between impeller blades
which can be observed in figure 5.17).
Going into detail of various plane cuts in figure 5.17, there are spots with huge particle
concentration close to the hub of the blades at pressure side. The particles are trapped
in these areas due to very high rotational speed of the blades and concave blade shapes.
Of course, these effects highly depends on the particle Stokes number.
The particle deposition is also affected by main and secondary flows, as also studied
for the bend case study. Needless to say, at the leading edge of the impeller blades
there is a big possibility for particle deposition, since they will be faced to sudden huge
gradient which is depicted in figure 5.18.
Then, according to the higher concentration of discrete phase in the pressure side of
the blade, thanks to the high curvature of the impeller base and the effect of secondary
flows, particles are trapped and stick in the high curvatures near the hub of the blades,
73
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling
Figure 5.16: The profiles of the particle concentration around he impeller at different axial planes
The chronological study of particle deposition reveals that the amount of particles
stuck to the surface of stationary part (mostly after the impeller) not only is not negli-
gible but also even more than the rotating part (figure 5.19). This observation, with no
doubt, strongly depends on the Stokes number and the critical velocity of the particles,
which is defined in equation 4.15.
The strange behavior which can be seen in the figure is that the rate of deposition
over the stationary part is much higher than the rotating part. The first reason can be
huge velocity gradient between the already accelerated particles when they confront the
volute walls. The second reason is due to very complex geometry of volute which can
tremendously affect the deposition mechanism.
The Eulerian-Lagrangian approach is also used to investigate the behavior of solid par-
ticles inside the turbocharger compressor. However, there are big challenges to achieve
this purpose. The compatibility of the Lagrangian dispersed phase with the dynamic
mesh, the tolerance in the position of arbitrary mesh interfaces and the dislocation of
the curved geometries to the linear edges are some of the faced problems. Such chal-
lenges make the approach even more complex than it is. Also, the size of the particles
cause another restriction in cell refinement process. The first assumption in the most of
the Lagrangian solutions is to assume that all the dimensions of each computational cell
74
5.7. Results and discussion
Figure 5.17: The profiles of the particle concentration around he impeller at different planes perpendic-
ular to the main flow stream
is much greater than the size of the particle. However, it is a matter of consideration in
the complex turbomachine geometries especially near the sharp edges.
To study this case, the uniform source of particles is considered that are entering the
turbocharger with a uniform normal velocity vector. Since, the Stokes number of the
particles are very small, then, we can assume that the particles will adapt to the flow
before they meet the impeller.
In figure 5.20 the deposited particles sticking to the surface are shown.
As it can be seen in this figure, the a significant amount of particles are sticked to
the leading edges and near the curvatures mostly at the pressure side.
As also shown in Eulerian-Lagrangian results due to the huge amount of particles
trapped through the concaveness of rotating blades’ pressure side and thanks to sec-
ondary flow, also particles are sticking to the blade hub and impeller plate.
However, the most important portion is deposited over the volute curved walls. This
dense deposition reveals a unique fouling behavior of centrifugal compressors, since
in similar cases like axial turbomachines deposition mostly happens on rotating blades
[118, 119].
75
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling
Figure 5.18: Deposition rate of particles over the impeller surface (Eulerian-Eulerian scheme)
8E-13
7E-13
6E-13
total deposition mass [cub.m/sec]
5E-13
4E-13
impeller
fixed walls
3E-13
total
2E-13
1E-13
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
-1E-13
time [sec]
Figure 5.19: Deposition rate of particles over the impeller surface (Total deposition mass formation
calculated with Eulerian-Eulerian scheme)
76
5.7. Results and discussion
Figure 5.20: Deposition rate of particles over the impeller surface (Eulerian-Lagrangian scheme)
77
CHAPTER 6
Introduction to 1D-3D coupling model of
turbocharger compressor
6.1 Introduction
79
Chapter 6. Introduction to 1D-3D coupling model of turbocharger compressor
80
6.3. Introduction to engine/turbocharger hybrid solution
would be to study the effect of unsteady behavior of IC engine on the behavior of com-
pressor near the surge zone (see also [128, 129]) and could be a separate work of PhD
research.
U (x, 0) = U0 (x)
81
Chapter 6. Introduction to 1D-3D coupling model of turbocharger compressor
SL SR
Uhll
UL UR
SL S* SR
Uhllc,R Uhllc,R
UL UR
UL , xt ≤ SL
Uhllc,L , SL ≤ x
≤ S∗
t
Ū (x, t) = (6.3)
Uhllc,R , S ∗ ≤ x
t
≤ SR
UR , x ≥ SR
t
82
6.4. The compressor case study
Figure 6.3: Exploded view of the turbocharger (courtesy of ICEG University of Genoa)
83
Chapter 6. Introduction to 1D-3D coupling model of turbocharger compressor
Figure 6.4: Impeller of the compressor with details (courtesy of ICEG University of Genoa)
84
6.4. The compressor case study
Again the number of grid cells are minimized to provide a fast reliable case for the
final complex solution approach. Because of very high As stated before, to simplify
the dynamic behavior of the rotating compressor to a steady-state problem, a Multi
Reference Frame approach is assumed. However, with such approach some transient
phenomena (such as blade to blade pressure oscillation) are ignored. To do so, the gen-
erated 3D geometry is separated into two stationary and rotating zones as depicted in
figure 6.7.
85
Chapter 6. Introduction to 1D-3D coupling model of turbocharger compressor
It is stated before that MRF approach is freezing the dynamic geometry. This sim-
plification can have undesirable minor effects on the solution of physically unsteady
problems such as flow properties inside a centrifugal compressor. Not only the oscil-
lating impact of the impeller blades, but also, the non-symmetric shape of the passage
can significantly affect the flow streamlines. Therefore, in order to decrease the effect
of this chaotic assumption on the solution, the rotating part is constrained far from inlet
and outlet patches, where the physical boundary conditions are applied.
Figure 6.7: compressor zones in MRF approach: rotating part is red and stationary parts are gray
86
6.4. The compressor case study
Solution settings
The experiments are performed at four rotational speeds. Various mass flow rates be-
tween surge zone and choking criteria have been experimentally studied. Table 6.3
shows the experimental setting values of the test points.
No. Corr. N [krpm] Corr. flow [kg/sec] No. Corr. N [krpm] Corr. flow [kg/sec]
1 58889 0.035 18 117984 0.053
2 59094 0.031 19 117978 0.043
3 59052 0.027 20 117775 0.032
4 59181 0.022 21 117917 0.022
5 59001 0.018 22 162017 0.114
6 58933 0.013 23 161840 0.101
7 58992 0.009 24 161943 0.088
8 88951 0.062 25 161932 0.076
9 88986 0.054 26 161711 0.062
10 89023 0.046 27 162188 0.048
11 89026 0.038 28 161829 0.036
12 88887 0.030 29 206946 0.130
13 88867 0.023 30 206835 0.117
14 89126 0.015 31 207251 0.106
15 117995 0.083 32 207235 0.093
16 118184 0.074 33 207011 0.085
17 117995 0.064
The compressible SIMPLE based steady state solver is also used in this study. The
turbulence model is k −ω −SST which uses k −w model near the wall and k − model
far from the wall, to increase the precision and consistency of the turbulence equations.
Also, fixed total pressure is assumed at compressor inlet, while the mass flow rate is set
at the outlet patch.
The solution is continued for all the operational points to reach the convergence. Then,
the results are verified with the available experimental data. The experimental data is re-
vealed through the performance map. Figure 6.8 depicts the experimental performance
map of the compressor obtained in ICEG lab of University of Genoa.
Five different rotational speeds are considered. The pressure, temperature and flux
at inlet and outlet of the compressor is measured. Then, the non-dimensional charac-
teristics are calculated.
For the model, the same operating points are considered. The results of the performance
study are shown in figure 6.9.
Comparing the experimental data and the modeling results inside the performance
map, it is shown that for the lower rotational speeds and low mass flow rates there is
almost a perfect matching. However, as the velocity magnitude inside the domain in-
creases, the model can not capture the physical measured value, although the trend is
the same.
87
Chapter 6. Introduction to 1D-3D coupling model of turbocharger compressor
Figure 6.8: Experimental performance map of IHI-RHF3 compressor (courtesy of ICEG University of
Genoa)
3.000
2.500
60K-exp
60K-model
2.000 90K-exp
90K-model
Pressure ratio
120K-exp
1.500 120K-model
160K-exp
160K-model
207K-exp
1.000
207K-model
0.500
0.000
0.000 0.020 0.040 0.060 0.080 0.100 0.120 0.140
Corrected mass [kg/sec]
Figure 6.9: The comparison of performance resulted from model and experimental data
It was noted before that as rotational speed and mass flow rate increase, transonic
regime will be more dominant inside the compressor. Therefore, density change will
88
6.4. The compressor case study
have significant effects on the fluid flow. In such cases, the precision of the pressure
based solver are reduced.
Comparing the results with the experimental data a deviation in the pressure ratio can
be seen, as it is also observed in the first compressor case (see figure 3.6). To figure out
the reason, the range of gas velocity is surveyed. Table 6.4 shows the values of Mach
number for different rotational speeds.
Table 6.4: Maximum calculated local Mach number for the operational area of the compressor
From the data given in table 6.4 it is shown that almost all the operational region
with high rotational speed are in transonic zone. It can clear out why the results of
these areas have a significant deviation from the experimental data.
Also in figure 6.10 a set of pressure, velocity and temperature sample profiles are
shown.
As it is expected, the maximum value of the flow velocity is observed at the end
of rotating part, while the volute has the duty to transform this huge amount of kinetic
89
Chapter 6. Introduction to 1D-3D coupling model of turbocharger compressor
Figure 6.10: Field profile distribution resulted with static mesh and transient solver using MRF approach
(60krpm and 0.027kg/sec)
90
CHAPTER 7
Conclusion and Summary
7.1 Introduction
Application of turbochargers in internal combustion engine systems is a wide spread
technology, helping to achieve the downsizing of the engine. Using small turbocharg-
ers in passenger cars has brought new opportunities in optimization of the power trains.
However, it can cause some new challenges in this field of science and technology.
Through this thesis various aspects of study in the internal combustion engine tur-
bochargers have been investigated using computational fluid dynamic containing: per-
formance study, fouling phenomena and engine/turbocharger interaction.
In the first section of the research a steady-state model has been developed and opti-
mized in OpenFOAM platform to study the performance of the turbocharger compres-
sors.
The results correlate satisfactorily with the experimental data in most of the operational
region. However, when the flow reaches close to transonic velocities, a significant de-
viation appears. For this reason, a modified solver is used which could improve the
results.
However, there is a penalty of convergence problem and the costly computational pro-
cess. Also, the generated grid is optimized to achieve the best results with a faster
solution.
Various boundary conditions are applied to the steady state solution. it is shown that
each physical boundary condition can significantly influence on the stability and con-
vergence speed of the solution.
The other problem in steady state modeling of centrifugal compressor is that as the ef-
fect of compressibility increases, the pressure based solutions are less reliable. In the
case of small turbocharger compressors, high mass flow rates and high rotational speeds
are leading the flow into transonic situation. Although, a correction modification is ap-
91
Chapter 7. Conclusion and Summary
plied to the solution to add the effect of density change on the flow field solutions, it
reduces the stability of the SIMPLE based solvers and increasing the convergence time.
Therefore, even with decreasing the grid size maybe density based solvers can be con-
sidered. However, the complexity and stability issues of such solvers, especially for the
complex geometries are a major problem.
The case of complexity is become more critical when an additional behavior or phe-
nomena such as compressor fouling is also studied.
Fouling in turbocharger compressors can significantly affect the system performance.
Therefore, gaining a precise knowledge about the mechanisms of particle deposition in
turbomachines is extremely valuable.
Through this project an Eulerian-Eulerian solver has been developed to predict the de-
position of the solid particles. the solver is based on the two-fluid strategy. On this
way, the dispersed phase (particles) is defined as a secondary continuum fluid, using
kinematic theory of granular flows.
Navier-Stokes equations are solved separately for each phase, taking into account the
phase interaction. Such sophisticated strategy has the advantage of satisfying stability.
Also, it is generic according to the number and concentration of solid particles. How-
ever, in Eulerian-Lagrangian approaches, the number and concentration of particles is
highly critical.
The results of Eulerian-Eulerian solver inside a bend point out that the particle deposi-
tion is highly sensitive to the velocity of the flow and the particle/wall interaction during
the contact. Most of the researches both in Eulerian-Eulerian and Eulerian-Lagrangian
approaches are focusing on the dynamics of the flow, particle-particle impact and parti-
cle flow interaction. In this situation, the Stokes number is the main parameter affecting
the deposition of particles over the surface. However, through this research it is shown
that impact velocity and particle-surface interaction forces might have also critical roles
in the procedure of deposition.
Also, the results show that for geometries like a centrifugal compressor with curved
boundaries, the secondary flows also have important role in this process.
Although, the particles were very small the deposition spots are mostly seen in the lo-
cations, where the flow meets curve geometries. The other interesting conclusion is the
effect of secondary flows, as it can be seen near the hub of the blades and also the wheel
surface near them.
The most important advantage of applying the model on the centrifugal compressor is
that unlike axial turbomachines, most of deposition is happening over the walls of sta-
tionary part. This fact reveals that the mechanism of fouling centrifugal compressors
are completely different from the axial ones. It can be also a critical problem for the
manifolds and connections in the specific applications such as small turbochargers.
Small turbochargers have also other critical issues to take care of. One of the most
important topics of study in the turbocharger field is matching problem. The classical
matching deals with fitting the operational performance lines of the engine over the
highest performance zones of the turbocharger compressor.
However, with the popularity of applying turbochargers for normal passenger cars, new
objectives for the matching study id appeared. Since, normally the range of work for
turbocharger component (specifically the compressor part) is not well cover the range
of work of engine, therefore, study of marginal operational zones are considered in-
92
7.2. main conclusions and suggestion for the future work
teresting topics to research. The interaction between engine and turbocharger at these
zones bring about both new challenges and new opportunities. However, modeling the
combination of engine and turbocharger numerically will be extremely costly.
Through this project an available coupling 1D-3D solver is presented and modified to
cover the dynamic behavior of the engine (through 1D Gasdyn code) as well as turbo-
harger compressor transient operation (through 3D OpenFOAM).
A compressor case has been studied and evaluated for this purpose. The results show
that the compressor is working mostly near the transonic area. Therefore, the pressure-
based solvers are not completely reliable and the development of a density-based effi-
cient solver can be a major task for the future work.
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