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P OLITECNICO DI M ILANO

D EPARTMENT OF E NERGY
D OCTORAL P ROGRAMME I N
E NERGY A ND N UCLEAR S CIENCE A ND T ECHNOLOGY

CFD A PPLICATION T O T URBOCHARGERS O F I NTERNAL


C OMBUSTION E NGINES

Doctoral Dissertation of:


Keyvan Shaabani Lakeh

Supervisor:
Prof. Gianluca Montenegro
Tutor:
Prof. Angelo Onorati
The Chair of the Doctoral Program:
Prof. Carlo Bottani

2017 – 29
Acknowledgements

.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to:
my supervisor Dr. Gianluca Montenegro, for his constant professional and human
support and for all the things he taught me in these last three years;
my tutor Prof. Angelo Onorati, for his precious guidance, continuous interest and
valuable suggestions;
my advisor Dr. Augusto Della Torre, for his valuable contribution and great advises;
Finally, I would like to thank all the people in the Internal Combustion Engine
Group. It has been a real pleasure to work with them in these years.

I
Abstract

D OWNSIZING the internal combustion engines has been a major topic of study,
recently. Among different techniques and technologies introduced through the
time, using turbochargers is considered quite a demanding strategy. However,
various consideration about the application of turbocharger and matching of the system
have to be investigated.
Nowadays, numerical modeling of turbochargers is a popular tool to provide a pre-
cise and useful study criteria to investigate the performance and dynamic phenomena
inside a system of engine/turbocharger.
Through this research various characteristics and aspects of turbocharger has been
studied numerically. Needless to say that the current project is an introduction to vari-
ous applications of CFD in turbocharger study.
The first part of the project is about the study of turbocharger compressors in steady-
state operational condition. A pressure-based CFD solver in OpenFOAM platform has
been progressed and used. In the second part of the research, fouling phenomena and
deposition mechanism has been studied. A predictive CFD model has been proposed
and evaluated. Finally, in the third part of the research, a 1D-3D coupling solver has
been modified and used to study the interference between engine and turbocharger as
well as collateral effects which could be a possible topic for future work.

III
Contents

1 Turbocharging internal combustion engines 3


1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Supercharging and turbocharging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Compressor and turbine efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 Compressor efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 Turbine efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Non-dimensional characterizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Project Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 An introduction to numerical modelling of turbomachines 11


2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Governing equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.1 Continuity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.2 Momentum equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.3 Conservation of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.4 Other equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Turbomachine modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.1 Experimental study of turbomachines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.2 Analytical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.3 Numerical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3 Compressor performance modeling 19


3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Mesh generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3 Steady-state solvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3.1 Theory of SIMPLE solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3.2 turbulence phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.4 Case solution settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4.1 boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4.2 Steady-state model results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4.3 Mesh optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

V
Contents

3.4.4 High-speed flow problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36


3.5 Transient solvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.5.1 Static grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.5.2 Dynamic grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4 Fouling phenomena 43
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.2 Deposition models for turbomachines - A state of the art . . . . . . . . 43
4.3 Multiphase flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.4 Governing equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.4.1 Equations of species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.4.2 Equations of momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.5 Turbulence problem in multiphase flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.6 multiphase flow Boundary problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.7 Particle deposition theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.7.1 Sedimentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.7.2 Interception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.7.3 Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.7.4 Inertial impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.8 Introduction to contact mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.8.1 Hertz theory of contacting elastic solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.8.2 Non-Hertzian elastic models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.9 particle surface interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

5 Deposition Numerical modeling 59


5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2 Eulerian-Eulerian approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2.1 pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.2.2 viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.2.3 conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.3 Eulerian-Lagrangian approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.3.1 Governing equations in continuous phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.3.2 Governing equations in discrete phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.4 Surface deposition calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.5 Deposition-adaptive mesh deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.6 Study of deposition in a 90◦ bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.6.1 definitions and basic relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.6.2 Grid generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.6.3 solution settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.7 Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.7.1 Deposition in centrifugal compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

6 Introduction to 1D-3D coupling model of turbocharger compressor 79


6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.2 Study of turbocharger compressor behavior in unsteady situation: a state
of the art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.2.1 Compressor stall and surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

VI
Contents

6.3 Introduction to engine/turbocharger hybrid solution . . . . . . . . . . . 80


6.3.1 1D-3D coupling solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.3.2 The effect of engine unsteady behavior on compressor performance 83
6.4 The compressor case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.4.1 Geometry and mesh generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.4.2 Steady-state performance study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.5 Future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7 Conclusion and Summary 91
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7.2 main conclusions and suggestion for the future work . . . . . . . . . . 93

Bibliography 95

VII
Nomenclature

kg
ρ0 Bulk initial density of the fluid [ m 3]

2
Θ Granular temerature [ ms2 ]
Cl Lift coefficient
Cvm Virtual mass coefficient
Dp Particle Diameter [m]
e coefficient of restitution
FD Drag force [N]
g0 Acceleration of gravity [ sm2 ]
l0 Characteristic length scale [m]
U0 Bulk initial velocity of the fluid [ ms ]
Urel Particle-fluid relative velocity [ ms ]
Vp Particle volume [m3 ]
α volume fraction
τ̄¯ Flow stress tensor [P a]
δ Approach distance [m]
γ heat capacity ratio
W
κ Thermal conductivity [ m.K ]
µ Dynamic viscosity [Pa.s]
2
ν Kinematic viscosity [ ms ]
kg
ρ Density [ m3]

IX
Contents

A Nominal diameter [m]


A Surface area [m2 ]
CD Drag coefficient
J
Cp Constant pressure heat capacity [ kg.K ]

H Enthalpy [m3 ]
J
h Specific enthalpy [ kg ]
L Equilibrium molecular Distance [m]
l Geometry length scale [m]
M Mach number
m Mass [kg]
N Rotational speed [ rad
s
]
p Pressure [Pa]
Q Heat transfer [J]
J
R Gas constant [ kg.K ]
T Temperature [K]
t Time [s]
U Gas absolute velocity [ ms ]
U+ Dimensionless velocity ratio
Urot Blade linear speed [ ms ]
V Volume [m3 ]
W Work done [J]
Y+ Dimensionless wall distance
Co Courant number
2
K Boltzmann constant [ msKkg ]
X Distance [m]

1
CHAPTER 1
Turbocharging internal combustion engines

1.1 Introduction
The history of turbocharger is as old as the beginning of internal combustion engine
creation. In the end of 19th century just after the creation of first automobiles Alfred
Buchi proposed the first idea of the turbocharger to boost up the engine power output.
Although according to some technical problems the practical use of turbochargers post-
poned to the early 1900s, when General Electric used turbochargers in aviation engines.
Initially practical application of turbochargers were limited to marine industry and
avionics . By the mid of 1950s automobile industry started to use turbochargers for
diesel engines.
Nowadays, turbochargers are widespread in automobile industry, used for all diesel or
spark ignition engines, as well as in industrial and marine applications of internal com-
bustion engines.
The main advantage of turbochargers are downsizing the engine and reducing specific
fuel consumption.

1.2 Supercharging and turbocharging


Supercharging is the introduction of air into an engine cylinder at a density greater than
ambient [1]. The higher pressure of air allows an increase in the charging fuel amount,
leading to higher output power generation in a certain volume.
Providing air in a higher density requires some additional work, which can be a dis-
advantage in efficiency of the system. If the required energy will be recovered from
the engine hot exhaust gas via a turbine, the system is called a turbocharger. Usually,
the restored energy generated by the turbine, will be transmitted to the compressor part

3
Chapter 1. Turbocharging internal combustion engines

through a common shaft.


In order to study the effect of turbocharging, it is necessary to investigate the thermo-
dynamics of IC engine working process. Figure 1.1 shows P-V diagram of a four stroke
Internal Combustion engine in Detail.

Figure 1.1: Typical P-V diagram of an IC engine

As indicated in figure 1.1 inside a four stroke IC engine as piston moves from BDC
toward TDC, the existing gas (fuel-air mixture for Spark Ignition and air for Compres-
sion Ignition engines ) is compressed. Usually, the ignition starts before reaching TDC.
After reaching TDC the expansion process start. During this phase, the driving power
is generated. After next BDC (point 3 in figure 1.1), the exhaust valve opens to push
out the burned gas out of the cylinder. Finally, just before point 4 the intake opens and
the unburned mixture is sucked to the cylinder.
The net work in a cycle will be

Wnet = Wcomp + Wexp + Wexh + Wsuc (1.1)


As described Wcomp and Wexh have negative values while the other two terms are
positive.
Z 2
Wcomp = pdV
1
Z 3
Wexp = pdV + ∆Hcomb
2
Z 4
Wexh = pdV
3
Z 1
Wcomp = pdV
4

4
1.3. Compressor and turbine efficiency

Turbocharging the engine will shift the whole processes to a higher pressures. If be-
cause of restriction in design and materials, the maximum available pressure of the cy-
cle remains unchanged, it is called constant pressure turbocharging. Normally, adding
turbochargers increase the maximum pressure of the cylinder. Additional to thermo-
dynamic efficiency increase, this will potentially improve the ability of downsizing the
engine thanks to increase in expansion work due to higher density of fuel and air enter-
ing in the cylinder.
Normally, a turbucharger system consists of a compressor and a turbine, which are con-
nected by a single shaft. The compressor usually is a single stage centrifugal model,
while both the axial and radial turbines are widespread.
The most critical point in designing a turbocharger as well as in matching process is that
turbocharger compressors are mostly unable to operate in the wide operational range
of an IC engine.Therefore, using multistage compressors or variable geometry type are
introduced to cover this weakness.
The other recent choice is electrically driven supercharger. In this model the compres-
sor is driven by an electromotor, which is powered by battery or other electric source.

1.3 Compressor and turbine efficiency


Deriving the first law of thermodynamics shows the work output of the compressor and
turbine in a turbocharger. Ignoring potential source of energy such as gravity, we will
have

Q̇ − Ẇ = ṁ(h02 − h01 ) (1.2)


While Q̇ is the rate of heat transfer, Ẇ is the power output and h0 is the specific
stagnation enthalpy for inlet and outlet.
Heat transfer in turbocharger compressor has been investigated in several studies. It is
experimentally approved that the change in heat transfer of the compressor body via
cooling techniques will not affect the provided pressure rise [2]. It is shown that the
rate of heat transfer is highly depends on the turbine inlet temperature in automotive
turbochargers [3]. Baines [4] experimentally compared the ratio of heat transfer directly
from mechanical body of the compressors, ports, etc with the amount of heat convected
by hot outlet gas flow. The results show one order of magnitude difference (see figure
1.2).
Therefore, since the rate of heat transfer to the environmental atmosphere is quite small
in comparison with other terms, to calculate the isentropic efficiency, it is neglected and
we will have

− Ẇ = ṁ(h02 − h01 ) (1.3)


Assuming perfect gas condition for both inlet air and exhaust gas situation, we ob-
tain

− Ẇ = ṁCp (T02 − T01 ) (1.4)

5
Chapter 1. Turbocharging internal combustion engines

Figure 1.2: Heat transfers for a sample turbocharger compressor, as functions of turbine inlet tempera-
ture and external ventilation [4]

1.3.1 Compressor efficiency


The total to total isentropic efficiency of a compressor is defined as (figure 1.3)

T02s − T01
ηc T T = (1.5)
T02 − T01

P02
P2
h
02
02s

2
2s

P01

P1
01

Figure 1.3: h-s diagram for a compressor [1]

In the case of multistage compressor the polytropic efficiency is defined as integra-


tion of the efficiency over the whole compressor. The single efficiency elements are

6
1.4. Non-dimensional characterizing

called small stage efficiency. For compression process small stage efficiency is defined
as
dTs
ηcp = (1.6)
dT
For infinitesimal stage, isentropic process assumption is still valid. Therefore
 
T γ−1
dTs = dp (1.7)
p γ
Hence, from equation 1.6 we have
 
T dp γ−1
ηcp = (1.8)
dT p γ
Integrating equation 1.8 between inlet and outlet of the compressor
γ−1
ln(p2 /p1 )( γ )
ηcp = (1.9)
ln(T2 /T1 )
Applying this equation to equation 1.5, a relation between isentropic and polytropic
energy is concluded.
γ−1
(p02 /p01 )( γ )−1
ηc T T = 
γ−1
 (1.10)
(p02 /p01 ) γηcp
−1

1.3.2 Turbine efficiency


The same approach can be used for turbine section. Since there is no use for kinetic en-
ergy of the gas exiting the turbocharger turbine, the value should be negligible. There-
fore, usually total to static isentropic efficiency is used instead of total to total isentropic
efficiency, as follow

1 − (T04 /T03 )
ηt T S = γ−1 (1.11)
1 − (p /p )( γ )
4 03

Defining polytropic efficiency for a perfect gas


γ
ln(T3 /T4 )( γ−1 )
ηtp = (1.12)
ln(p3 /p4 )

1.4 Non-dimensional characterizing


To study compressors and turbines in a generic way it is helpful to convert the char-
acteristics and operating parameters into non-dimensional equivalent values. This job
enables us to compare different cases and extract common behaviors of the devices.
From continuity equation

ṁ = ρU An (1.13)

7
Chapter 1. Turbocharging internal combustion engines

Assuming ideal gas relations we know


  −1
γ − 1 2 γ−1
ρ = ρ0 1 + M
2
 −1
γ−1 2
T = T0 1 + M
2
p
U = M γRT
Hence,
√   −(γ+1)
p0 A n M γ γ − 1 2 2(γ−1)
ṁ = √ 1+ M (1.14)
RT0 2
At each point we can consider

An = kD2 (1.15)
Where k is the non-dimensional geometry coefficient. By moving all dimensioned
parameters to the left side of the equation we can extract a non-dimensional equivalent
expression for mass flow rate
√   −(γ+1)
ṁ RT0 √ γ − 1 2 2(γ−1)
= kM γ 1 + M (1.16)
p0 D 2 2
Note that the same expression is valid also in relative reference frame coordinates.
Deriving the conservation equation, the same non-dimensional expression for enthalpy
change in turbomachines can be defined. Rewriting the equation 1.4 we have
 
T02
− Ẇ = ṁ∆h0 = ṁCp T0 −1 (1.17)
T01
Therefore
"  γ−1 #
∆h0 γ p02 γ
= −1 (1.18)
RT01 γ−1 p01
Another important design parameter for turbomachines that are working with com-
pressible fluid is stage loading, ψ .

∆h0 2
ψ= (1.19)
Urot
In this equation Urot is the blade linear speed. Stage loading is nonlinear parameter
itself, but it can help us to study the effect of blade speed in the turbomachine. Rear-
ranging equation 1.19 we have

 2 "  γ−1 #
1 ∆h0 RT01 γ p02 γ T01
Urot 2 = DN = = −1 (1.20)
4 RT01 ψ γ−1 p01 ψR

8
1.5. Project Outline

Finally
   γ−1   12
γ p02 γ

 4 γ−1 p01
−1 
ND
√ =  (1.21)
T01  ψ 

For a specific engine since the chemical composition of air and burnt gas are known,
the parameter R is usually neglected. Also, since the geometric property D is constant
for each specific turbomachine and also removed from the performance calculations.
An example of turbocharger compressor performance map is shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: Typical compressor performance map [1]

1.5 Project Outline


The current project consists of three main sections which are related to performance
study, fouling and deposition mechanism and multidimensional study of turbocharg-
er/engine interaction. According to this classification the structure of the thesis can be
introduced as follows:
• Chapter 2 reviews a brief discussion about main theories of turbocharger compu-
tational Fluid dynamic modeling, including the fundamental relations, state of the

9
Chapter 1. Turbocharging internal combustion engines

art and main applied approaches.

• Chapter 3 introduces the case study for the performance prediction of the tur-
bocharger compressor. Then, the generated grid and solution settings are intro-
duced. The results are correlated with the experimental available data. Finally,
the main physical and modeling challenges have been discussed.

• in chapter 4 a theory about the deposition phenomena is proposed. The description


of multiphase flow models, particle surface interaction and physics of deposition
mechanism is described. Various models and theories available in literature are
investigated.
• Chapter 5 includes a review to the equations and relations used and developed
in the modeling. Also, a deposition selection mechanism and a deposition-based
mesh deformation strategy are introduced for both Eulerian-Eulerian and Eulerian-
Lagrangian approaches. The results are evaluated for a well-known case study and
then applied to a compressor case. Also, the Eulerian-Lagrangian scheme is used
to study the compressor fouling mechanism.
• Chapter 6 discusses about providing a multidimensional tool to study the unsteady
behavior of internal combustion engine on turbocharger compressors, especially
in marginal zones. The coupling of 1D Gasdyn code which is provided for engine
modeling and a 3D OpenFOAM solver to model the compressor is described.
Finally, the performance of compressor case is evaluated in OpenFOAM.

10
CHAPTER 2
An introduction to numerical modelling of
turbomachines

2.1 Introduction
Generally two different strategies are possible to predict a phenomenon: experimen-
tal investigation and theoretical calculation. Each method brings some advantage and
some drawbacks. For the theoretical calculation normally mathematical models are
developed. These models usually provide low cost, fast, detailed information and are
applicable for both realistic and ideal conditions [5]. However, they are restricted to the
knowledge of the user as well as computational capacity.
In recent decades, according to high demands for reliable accurate models even for
complex cases, numeric methods have become increasingly popular in various research
and industrial problems. One of the main fields of study, in which numeric methods
are highly used, is study of fluid systems. In order to have an accurate prediction and
according to nonlinear complex behavior of these systems, several numerical methods
and algorithms are developed through years, which are categorized as Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Computational Fluid Dynamics is the art of study a system of
fluid flow or heat transfer phenomena using numeric computational methods.
The first attempt to use this approach for turbomachine analysis was performed at
1950’s by Wu [6]. He applied inviscid simplified Navier-Stokes equations in steady
state situation. In this approach stream functions were derived assuming steady state
situation at blades, as well as extreme thin blades with narrow blade-to-blade passage.
Then, the equations were solved in two axial and radial directions. To solve this sim-
plified problem he derived all the equations for a rectangular array of the points at rz
plane as figure 2.1.

11
Chapter 2. An introduction to numerical modelling of turbomachines

Figure 2.1: Schematic of 2D grid point presented by Wu [6]

Since 1980s with the significant improve in the potential of calculating machines,
also the design of turbomachines were influenced by the possibility of numerical mod-
els.
The first attempts were mostly restricted to inviscid flow in a passage or simplified 2D
models [7–9].
During last two decades with a great enhancement in application of numerical methods
in mechanical engineering and introduction of several industrial CFD codes, the use of
this method has become widespread. Now, without using computational fluid dynamic
models the design of different turbomachines are almost impossible. A detailed review
of state-of-the-Art is presented Ansari et. al. [10].
Through this chapter the governing equations and relations are introduced. Then, dif-
ferent approaches and assumptions to deal with the turbomachine modeling problems
are discussed.

2.2 Governing equations

The base of computational methods are the discretization of physical rules in the do-
main, containing conservation equation and transport equations. To approach the so-
lution different techniques are used, which are described carefully in several refer-
ences [11], [5] and [12]. In this section a brief review of the equation is described,
based on finite volume approach.

12
2.2. Governing equations

2.2.1 Continuity equation


According to the law of mass conservation, for a finite volume, the rate of change in the
mass inside is equal to rate of mass exchange over the boundaries. Deriving the terms
of equation for an infinitesimal finite volume we will have ( for detailed calculation see
chapter 2 of reference [11].)

∂ρ
+ ∇.ρU = 0 (2.1)
∂t
This equation is general three dimensional continuity for compressible flows.

2.2.2 Momentum equation


For the momentum transfer the change of momentum depends on the amount of dif-
fusion, convection, and additional forces applied to the fluid inside control volume as
well as over the boundaries.

DU
ρ + ∇.ρU U = −∇p + ∇.(µ∇U ) + SM (2.2)
Dt
In this equation s is the additional source term.

2.2.3 Conservation of energy


To model the energy conservation equation all terms of work and energy transfer through
boundaries as well as internal energy should be taken into account. Usually the term
sensible energy, E, includes the internal energy, gravity potential energy and kinetic
energy of the system.
DE
+ ∇. (pU − κ∇T − τ̄¯.U ) = Sv (2.3)
Dt
In equation 2.3 Sv is the integration of volumetric heat source (introduced by electric-
ity, reaction, etc.). This equation also can be written in terms of enthalpy, since
p
H=E+ (2.4)
ρ
Therefore equation 2.3 will become
DH ∂p
+ ∇. (pHU − κ∇T − τ̄¯.U ) = + Sv (2.5)
Dt ∂t

2.2.4 Other equations


According to the problem also other equations can be added to the solution system.
For example, equations of state are used for gases and liquids which will be added to
the five previous relations. Also, different transport equations can be used to introduce
special parameters (such as species) into the system.

13
Chapter 2. An introduction to numerical modelling of turbomachines

2.3 Turbomachine modeling

Various approaches has been introduced to model different phenomena inside turbo-
machines. One of the first models was developed by Von Karman [13]. Through that
study the analytical approach is applied to solve simplified incompressible equation for
2-D non uniform airfoils. However, during these decades most of the models for design
of the turbomachines were relied on empirical correlations [14]. Other analytical stud-
ies have been conducted [15–17] to present simplified methods for turbomachine flow
modeling. Using the analytical models are still common for design and analysis turbo-
machines [18–21]. Later with developing of computers and Computational Fluid Dy-
namic methods, more sophisticated models have been developed. A review of different
numerical approaches is represented by pinto et al. [10]. CFD study of turbomachines
performed for several reasons, such as design, optimization and study of heat transfer,
aerodynamics, cavitation, erosion and fouling. Also, different strategies has been used
to cover the complex nature and behavior of various turbomachines [22]. However,
in general applications, CFD provides a three dimensional scope of the turbomachine
to avoid undesirable phenomena as well as exploiting details on complex nature of the
flow. There are other advantages of using CFD in recent studies. Highly costs of testing
compressors and turbines far from design working points is leading to use numerical
approach as a substitute. Analytical and empirical methods cannot reveal the true per-
formance deviation reasons in detail, while using three dimensional numerical methods
help the designers to dominate the fact behind these parameters. The same story goes
for small local mechanisms such as flow transition at the tale of the blades, or flow
inside tip clearance gap, or local secondary flows. Moreover, study of high frequency
and low frequency instabilities and unsteadiness of the turbomachines is more reason-
able to be performed through CFD programs. There are some certain phenomena that
are extremely hard to measure in experiments or impossible to introduce reliable and
precise analytical model, such as phase interchange high velocity flows inside turbo-
machines or particle transport mechanisms. Finally, CFD can help us in more advanced
procedures such as design optimization and geometry evolution of the turbomachines.
As indicated before, the first attempts to use computational fluid dynamic approaches
started in 1950s. Then other strategies has been introduced such as 2d potential flow
models, blade to blade potential solvers, inviscid solvers, 2D viscous model, etc [23].
Ni et al. [24] used inviscid Euler equations to solve the flow over a 3D blade to bade
channel in an axial compressor
Adamczyk [25] solved the viscous flow equations in a multi-stage compressor and
numerically studied the effect of first row of the blades on the second row. Also, in an-
other research the rotor-stator interaction is investigated [26] in an axial turbine. This
study was using three-dimensional grid. The finial difference approach is used and the
effect of hub and shroud is taken into account for inviscid unsteady situation. In the
work of Chima [27] also stream-wise viscous terms are neglected (Thin-layer assump-
tion). The zero-dimensional Baldwin-Lomax turbulence model is applied to model
three-dimensional row of blades in an axial turbine. These early works were highly re-
stricted by the low capacity of the computational technology of that period. Years after,
with significant improving in the computational devices more complicated methods and
geometries are studied numerically [28–31]. Also, various computational codes have

14
2.3. Turbomachine modeling

Figure 2.2: 3D model grid generated by Xu [24]

been developed to model turbomachines. Pinto et al. [10] compared several softwares
for modeling different turbomachines.

2.3.1 Experimental study of turbomachines


Experimental investigation of flow inside turbomachines is quite as old as first applica-
tion of the devices in industry and avionics. The experimental studies can cover various
aspects of turbomachine operation. Most of the studies are performed to provide or dis-
cuss the performance behavior of the compressors and turbines [32].
The main objective of a performance test is to verify if a rotating turbomachine will
perform with regard to the design or prediction in various operating conditions. It also
provides further information about head-flow curve, efficiency, and the maximum and
minimum flow limits at various speeds. Frequently a performance test is conducted un-
der field conditions with the specified gas and operating conditions. Figure 2.3 shows
a schematic view of a test rig
Turbine and compressor test facilities usually include gas supply system, piping,
structure, pressure transducers, thermometers, tachometers, dynamo-meters and flow-
meters. Usually, the enhanced information is transfered to a computer-base user in-
terface through a data acquisition system. The data then can be physically or through
a software filtered and translated to useful parameters. Design process imposes re-
strictions on the thermodynamic performance. The most important parameters include
power, flow rate, speed, inlet and outlet pressure and temperature. There are also sec-
ondary constraints that also influence the performance of a turbomachine, such as Mach
number and Reynolds number. These parameters mostly are influenced by gas proper-
ties, operating conditions and the mechanical design. In order to have a precise valida-
tion about such complex system of parameters, the experimental performance study is
performed.
The experiments are also used to evaluate the models and methods of characteristics
prediction [34].
Other aspects of turbomachines are also investigated experimentally to provide the

15
Chapter 2. An introduction to numerical modelling of turbomachines

Figure 2.3: Schematic diagram of a turbocharger test facility (courtesy of University of Genoa) [33]

complementary information about the behavior of compressors and turbines or progress


the available applied technologies. These research activities are performed in a wide
range of topics such as geometrical modification [35] for applying Exhaust Energy Re-
covery System, unsteady behavior [36] for noise prediction and reduction, etc.

2.3.2 Analytical models


Most of the provided analytical models are using thermodynamic and gas dynamic
relations in addition to kinematic equations. The inherent simplification of the analyt-
ical models, made them very popular in engineering applications as well as academic
research. The variety of applications can be from performance study [37], unsteady
behavior [38],etc.

2.3.3 Numerical models


Dynamic approach

One of the main consideration to model turbomachines is how to link the fields inside
stationary region with the moving (rotating) region. There are various approaches to
handle this problem which will briefly discussed in this section.
• Multi Reference Frame approach: Multi Reference Frame (MRF) model is the
most popular and the simplest approach for multiple zones. The idea behind this
approach is to solve the governing equations separately for stationary and moving
regions. For the moving part, system of coordination is relative. Then, to integrate

16
2.3. Turbomachine modeling

the solution relative coordinates of the moving part is translated to absolute coor-
dinates of the stationary part. Specifically, for rotating cases the Coriolis terms
will be added to momentum equation. Therefore, the governing equations will
have a new form. Rewriting equation 2.2 for relative coordinate, we will have

DUrel
ρ + ∇.ρUrel Urel = −∇p + ∇.(µ∇Urel ) + SM (2.6)
Dt
Supposing a rotation with rotational speed of ω, translating it to absolute coordi-
nates we will have

DU
ρ + ∇.ρ (U U + ω × (ω × x) + 2ω × U ) = −∇p + ∇.(µ∇U ) + SM (2.7)
Dt
In this equation x is the transport vector between the absolute and relative co-
ordinates. The new additional terms can be added implicitly or explicitly to the
standard equation.
The main advantage of using this approach is to solve the steady-state problem
with steady-state solvers. Also, this method can save the generated grid in solid
optimal form. However, MRF cannot predict the unsteady phenomena for a cer-
tain time (e.g. blade to blade interaction in multistage machines).
• Mixing Plane Model: The serious disadvantage of MRF to face unsteady prob-
lems lead to use another approach to simplify the situation un unsteady situations,
which is called MPM. In MPM a virtual plane is defined between two sliding and
stationary zones (see figure 2.4). Then, the governing equations and fields are
solved separately at each time step. Finally, the results for each region will be
corrected in a way to reach a convergence (unique results) for the mixing plane.

Figure 2.4: Sample of schematic illustrating the mixing plane concept [39]

This method can be useful to solve unsteady problem, specially when using mov-
ing mesh strategies are so costly. However, a lot of restrictions happens when
dealing with this approach. All the multiphase solvers which are working with
phase interface cannot work with MPM. Also LES turbulence model is not com-
patible with MPM [39].

17
Chapter 2. An introduction to numerical modelling of turbomachines

• Dynamic mesh: The straight strategy to solve the problem with partially moving
regions is using dynamic mesh. Although, this methodology is time consuming
and complex, but it is necessary to apply during study of unsteady phenomena
inside a time-variant problem. Shock transmission between stationary and rotary
blades of a turbomachine is a clear example of such phenomena. Mesh motion
problems can be categorized as mesh deformation and sliding mesh. In the sliding
mesh strategy to cell zones are used these cell zones will have relative motion with
respect to each other. Therefore the equations for each cell zone will be solved
separately. The data of the fields will be translated between cell zones through a
non-conformed interface.

18
CHAPTER 3
Compressor performance modeling

3.1 Introduction
Turbocharger compressor performance behavior is the critical issue in matching a tur-
bocharger to an engine. As explained in chapter 1 the performance of the compressor
is influenced by various operational parameters such as rotational speed and the engine
intake valves, as well as inlet manifold condition. Therefore, for various operational
engine the turbocharger efficiency will be affected significantly.
Although, experimental study of turbocharger behavior is a very widespread approach,
using other prediction methods like numerical models can be useful specially for study
of marginal behavior and unsteady phenomena.
Through this chapter, the applied CFD model and the general assumptions are reviewed.
Then, a specific turbocharger compressor has been studied and the model results has
been validated with the experimental data.
Various boundary conditions were applied and tested to ensure the robustness of the
solver and provided geometry, which will be discussed in more details through this
chapter.

3.2 Mesh generation


The geometry of centrifugal compressors is highly sophisticated. This can affect the
solution accuracy in some points. Therefore, various strategies are introduced to de-
crease the complexity. Solving the flow over one blade passage has been used as a
simplified method to study the flow in the passage (both around a compressor blade
or blade-to-blade channel). Also, unstructured grids are very popular for this level of
complexity. In this study, generated grids are structured to improve the control over the

19
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling

grid quality. To do so, the mesh is directly constructed inside OpenFOAM platform.
By default OpenFOAM defines a mesh of arbitrary polyhedral cells in 3-D, bounded by
arbitrary polygonal faces. This type of mesh offers great freedom in mesh generation
and manipulation in particular when the geometry of the domain is complex or changes
over time [40].
As stated previously the geometry of the compressor is quite complex. In order to cap-
ture the whole geometry of the compressor a 3D shell, made with CAD softwares, is
used

Figure 3.1: Compressor model No.1 3D profile: compressor housing and compressor impeller

The initial mesh is generated as multi-block geometry in blockMeshDict dictionary


of the case, with respect to the possible flow directions. Then, SnappyHexMesh mesh
generator was used to produce the accurate grid with grading near the boundary patches.
Actually, SnappyHexMesh is a tool defined in OpenFOAM platform to generate mesh
from an initial mesh block. The structure of the SnappyHexMesh is based on three
main steps: cutting the original grid, refinements, and add boundary layers. In other
words, the software will exclude all the cells outside the defined domain. Then, during
the next step, the cell vertex and edges are moved in a specified mesh motion procedure
to be confined to the defined geometry with a specific level of refinement. The last
optional level is adding boundary layer cells over the selected cell faces. Of course,
with the addition of one or more layers, the internal grid will be stretched.
The detail of the generated grid is shown in figure 3.2 . The maximum refinement
is applied near the blades, where we have the most complex geometry and the huge
gradients.
The generated grid specifications are shown in table 3.1
In order to provide a robust mesh which guaranties applying various boundary con-
ditions for the first generated grid, to hemisphere extension was added to the grid to
smooth the effect of entrance and exit conditions.

20
3.3. Steady-state solvers

Figure 3.2: compressor mesh

Table 3.1: Generated grid specifications

No. of cells 2156745


No. of hexahedral cells 1426389
No. of polyhedral cells 688023
maximum non-orthogonality 71.1445
average non-orthogonality 12.7862
maximum skewness 10.6657

3.3 Steady-state solvers


3.3.1 Theory of SIMPLE solver
Almost all phenomena in the nature are transient through the time and space. However,
in order to be able to study them and capture the governing relations, in major problems
it is possible to assume steady state conditions. The notation of SIMPLE algorithm is
based on incompressible flow assumption. However, the general compressible terms
can further be added to the solution
In this case, the Navier-Stokes relations (see equations 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3) are simplified
to the following forms:

∇.U = 0 (3.1)

DU ∇p
+ ∇.U U = − + ∇.(ν∇U ) + SM (3.2)
Dt ρ

∇. (pU − k∇T − τ̄¯.U ) = Sv (3.3)

21
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling

Discretization and solving these equations does not necessary lead to consistent precise
solution. Therefore, several approaches has been developed to simplify and improve the
consistency of the problem. In this research, the SIMPLE algorithm as one the most
popular and reliable approaches is selected.
Through the solver, it is assumed that the exact solution of pressure and velocity
fields is constructed from a calculated value, p∗ , in addition to a correction term , p0

p = p ∗ + p0 (3.4)

U = U∗ + U0 (3.5)
Finally, by removing the neighbor cell flux in discretized equation and driving the
continuity equation correction terms are calculated [5] (see figure 3.3).

P* is guessed in the first iteration

p*

U*

SIMPLE p’
iteration
loop
pressure
Flux correction correction
loop

p,U

final results

Figure 3.3: simple flowchart

3.3.2 turbulence phenomena


Most of the engineering scale flows are turbulent. At values of Reynolds above a certain
critical number, the smooth and adjacent behavior of laminar flow turn into random

22
3.3. Steady-state solvers

and chaotic. The motion becomes unsteady even with constant boundary conditions.
Through this point the flow is called turbulent.
This three-dimensional random behavior of turbulent is preventing an exact predic-
tion of the flow. However, according to the conservation rules the average velocity of
the fluid is identical to the laminar relations. Therefore, the local velocity for each point
at a certain time is defined as a combination of an average term and a fluctuation term

u(t) = U + u0 (3.6)
This relation is called turbulence decomposition. The turbulent flow illustration
shows rotational flow structures. These rotating phenomena are called turbulent eddies,
with a wide range of length scales [11]. For large eddies a turbulent Reynolds number
can be defined as follow
Ul
Rel = (3.7)
ν
In this equation U is the characteristic velocity, l is the length scale of the eddy
and ν demonstrates the kinetic viscosity of the flow. This parameter depicts that large
eddies do not depend on viscosity and are dominated by inertia. They are stretched by
the bulk flow. However, smaller eddies are stretched strongly by these larger eddies and
less with the mean flow. In this way the kinetic energy is handed down from large eddies
to progressively smaller eddies in what is termed the energy cascade [11]. The smallest
scales of motion in a turbulent flow are completely dominated by viscous effects. The
turbulent Reynolds number of the smallest eddies is equal to 1, so the smallest scales
present in a turbulent flow are those for which the inertia and viscous effects are of
equal strength. These scales are named the Kolmogorov micro-scales.

Turbulence models

Due to unpredictable characteristics of turbulence phenomena, various theories and


models have been performed to model it. The solution of the governing equations for
the bulk flow does not raise any fundamental difficulties in the case of inviscid or lam-
inar flows. The simulation of turbulent flows, however, presents a significant problem.
Capturing the whole turbulence details by the time-dependent Navier-Stokes equations,
called the Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS), is still possible only for rather simple
flow cases at low Reynolds numbers. The DNS application is quite restricted when
recalling that the number of grid points needed for sufficient spatial resolution scales as
Re9/4 and the CPU-time as Re3 . However, it is still an important tool for understanding
the turbulent structures and the laminar-turbulent transition. Furthermore, DNS plays
a vital role in the development and calibration of new or improved turbulence models.
In engineering applications, the effects of turbulence can be taken into account only
approximately, using models of various complexities.
In order to capture the turbulence in a practical efficient way, various levels of approxi-
mations are introduced. The first level of approximation is reached for the Large-Eddy
Simulation (LES) approach. The visualization of turbulent flow depicts that the small
scale turbulent eddies posses more predictable characteristics than the large scales,
which transport the turbulent energy. Thus, the idea of LES is developed to resolve
only the large eddies accurately and to approximate the effects of the small scales by

23
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling

relatively simple sub-grid scale models. Since through this strategy the number of
grids and the amount of calculations will be reduced significantly, the investigation of
turbulent flows at much higher Reynolds numbers becomes feasible. However, LES
is inherently three-dimensional and unsteady, it still remains computationally very de-
manding. Thus, LES is still far away from becoming an engineering tool. LES is well
suited for detailed studies of complex flow physics.
In order to provide a more practical strategy, the so-called Reynolds- Averaged
Navier-Stokes equations (RANS) is presented. This approach, which was presented
by Reynolds in 1895, is based on the decomposition of the flow variables into mean
and fluctuating parts (equation 3.2). In cases where the density is not constant, it is
advisable to apply the density (mass) weighted (Favre decomposition) to the velocity
components. Otherwise, the averaged governing equations would become consider-
ably more complicated due to additional correlations involving density fluctuations. It
is common to assume that Morkovin’s hypothesis is valid, which states that the tur-
bulence structure of boundary layers and wakes is not notably influenced by density
fluctuations for Mach numbers below 5. By inserting the decomposed variables into
the Navier-Stokes equations and averaging, we obtain formally the same equations for
the mean variables with the exception of two additional terms. The tensor of the viscous
stresses is extended by one term of the Reynolds-stress tensor:

τ¯ij = −ρ̄u0 i u0 j (3.8)


0 0
where u i and u j denote the density-weighted fluctuating parts of the velocity com-
ponents u, v, w. The Reynolds-stress tensor represents the transport of mean momen-
tum due to turbulent fluctuations. Furthermore, the diffusive heat flux is also enhanced
by turbulence, which appeared in so-called turbulent heat- flux vector. Considering this
assumptions the Governing momentum relation (equation 2.2) will be rearranged as
following:

∂(ρ̄U
e)   ∂ p̄    ∂(ρ̄u0 2 ) ∂(ρ̄u0 v 0 ) ∂(ρ̄u0 w0 ) 
+∇. ρ̄U
eUe = e + −
+∇. µ∇U − − +SM x
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
(3.9)

∂(ρ̄Ve )   ∂ p̄    ∂(ρ̄u0 v 0 ) ∂(ρ̄v 0 2 ) ∂(ρ̄v 0 w0 ) 


+∇. ρ̄V V =
e e +∇. µ∇V + −
e − − +SM y
∂t ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂z
(3.10)

∂(ρ̄Wf)   ∂ p̄    ∂(ρ̄u0 w0 ) ∂(ρ̄v 0 w0 ) ∂(ρ̄w0 2 ) 


+∇. ρ̄WfW f = +∇. µ∇W f + − − − +SM z
∂t ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂x
(3.11)
Based on solving Reynolds stresses and the turbulent heat flux, the Reynolds-averaged
navier-Stokes (RANS) equations can model the turbulence of the flow. Of course in
contrary with LES and DNS, this approach needs much coarser grid to model the flow.
Also, the averaging model enable us to consider the stationary (steady-state) solutions
of the flow. Therefore, using RANS method in engineering problems are very popular,
nowadays.

24
3.4. Case solution settings

Various models been proposed to solve the unknown Reynolds-stress terms in RANS
approach, such as mixing length model (zero equation), Sparlat-Allmaras (one equation),k−
 and k − ω (two equations), etc. The main fundamental assumption for almost all
RANS approach models is introduced by Boussinesq. He proposed there is a direct re-
lation between the deformation in the flow and Reynolds-stress terms. This idea reveals
that this mechanism works like the effect of viscosity force.
 
0 0 ∂Ui ∂Uj 2
¯
τij = −ρ̄u i u j = µt + − ρkδij (3.12)
∂xj ∂xi 3
In this equation k is defined as turbulent kinetic energy and is equal to
1  02 2 2

k= ū + v̄ 0 + w̄0 (3.13)
2
and the Kronecker delta function δij reveals that this value appears in the equation
if only i = j .
The same procedure is consider to predict the turbulence heat flux vector, by defining
an equivalent turbulent or eddy diffusivity

∂φ
− ρui 0 φ0 = Γt (3.14)
∂xi
Then a Prandtl/Schmidt number can be defined to relate the turbulence viscosity and
turbulent eddy diffusivity

Γt
σt = (3.15)
µt
In the most CFD cases the value of σt is considered to be about 1 [11]. Therefore,
various RANS models attempt to provide the more precise and more realistic value for
turbulent viscosity. Through this research second order models of RANS approach have
been utilized. The most popular model of this category is k− model, which is based on
solution of two PDE equations for turbulence kinetic energy, k and rate of dissipation
of the turbulent energy, . However, in some cases such as curved geometries and near
the walls the model is not working fine and are substitutes with some modified models
such as k − w presented by Wilcox [41].

3.4 Case solution settings


The solution is performed based on SIMPLE algorithm which is already described. The
turbulence model is k −ω −SST which uses k −w model near the wall and k − model
far from the wall, to increase the precision and consistency of the turbulence equations.

3.4.1 boundary conditions


As stated before to simplify the dynamic behavior of the rotating compressor to a
steady-state problem, a Multi Reference Frame approach is assumed. However, with
such approach, some transient phenomena (such as blade to blade pressure oscillation)
are ignored.

25
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling

Figure 3.4: compressor zones in MRF approach: rotating parts are red and stationary parts are gray

To do so, the generated 3D geometry is separated into two stationary and rotating zones
as depicted in figure 3.4
In order to have a satisfying translation results between the rotating zone and the
stationary zone, two cell zones were defined using TopoSet, which is available inside
OpenFOAM platform.
Defining pressure and velocity boundary conditions are also critical for this case. To
study the more realistic situation at entrance and exit of the compressor, various com-
binations are considered which are presented in table 3.2
Table 3.2: Applied boundary conditions to the solution

Boundary condition name Inlet condition Outlet condition consistency


BC No.1 Fixed mass flow rate Fixed pressure operational
BC No.2 Fixed total pressure Fixed mass flow rate operational
BC No.3 Fixed total pressure Fixed pressure not consistent

The entrance temperature was fixed from the experiment. The wall temperature
condition is assumed zero gradient, that implies no heat transfer through the walls.
Also, for the outlet no heat transfer is considered.
For the turbulence setting near the wall, the conditions are more complex. Normally
there are three different regimes near the wall. The first regime is laminar viscous
sublayer (Y + < 5), buffer layer (5 < Y + < 30), and inertial layer (30 < Y + < 200).
In the viscous sublayer the effect of turbulence is negligible, therefore the ratio of bulk
velocity to friction velocity, U + has a linear relation with Y + . while in the inertia
sublayer there is a logarithmic relation between them.

The "law of wall" introduced by Prandtl, suggest that the near the wall boundary

26
3.4. Case solution settings

condition, turbulence shear stress and velocity are only functions of Y + .


In the current study law of wall is applied in a way that for low Y + the linear relation
and for high Y + the logarithmic relation is considered, such as DNS turbulence wall
solution (see figure 3.5)

Figure 3.5: U-velocity profile with linear and log-law approximation [42]

Therefore, the boundary condition law of wall is considered in this research in ac-
cordance with the various wall boundary cell size. It is tried to decrease the boundary
cell’s Y + near the buffer layer, since as it is depicted in figure 3.5, there is a big differ-
ence between the assumed values and the physical values (look at the DNS results) in
that range.
In order to achieve the best convergence the initial values are set from the results of
potential flow solution.
The other important setting for the solution is to manage the non-orthogonality. For
this reason, several correction loops are added to the solution, in order to decrease the
errors come from non-orthogonality.

3.4.2 Steady-state model results


For the study of the compressor, as stated in chapter 1, three groups of non-dimensional
parameters are considered to solidify the operating condition of the turbomachine: pres-
sure ratio, corrected mass and rotational speed. Furthermore, efficiency and tempera-
ture ratio are distinctive for each specified operating condition. The experiments are
performed for three rotational speed, and various mass flow rates between surge zone
and choking criteria have been experimentally studied. Table 3.3 shows the experimen-
tal setting values of the test points.

The data in table 3.3 presented in raw form and is not translated to multidimensional
values, since without the availability of the exact velocity magnitude, total values for
pressure and temperature are not calculable. However, in the final comparison with

27
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling

Table 3.3: Experimental test point data

Impeller rotational speed [krpm] mass flow rate [kg/sec] Inlet temperature [K] Inlet pressure [P a]
120 0.0546 298.95 96864
120 0.0588 298.65 96467
120 0.0615 298.05 96059
120 0.0608 300.55 96242
120 0.0673 300.25 95117
120 0.0634 300.15 95610
120 0.0719 299.45 94346
80 0.04 298.55 98094
80 0.0437 298.55 97958
80 0.0468 298.45 97733
80 0.0494 298.35 97438
80 0.0525 298.15 97201
80 0.0565 298.25 96849
80 0.0558 298.25 96828
60 0.0288 298.55 98532
60 0.0317 298.55 98453
60 0.035 298.55 98343
60 0.0377 298.45 98223
60 0.0402 298.35 98088
60 0.0439 298.25 97884
60 0.046 298.15 97700

the calculation of tangential component of velocity vectors the corrected results are
calculated. The generated model is used to solve the operational points to cover the
performance lines of experimental data. Therefore, in order to provide a correct cor-
relation the same rotational speed number (see equation 1.21) is selected. Then, for
a wide range of corrected mass flow rate, the behavior of compressor is studied. The
stated corrected numbers are calculated from the available experimentally measured
mass flow rate, inlet static pressure and inlet temperature mentioned in the table.

Performance study

The stagnation pressure ratio, β, is calculated as the main characteristic of the compres-
sor. For the first boundary condition setting, the mass flow rate is fixed at inlet as well
as the pressure at outlet. The total pressure ratio is simply calculated from the average
values of pressure and velocity at each patch, as following
1
p0 = p + ρU 2 (3.16)
2
For the three reported rotational speeds a wide range of mass flow rates are assumed
and the flow fields are calculated. However, as the flow approached close to the choking
condition, the convergence of the models were harder to achieve.
Figure 3.6 shows the comparison between the experimentally achieved values and the
results of the model in non-dimensional format. The parameters have already intro-
duced in chapter 1.
The corrected mass flow rate is calculated from equation 1.16 for a specified gas
constant and a fixed geometry.

28
3.4. Case solution settings

Figure 3.6: Comparison of calculated pressure ratio values with the experimental data

It is illustrated that as the corrected mass flow rate increases, the stagnation pressure
ratio will reduce for each rotational speed. However, the calculation is extended to very
low mass flow rates.Then positive slopes are appeared in pressure ratio curves. Such
behavior is observed near the stall zone, which will be discussed in detail in chapter 6.

The other possible physical boundary condition setting which is applied to the model
(as stated in table 3.2) is applying the total pressure (infinity atmospheric condition) at
inlet and fix the mass flow rate at outlet. Theoretically all boundary conditions should
provide almost the same results. However, they can affect the stability of the solution.
In figure 3.7 this boundary condition results are compared with the first boundary con-
dition.

Figure 3.7: Comparison of boundary pressure ratio for boundary conditions stated in table 3.2

29
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling

In BC No.1 mass flow rate is fixed at entrance of the compressor, which provide a
quite stable boundary condition for the compressible SIMPLE solver. The fixed mass
flow rate is a direct boundary condition for the velocity vector field that imposes an
average normal component of velocity over the boundary patch. Hence, the flow rate
changes in accordance with each cell’s patch face area. For the outlet patch the static
pressure is fixed, In this situation the outlet applied pressure will regulate the value of
suction pressure at inlet.
Although this boundary condition is highly consistent and stable, there is no control
over the tangential component of the velocity, while the effect of impeller back-flow
vorticity can be very critical for the inlet patch at marginal operational range.
The second applied boundary condition is much closer to the physical operation of a
turbocharger compressor. The air is sucked in at atmospheric condition; Therefore, the
total pressure is fixed at inlet while the mass flow rate at outlet patch is manipulated by
the intake engine valves. Therefore, the mass flow rate is constrained at outlet.
Experimental data illustrate that for high mass flow rates at a certain point, the pres-
sure ratio is suddenly decreasing as it is closing to the choking condition. However,
this condition is highly critical for steady-state pressure-based solvers such as SIMPLE
algorithm.
Study the efficiency of the compressor is also part of performance analysis. The effi-
ciency calculated rearranging the equation 1.5 as
γ−1
(p02 /p01 )( γ ) − 1
ηc T T = (3.17)
(T02 /T01 ) − 1
which states 01 and 02 are addressing to the total values at inlet and outlet, respec-
tively.
Figure 3.8 shows the calculated efficiency curves and its contour inside the performance
map.

Figure 3.8: Total to total efficiency of the compressor lines and contours, calculated by the model

Efficiency is another critical parameter in the study of compressor behaviors. The


results depicted in figure 3.8 show that in this case of study, the efficiency is highly
dependent on mass flow rates. As it was already expected, at very high mass flow rates,

30
3.4. Case solution settings

the efficiency suddenly drops due to chocking effect and local supersonic flow irre-
versible behavior at the tail of impeller blades.
The same trend is also appears at very low mass flow rates when the compressor works
near the surge line, impeller stall (mostly rotating stall) has a tremendous effect on
abrupt decrease in efficiency.
Looking at the figure, it is revealed that for this specific compressor the lower rotational
speeds can provide a higher efficiency at optimum operational points. moreover, as it
can be observed in contour diagram, as rotational speed decrease, the optimum point
moves closer to the surge line. The reason is that at the optimum kinematic condition
there is a linear dependency between rotational speed and absolute velocity of gas en-
tering the impeller. The absolute velocity is product of combination of mass flow rate
and the induced vorticity. However, the surge is only affected by the absolute velocity.
Direct measurement of total to total efficiency is not posibble experimentally. Then,
according to equation 3.17 it can be seen that the for a specific compressor with a cer-
tain working condition the efficiency is a function of total pressure ratio and the outlet
total temperature. Since, to study the performance of the compressor, pressures are al-
ready measured, then, the efficiency mostly is measured by increase in enthalpy which
is presented in terms of total temperature. Therefore, in order to compare the results of
efficiency with experimental data, the outlet average total temperatures are compared,
In figure 3.9

Figure 3.9: Comparison of calculated total temperature values with the experimental data

Calculated results of the temperature shows a satisfying compatibility with the ex-
perimental data. As the mass flow rate increases the temperature decreases, which
seems to be contradictory to the increasing transferred momentum. However, increase
in mass flow rate also increases the output kinetic energy which significantly affects the
outlet temperature.
Other useful information is study of transfered torque from the impeller to the fluid.
It simply presents the mechanical work done by the impeller shaft. The results are
presented in figure 3.10

31
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling

Figure 3.10: The computed torque transition to the fluid

Unfortunately, for this case the experimental data is not available. However, the
applied torque which provides the mechanical power transferred to the flow, shows a
polynomial relation with mas flow rate. Not only the mass flow rate directly convects
the applied momentum through touching blade surface, but also, as mass flow rate en-
hances, according to the increase in velocities the progressive pressure gradients will be
observed in the suction and pressure side of the blades, which leads to more momentum
transfer.

3.4.3 Mesh optimization


Although huge number of cells in the generated model guaranties the higher mesh
quality, it is dictating high computational costs even for a steady-state solution. In order
to be able to study in transient condition, more simplified grid system was required.
However, the penalty could be a little loss in the precision of the solution results.
Therefore, at the first step inlet and outlet hemisphere extensions were removed. It
resulted to restriction in applying the boundary conditions. For example, in this case
applying the fixed mass flow rate at inlet is not consistent anymore. since fixed mass
flow rate boundary condition controls the vector of the velocity normal to the inlet
patch. However, there is a strong vorticity as the effect of rotating impeller and the
velocity vectors have strong tangential derivatives at inlet patch which are not affected
by the boundary condition. This led to extremely hard converging situation and in some
cases total inconsistency in the solution.
The next challenge is to decrease the number of cells and keep the refinement at critical
point (such as blade tips and volute corners) to avoid causing problem for turbulence
boundary conditions. In the new model number of cells are reduced to less than one
million cells (see table 3.4)
Figure 3.11 reveals the detail of new griding system and illustrates that in the new
model, the mesh is generated in aligned to the bulk flow direction. With the flow-

32
3.4. Case solution settings

Table 3.4: Reduced grid specifications

No. of cells 767233


No. of hexahedral cells 616329
No. of polyhedral cells 122086
maximum non-orthogonality 65.054
average non-orthogonality 14.066
maximum skewness 5.5173

aligned grid usually solver’s convergence improve and it can produce more accurate
results.

Figure 3.11: reduced mesh details

As it is shown in the figure 3.12 the griding over the blades have two more levels of
refinement and near the stationary walls one level of refinement is performed.
This refinement can help to capture and control the wall boundary condition and
turbulent effects.
The complexity in the centrifugal compressor flow study is that even ignoring the effect
of secondary flows, the main flow enters axially and exits completely tangential. Then,
constructing a flow oriented grid is very hard to achieve.
To do so, the mesh is constructed in two separate blocks. Rotating zone which should
be highly refined and have high quality cells because of high flow speed and extremely
sophisticated geometry, and the stationary part which does not require special refine-
ment, but has a specific curvature.
Also, the interface should be defined in a way that even after merging the two vari-
ous grid regions, the interfacing patches will have complete adaptivity and maximum
compatibility can be reached (see figure 3.13). Although, there are various strategies
to match the interface patches and translate data between them, but the sophisticated
methods will lead to more computational costs. Therefore, in this study the geometri-

33
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling

Figure 3.12: The refinement levels of the mesh

cally adapted interface patches are assumed.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.13: Separate block mesh generation strategy: (a) rotary zone (b) stationary zone

In order to validate the new generated mesh, the same operational points has been
numerically studied. The predicted pressure ratio and outlet average temperature are
correlated with the original mesh (figures 3.14 and 3.15)
The results show a slight increase in pressure ratio especially for very high rotational
speed. As it was stated before for this situation, there is a certain uncertainty appears
in SIMPLE algorithm which makes it hard to precisely judge about the precision of the
results. For the lower impeller speeds the results are almost identical. For the energy
equation, the results are in agreement with the pressure ratio. However, the trends of
both solutions for all the studied performance fields are the same.
The efficiency diagram with new mesh also reveals that the compressor can reach higher
efficiency at lower rotational speed. The computed efficiency lines and contours are

34
3.4. Case solution settings

Figure 3.14: Comparison of calculated total pressure ratio with the original mesh results

Figure 3.15: Comparison of calculated total temperature values with the original mesh results

illustrated in figure 3.16.


Comparing this figure with the original mesh results (figure 3.8) a slight increase in
efficiency can be seen, which is regarding to increase in the prediction of total pressure
ratio.
Decreasing the number of computational cells has a tremendous advantage in calcula-
tion efficiency and cost. On the other hand, applying different boundary conditions is
more restricted.

35
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling

Figure 3.16: Calculated efficiency for the reduced number of cells

3.4.4 High-speed flow problem


When the turbocharger compressor works at high rotational speed, there is a possibility
to reach the transonic flow area for high mass flow rates. Figure 3.17 shows the Mach
number contours at rotational speed of 120krpm. In high mass flow rates the local
Mach number reach close to unity, at the tail of the impeller’s blades, where the fluid
rotational speed is in its maximum value.

Figure 3.17: A sample profile of flow Mach number distribution at 120krpm rotational speed and
0.08kg/sec mass flow rate

This behavior is extremely critical for the solver. In pressure-based steady-state


SIMPLE solver it is assumed that the density is not significantly changing to affect
the solution of velocity and pressure fields [5]. When the Mach number is rising, the
changes in density of the flow is changing and influence the solution. It is noted that
SIMPLE algorithm has the problem of reliability and is not suggested when the Mach
number reaches close to about 0.7 [11].
To solve this problem a correction modification is proposed [43] encountering density

36
3.4. Case solution settings

effect.
ρ = ρ∗ + ρ0 (3.18)
However, the density correction terms later can be translated into pressure correctors
by defining the compressibility of the flow. Figure 3.18 shows the flowchart diagram of
the modified approach. *
P is guessed in the first iteration

p*

U*

T*

SIMPLE *
iteration
loop
pressure
p’ correction
loop

Flux correction

p,U

final results

Figure 3.18: Corrected SIMPLE algorithm for all range of flow velocity [43]

Applying this modification to the SIMPLE algorithm and explicitly adding the com-
pressible term to the conservation equations, practically affects the margin of instability
of the solution. Therefore, SIMPLEC algorithm is substituted the previous solver. Fig-
ure 3.19 depicts the pressure ratio of the corrected approach in comparison with the
experimental data.
The results shows a higher compatibility in high rotational speed and high mass flow
rates with the experimental data, comparing the SIMPLE results.
The first reason is that in SIMPLEC algorithm the effects of cell neighbor’s velocity
correction terms are not neglected. Therefore, it is less simplified than SIMPLE al-
gorithm. The second and more important reason is calculating the density correction
term implicitly. In the cases that the compressibility of the flow is highly significant,
the change in the density not only affects the energy equation, but also is important in
calculation of pressure-velocity coupling.
Taking into account density effect in pressure-based compressible solver shows more
reliable and more accurate results, than the standard solver. However, due to multiple
effects of density, the convergence is harder to achieve; Hence, the solution is quite
extremely slow compared to SIMPLE method.

37
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling

Figure 3.19: Comparison of calculated pressure ratio values from modified SIMPLEC solver with the
experimental data

3.5 Transient solvers


In order to study the time-dependent phenomena inside the compressor, the transient
solver based on modified PISO algorithm is used. The solution called PIMPLE in
OpenFOAM platform and is a combination of PISO and SIMPLE algorithms [40].

Transient solvers are normally much slower than steady state solvers, because they
are restricted to flow Courant number.
∆tU
Co = (3.19)
∆X

In order to achieve a convergence, the Courant number, which is also called CFL
condition is restricted to an amount. By its definition, it is revealed that for highly
refined cells which, in the case of turbocharger compressor, contain high speed flow the
allowable time step is infinitesimal. It directly affects the solution speed.
Therefore, the reduced mesh case (see table 3.4) is considered for all the transient
solutions.
Two various strategies have been utilized to study the compressor problem: using static
grid with Moving Reference Frame and dynamic mesh.

3.5.1 Static grid


The strategy is identical to steady-state solution. A set of Multi Reference Frames are
defined to capture the rotation of blades. Of course, all the governing equations should
be rearranged respecting to relative coordinates. In figure 3.20 the velocity, pressure
and temperature profiles are shown.
For the velocity field, the maximum velocity can bee seen as the flow exits the ro-
tating impeller. Through stationary section and the volute, as the flow expands, the

38
3.5. Transient solvers

Figure 3.20: Field profile distribution resulted with static mesh and transient solver usinf MRF approach
(120krpm and 0.04kg/sec)

pressure rises and velocity reduces. The ideal situation is that all the kinematic energy
produced in the rotating stage, converts to pressure increase through the volute; How-
ever, this condition is not achievable in all the operating points, due to geometrical and
design restrictions.
The maximum temperature is mostly observed also at the end of expansion process.
Considering an isentropic expansion process in the stationary region, it is expectable,
if the enthalpy increases as the velocity decreases.
Using MRF approach for transient solution theoretically is not the best possible method.
However, it can guaranty a very fast and stable solution.

3.5.2 Dynamic grid


Although using MRF for the unsteady solver simplifies the problem to a certain extent,
they are not precise due to solidification in position of physically moving parts. In
general terms the MRF model is usually applied for steady-state simulations and is not
capable of reproducing unsteady effects especially when the flow is turbulent [44]. The
correct but more sophisticated choice is to use a dynamic geometry approach.
For transient modeling the compressor, the dynamic grid with Arbitrary Mesh Interface

39
Chapter 3. Compressor performance modeling

(AMI) is used (figure 3.21) in this study.

Dynamic mesh zone

Static mesh zone


Arbitrary Mesh Interface

Figure 3.21: dynamic mesh with AMI

Through this approach, the solution is performed separately in different regions. For
the impeller side the moving mesh kinematic terms are appeared directly in the momen-
tum and even energy equation. Therefore, simplification is avoided for non symmetric
geometry of centrifugal compressor. While, in both regions the absolute governing
equations are solved. The solutions are implicitly connected through a couple of inter-
face patches.
The interface is called arbitrary, because there is no constraint in defining patch grids.
The algorithm is based on geometric mapping and interpolation of the field data be-
tween two patches.Therefore, the resulted field values are simply appear as boundary
condition for neighbor cells.
In figure 3.22 the velocity and pressure profiles are shown.
Comparing figure 3.22 and 3.20, it can be seen that the pressure results are almost
identical. However, the maximum values for the velocity are slightly different as well
as maximum temperature which are almost negligible. Considering the same setup and
boundary condition, the slight difference can only happens due to solution strategies,
specially taking into account the effect of complex grid system.
In figure 3.23 the pressure rise through the blades and volute is illustrated.
As it can be found from the figure, the rotating zone mostly has the duty to apply ex-
ternal work and increase the kinetic energy. However, the kinetic energy is transformed
to pressure in the following stationary part.
Also, near the tail of the blades there is a gradient of pressure in the space between two
blades. The gradient is caused by aerodynamic behavior of the system. The existence
of this gradient is leading to form the secondary local flows, which have a critical role
in some phenomena inside the compressor. In chapter 5 it will be discussed in detail.
Also, there are other mesh strategies such as solution-dependent mesh or stretching grid
strategies. However, each of these methods have some advantages and some disadvan-
tages, which can be a work of future similar projects.

40
3.5. Transient solvers

Figure 3.22: Field profile distribution resulted with static mesh and transient solver using dynamic mesh
approach (120krpm and 0.04kg/sec) after 0.05 sec

Figure 3.23: Pressure rise in compressor passage

41
CHAPTER 4
Fouling phenomena

4.1 Introduction
The behavior of solid particles inside the flow has been a major of study for several
decades. The produced knowledge can be used in different fields of research and vari-
ous industrial applications.
To capture the phenomena several consideration such as study of multiphase flows and
particle surface interaction mechanisms should be investigated. Each aspect has ex-
treme complexity and specific considerations. Through this chapter, a couple of models
and theories are introduced to study the dominant fouling phenomena in turbomachines.

4.2 Deposition models for turbomachines - A state of the art


There are various mechanisms for deterioration in gas turbines. Among them the four
main mechanical degradation mechanisms are: fouling, erosion, damage, abrasion.
Some of these effects are reversible by cleaning procedures, but the others are per-
manent [45].
Fouling happens by adhesion of foreign particles to blades and static surfaces. Particles
can stick to the wall due to moisture or oil leakage, as well as van der Waals or elec-
trostatic forces. This will form a layer over the surfaces. Such layers will increase the
surface roughness and change the aerodynamics of the blades which cause a significant
decrease in performance.
Erosion is happening as hard particles are impinging the surface and damage the sur-
face material. Usually, large particles (bigger than 20 micron in) are the major cause
for this phenomena.
If the particles are extremely huge, they cause an overall destruction in the parts of tur-

43
Chapter 4. Fouling phenomena

bomachines. Damages are presented as cracks and plastic deformation in the bulk of
blades and other parts.
Finally, abrasion which is not the product of a foreign body interaction, but, it happens
between moving parts and stationary parts at geometrical interfaces. This can result in
change in clearance and mechanical unbalance.

To predict the fouling behavior inside turbomachines various models has been de-
veloped. Tarabrin and schurovsky studied the deposition phenomena for an axial tur-
bomachine [46]. Their model is an analytical model presented for prediction of fouling
in axial compressors. The model is based on Fuks’ deposition theory.
Through this model the coefficient of entrainment, E, is defined as the ratio between the
number of particles colliding with the surface of the body and the number of particles
which could fall on the body surface if the streamlines were not delivered by the body.
The coefficient was defined as a function of Stokes number. Other modifications are
suggested later to improve this method [47]. However, all of these theories are based
on extremely simplified assumption and are useful just for overall estimation and bulk
calculation.

According to widespread development of numerical calculation methods in fluid dy-


namics, various attempts have been performed to numerically model the deposition pro-
cess in particle-entrained flow problems. The key point in the models is to capture the
phase interference in momentum equation. The first models considered the drag force
as the main phase intervention term in momentum equation, and solve the governing
equations defining volume fraction. More sophisticated models have been developed
through the time mostly with Lagrangian approach, encountering all the possible inter-
ferences to be applied to momentum equation in the terms of virtual mass force, drag
force, lift force, Basset force, etc. Venturini [48] used a Lagrangian scheme to study the
particle-flow interaction in a flow laden transonic multiphase regime inside the stator
of a turbine. The same job is done for a subsonic stage of axial compressors [49]. For
further studies also several additional publications are available [50, 51].

4.3 Multiphase flows


Multiphase systems are important parts of natural world around us and are subject of
study for better understanding. Moreover, multiphase flows has become increasingly
important in a wide variety of engineering systems.
Power generation systems such as conventional power plants with boilers and evapo-
rators [52], Rankine cycles [53], MHD and MPD generators [54], internal com-
bustion engines [55], liquid or solid propellant rockets [56], etc.
Heat Transfer Systems like heat exchangers [57], evaporators, condensers, dryers, re-
frigerators [58], etc.
Process Systems Extraction and distillation units such as fluidized beds [59], gasifiers
[60], chemical rectors [61],atomizers [62], etc.
Lubrication Systems like two-phase flow lubrication [63], etc.

44
4.4. Governing equations

Environmental Control like HVAC systems [64], dust collectors [65], sewage treatment
plants [66], etc.
Geo-Meteorological Phenomena such as sedimentation [67], soil erosion and transport
by wind in the earth [68] and on the other planets [69], ocean waves [70], snow
drifts, kinematics and dynamics of rain droplets [71], physics of clouds [72], air
pollution [73], etc.
Biological Systems such as respiratory system [74], blood flow [75], etc.
It might appear that for these applications the rules and phenomena are completely
irrelevant. However, all of them are governing by continuity, momentum and energy
conservation laws. The main idea of multiphase flow theory is based on finding a set of
common relations to predict behavior of such different systems generally.
It is to be expected, therefore, that the conceptual models for multiphase flow should
also be formulated in terms of the appropriate field and constitutive relations. However,
the derivation of such equations for a multiphase flow is considerably more complicated
than for a single-phase flow [76].
As a result of study phase interface parameters, most cases of multi-phase flows
have many common characteristics and behavior in general and can be classified as
separated flow, transitional or mixed flow and dispersed flow.
Despite single-flow problems, several parameters in different scales influencing the
physics and governing relations of multi-phase flows. It is one of the origins of com-
plexity in multi-phase flows. At least four critical different scales can be considered in
multiphase flow. These are (1) system scale, (2) macroscopic scale required for contin-
uum assumption, (3) meso-scale related to local structures, and (4) microscopic scale
related to fine structures and molecular transport [76].
Various physical phase of each part, can imply distinguished situations to the system.
Due to three different normal states that we have for material we can divide two-phase
flows into four separate categorizations:
• Gas-solid mixture;
• Gas-liquid mixture;
• Liquid-solid mixture;
• Immiscible liquid-liquid mixture.

4.4 Governing equations


In this section the time-average equations for two phase are introduced. Several authors
derived the governing equations for two-phase flow [76–80].

4.4.1 Equations of species


Of all referenced derivations of multiphase governing equation, two main categories
are extracted from the work of Ishii [76] which is appropriate for dispersed fluid parti-
cles, while Anderson and Jackson [77] derived the equations which are appropriate for
dispersed solid particles [81].

45
Chapter 4. Fouling phenomena

The continuity equations for both models are identical and is written for each specie

∂αf
+ ∇. (αf Uf ) = 0 (4.1)
∂t
∂αp
+ ∇. (αp Up ) = 0 (4.2)
∂t

4.4.2 Equations of momentum


For the momentum equation, according to Anderson and Jackson
 
∂Uf FD
ρf + Uf .∇Uf = −∇p + ∇.τ¯f − (4.3)
∂t αf
   
∂Up ∂Uf FD
ρp αp + Up .∇Up − ρf αp + Uf .∇Uf = −∇pp + ∇.τ¯p + (4.4)
∂t ∂t αf
While Ishii derived the equations as following
 
∂Uf
ρ f αf + Uf .∇Uf = −αf ∇p + ∇.αf τ¯f − FD (4.5)
∂t
 
∂Up
ρ p αp + Up .∇Up = −αp ∇p + ∇.αp τ¯p + FD (4.6)
∂t
The equation 4.6 then also rearranged for gas-solid flow [82] as
 
∂Up
ρp αp + Up .∇Up = −αp ∇p + ∇.τ¯p − ∇pp + FD (4.7)
∂t

4.5 Turbulence problem in multiphase flow


There are two main sources for turbulence phenomena in multiphase flows. The first
source mostly is generated internally inside the continuous phase and is identified as
ordinary single phase fluctuations. However, it is also possible that the interaction
between the phases apply the turbulence to the system. Various probabilities are con-
sidered as the source for new turbulence terms such as: random stirring in the main flow
regarding to inter-phase motion, appearance of wakes behind discrete phase particles,
and fluctuation according to deformation of the interfaces. Different models have been
proposed to predict the turbulence model in two-phase problems [83–85].

4.6 multiphase flow Boundary problem


The theory of particle-particle and particle-fluid interaction which was discussed be-
fore predicts complex behavior of multiphase flows. However, in reality it is a more
sophisticated problem. The interference of boundaries makes it almost impossible to
be solved directly. Particles can act in a diverse manner when they impact the wall
(figure ). We usually see such diversity around us, which are sometimes beneficial and

46
4.7. Particle deposition theory

Figure 4.1: Influence of impact velocity and particle size on features of interaction between the particle
and impacted solid surface [86]

sometimes very corruptive, such as cold welding, fouling, erosion, physical coating,
chemical coating and deforming.
There is a common point in all of these phenomena: The particles leave the flow
streams of media to interact the boundary. The particle-fluid interface is governed by
the momentum transfer between two separate phases. The particle deviation usually
happens when the balance between Inertia and surface forces disappears. Then, the
particle leaves the flow streamline. Such behavior is generally quantified as dimension-
less Stokes number. Stokes number is defined as the ratio between the characteristic
time of the particle and characteristic time of the fluid. apparently, if the moment of in-
ertia for the particle is high, then the particle cannot synchronize its motion fast enough
as the fluid does and deviate it.
τp
Stk = (4.8)
τf
Usually, the characteristic time for the flow is defined as the ratio between the char-
acteristic length and characteristic velocity. For the particles the characteristic time is
proportional to the drag of the particles (and in the case of Stokes flow inversely pro-
portional to particle Reynolds number). Therefore, normally for these flows we have

U0 Dp 2 ρ0
Stk = (4.9)
18l0 µ

4.7 Particle deposition theory


There are various mechanisms for aerosol deposition. For large and heavy particles
with low inertia, the main reason for deposition is sedimentation. Sedimentation is
defined when a a particle falls on a surface due to gravity force. The other mechanism is
interception. This phenomena is happening mostly in filters, catalysts and small porous
channels. According to rather big size of particles in comparison with channel size most

47
Chapter 4. Fouling phenomena

probably they have a great chance to collide to the boundaries. The other possibility is
due to diffusivity of the particle. The main reason is Brownian motion of the particle,
which is random movement of it due to collision with atoms and molecules inside the
media. For high speed particulate flows the inertia of the particle can cause it to leave
the flow and impact the boundary, called inertia impaction. Finally, other source terms
and body forces can also cause deposition such as electrostatic or magnetic attraction.

4.7.1 Sedimentations
As discussed before, sedimentation happens when the dominant applied force to the
particle is gravity. Of course, buoyancy, lift and drag force are also effective.

Fsed = Fgravity − Fbuoyancy − Fdrag (4.10)


Assuming for a spherical particle one can define a critical velocity that indicates if
the particle will fall down
1
Fsed = (ρp − ρf )gVp − CD ρf U 2 Ap (4.11)
2
Hence, we will have
s 
4(ρp − ρf )gDp
Us = (4.12)
3CD ρf

4.7.2 Interception
This phenomena mostly happens for particles with geometrical irregularity. The main
effective force is friction. After physical collision between the particle and the surface
the friction at contact point (due to surface roughness) makes the particle to settle down.

4.7.3 Diffusion
The random movement of particle inside the flow increase the chance of wall collision
close to the boundaries. This stochastic trace is because of impact with fluid molecules
and other particles. There are various theories about Brownian motion prediction. Ein-
stein calculated the diffusion of the particles as [87]
kT
D= (4.13)
3πµDp
In this equation k is the Boltzmann’s constant. According to his theory the mean
squared displacement will be
2kT t
x¯2 = 2Dt = (4.14)
3πµDp
Einstein’s model is not based on physics of phenomena, but it tries to roughly predict
the effect of molecular impact on the particle motion. On the other hand, Smoluchowski
used the momentum transfer for the prediction [88]. Also, various models based on
stochastic theories are developed through the time.

48
4.8. Introduction to contact mechanics

4.7.4 Inertial impact


When the momentum of the particle is so high to overcome other applied forces, the
possible dominant force would be inertia. Since the diffusion coefficient is inversely
proportional to particle size, the effects of Brownian motion can be neglected for large
particles. However, as the size of the particle increases, the momentum relaxation time
rapidly increases. According to Stokes number definition at this level the particles
hardly follow the stream and the chance of wall impact is so high. for this situation the
impaction of the particle with wall is highly controlled by contact mechanics regula-
tions.

4.8 Introduction to contact mechanics


There are different models to describe what happens when two solid bodies collide. In
order to study the phenomena and validity of different theories, one should have a deep
knowledge about the physics of effective parameters. In this section, a brief description
is provided to introduce the required context for this thesis.
In solid materials the atoms of attracted to each other over long distances and are
repelled at very short distance. As a balance between two main forces (ignoring other
possible forces) a unique equilibrium can be defined which contains less potential en-
ergy of the system. In reality the behavior of the system of forces is like a portion of a
sine function.

Figure 4.2: Inter atomic force in a solid as a function of distance [89]

From the equilibrium position if the distance of the atoms increase the required
force increases to a certain point. The maximum required force is called bond strength.
Inside this range we have
 πx 
F = Fmax sin (4.15)
2L
Therefore, around the equilibrium point for very small movement (x << L) we will
have
 
πFmax
F = (4.16)
2L
49
Chapter 4. Fouling phenomena

Since L and Fmax are constant for a particular material, the relation between force
and distance will be positive linear. This relation is called Hooke’s law.
From the equation 4.16 we can extract the same equation in the terms of stress.
 πσ 
max
σ= x (4.17)
2L
For L0 as equilibrium distance, the strain rate is defined as
x
= (4.18)
L0
Combining the equations 3 and 4 a constant can be defined which is particular for
each material, called Yaung modulus
σ L0 πσmax
E= = (4.19)
 2L
The stress increase due to elastic contact first investigated by Hertz. Then other
more complex and more advance theories were developed through the time.

4.8.1 Hertz theory of contacting elastic solids


With the stated introduction, Hertz calculated the impact force as a function of elastic
deformation in to contacting bodies [90]. He used several assumptions in this process
[89]:

1. The displacements and stresses must satisfy the differential equations of equilib-
rium for elastic bodies, and the stresses must vanish at a great distance from the
contact surface.
2. The contact is frictionless.
3. The normal pressure at free surfaces is zero and at interface pressures are equal
and opposite.
4. The distance between the surfaces of the two bodies is zero inside and greater than
zero outside the circle of contact.
5. The integral of the pressure distribution within the circle of contact with respect
to the area of the circle of contact give the force acting between two bodies.

In fact, the calculation is driven for the contact of two large elastic spheres, while
the contact area is very small.
According to his calculation
4 1 3
F = E ∗R 2 δ 2 (4.20)
3
In this equation, F is the impact force, δ is the total deformation after contact and
E ∗ is equivalent elastic (Yaung) modulus (see equation 4.19).

1 1 − ν1 2 1 − ν2 2
= + (4.21)
E∗ E1 E2
50
4.8. Introduction to contact mechanics

Also, R is the equivalent radius which is equal to


1 1 1
= + (4.22)
R R1 R2
The total deformation δ is also in direct relation with the intact surface. He also
found that

a2 = Rδ (4.23)
Combining equations 4.20 and 4.23 we have
  13
3F R
a= (4.24)
4E ∗
Therefore,
 13
9F 2

δ= (4.25)
16RE ∗ 2
For two big spheres with infinitesimal contact angle the impact pressure will be

r2
 
p = pmax 1 − 2 (4.26)
a
While
3F
pmax = (4.27)
2πa2

4.8.2 Non-Hertzian elastic models


The nonconformity of impacting bodies is tacitly approved in Hertzian model. This
view leads to define the physics of the problem in terms of curvature of each body at
contacting point. The Hertz contact theory is restricted to cases in which the surface
profile has continuous displacement and slope [91].
The above general look is ignoring the local effect of impact force in the vicinity of
the contact zone. To avoid this assumption the model should include local influence of
contacting force in terms of interface stresses such as adhesive stress σ(z), represented
by the Lennard-Jones potential
"   −9 #
−3
−8w z z
σ(z) = − (4.28)
3z0 z0 z0
Where z is the separation between atomic planes, z0 is the equilibrium separation,
and w is the work of adhesion, i.e. the sum of surface energies.

w = γ = γ1 + γ2 + γ12 (4.29)
γ is specific surface adhesion energy. A model of the adhesion force was developed
by Bradley for rigid spheres which gives [91]

51
Chapter 4. Fouling phenomena

"    −2 #
−8
−8πwR 1 z z
p= − (4.30)
3 4 z0 z0

The corresponding pull-off force pc occurs when z = z0 and is given by

pc = 2πwR (4.31)
Two main different models were proposed for the contact of elastic spheres. These
models were due to Johnson, Kendall and Roberts (JKR) [92] and Derjaguin Muller
and Toporov (DMT) [93]. These theories appeared at first to be contradictory until it
was pointed out by Tabor [94] that they both can be consistent for different ratios of
elastic deformation to surface force.

JKR theory

In this theory light loading between elastic bodies is assumed. The theory implies that
in this situation the experiments shows deviation from Hertz model.
After contacting of two spheres the equilibrium condition will be obtained in a state
that no significant change appears in total energy as the radius of contact changes.

dUT
=0 (4.32)
da
According to this theory total energy includes three main terms: the stored elastic
energy, UE , mechanical energy in the applied load, UM and surface energy US .
The elastic term can be calculated using Hertz theory. But the effect of other terms
of course will affect the contact radius, and hence the values of Hertz loading term.
According to figure 4.3 the Hertz model predict the equilibrium happens at the point C,
while by adding attractive forces between two surfaces the contact radius will increase
from a0 into a1 . Then the corresponding Hertzian force will be F1 (Point A ) that is
not the physical elastic force, then with new contact radius the force will reduce to real
value F0 [95] (point B).

Figure 4.3: The geometry of particle-surface interaction after impact [92]

Then, elastic energy will be

52
4.8. Introduction to contact mechanics

UE = U1 − U2 (4.33)
While, according to Hertz theorem 4.23

δ2 F1  13  31
9F −1
Z Z  
2 9 5
U1 = F.dδ = F. dF = F1 3 (4.34)
δ1 3 0 16RE ∗ 2 250RE ∗ 2
With constant a1 , combining equations 4.23 and 4.24 for the final transition state
(point A to point B) we will have

3F
a1 δ = (4.35)
4E ∗
Then, substituting this amount in elastic energy equation we will have
Z δ2 Z F1 Z F1
2 F
U2 = F.dδ = δ.dF = dF (4.36)
δ1 F0 3 F0 2E ∗ a1
The main assumption in this theory is that in the transition between point A and B
the contact radius is constant (a1 ). Then using 4.17, the 4.29 can be reduced to
F1
F1 2 − F0 2
Z   
F 1
U2 =  13 dF = 2 1 1 (4.37)
F0 2E ∗ 3F1 R 48E ∗ 3 R 3 F1 3
4E ∗

Therefore, equation 4.26 can be rewritten as


 13
F1 2 − F0 2
   
9 5 1
UE = F1 − 3 (4.38)
250RE ∗ 2
2 1 1
48E ∗ 3 R 3 F1 3
The mechanical work is calculated as the Integral product of work done by the elastic
force
Z δ2
UM = F0 .dδ = −F0 δ2 = −F0 (δ1 − δ12 ) (4.39)
0

The deformation change between points 1 and 2 is calculated [92]

   16   31 "
#  23
F1 − F0 11 F1 − F0 3F1
UM = −F0 (δ1 − ) = −F0 −
RE ∗ 2
1
2E ∗ a1 6 F1 3 4
(4.40)
According to definition of specific surface energy (equation 4.29), the surface En-
ergy will be
  23
3RF!
US = −γπa1 2 = −γπ (4.41)
E∗
Therefore, the total energy term will be

53
Chapter 4. Fouling phenomena

 31  2
F1 − F0 2
  
9 5 1
UT =UE + UM + US = F1 3 −
250RE ∗ 2
2 1 1
48E ∗ 3 R 3 F1 3
  13 "  2   16  #  2
1 3F1 3 1 F1 − F0 3RF! 3
− F0 − − γπ (4.42)
RE ∗ 2
1
4 6 F1 3 E∗

Finally, Equation 4.25 can be rewritten as


dUT dUT dF1
= × =0 (4.43)
da1 dF1 da1
While

dF1 4a1 2 E ∗ dF1


= × =0 (4.44)
da1 R da1
In order to satisfy the equation 4.43 at equilibrium we will have

F1 2 − 2F1 (F0 + 3γπR) + F0 2 = 0 (4.45)


Therefore
q
F1 = F0 + 3γπR ± (F0 + 3γπR)2 − F0 2 (4.46)
Which shows significant deviation from Hertz model. At point A the second deriva-
tive of total energy should be also zero.
p
F1 = F0 + 3γπR + 3γπRF0 + (3γπR)2 (4.47)
Which shows in the critical force to separate the sphere happens when

3γπRF0 + (3γπR)2 = 0 (4.48)


or
3
F0,cr = − γπR (4.49)
2
DMT theory

The JKR model is disregarding the energy of the noncontact adhesion forces acting
within the ring-shaped zone surrounding the contact area [93]. In order to overcome
this problem, it is proposed to calculate interface energy both inside contact surface
and outside it. Therefore, the equations is solved for both zones, separately. The first
step is to precisely calculate the contact margin. DerJaguin considered an elastic sphere
impacting a solid wall (see figure 4.4)
According to Hertz theory the normal pressure all over the contact area is distributed
as a function of normal force, F , contact radius, a, and distance from contact center, ρ.
1
ρ2 2

3F
pz (ρ) = 1− 2 (4.50)
2πa2 a
54
4.8. Introduction to contact mechanics

Figure 4.4: The geometry of particle-surface interaction after impact [93]

It is assumed that the rate of deformation is calculated as

1 pz ds
dw = (4.51)
E ∗ R0
While R0 is the distance between the point that the force is applied and where the
deformation happens ( 4.4). Therefore, R0 will be
2
R0 = (r̄ − ρ̄)2 + z 2 = r2 − 2rρ cos φ + ρ2 + z 2 (4.52)
Integrating the deformation over the contact surface we will have
  12
ρ2
1
Z
pz (ρ) 3F
Z aZ 2π 1− a2
δ(R0 ) = ds = ρdpdφ (4.53)
E∗ S R 0 2πE ∗ a2 0 0 R0
For the points inside the contact area, z = 0. Then, we obtain
1
a π
(a2 − ρ2 ) 2
Z Z
3F
δ= 1 ρdpdφ (4.54)
πE ∗ a3 0 0 ρ2 + (r2 − 2rρ cos φ) 2
hence, calculating the deformation of the origin at (r = z = 0), it will be the same
as the equation 4.35.
At contact edge r = a
3F
δ= (4.55)
8E ∗ a
Applying some simple mathematical techniques, for the outer points

a2
  
3F 2
1
2 2 2 2

δ= 2a r − a + 2a − r arccos 1 − 2 2 (4.56)
8E ∗ a3 r
If we define the local deformation as α, according to figure 4.4 we will have

55
Chapter 4. Fouling phenomena

z = z0 + δ − α (4.57)
While we can simply show that at non-contact area

r2
z0 = (4.58)
2R
At the contact edge (z = 0)

a2
z0 = (4.59)
2R
Substituting equations 4.55 and 4.37 into equation 4.57 we obtain

a2 3F 3F
+ ∗
−+ ∗ =0 (4.60)
2R 4E a 8E a
Which resembles equation 4.24.
Considering this value for a the equation 4.56 will be simplified as

a2
  
1 2
1
2 2 2 2

δ= 2a r − a + 2a − r arccos 1 − 2 2 (4.61)
2πR r
This equation introduces an extra term in energy balance for solid contact phenom-
ena. In other words, the surface energy contains two separate internal and external
terms. In general, the surface energy can be calculated as integration of specific inter-
action energy over the surface.
Z ∞
WS = φ(H)2πrdr (4.62)
0
While H is the distance between surfaces. At contact zone, H = 0. Therefore,
specific interaction energy is constant
Z a
0
WS = φ()2πrdr = πa2 φ() = πδRφ() (4.63)
0
For non-contacting zone, looking at equations 4.57 and 4.61

" 1 #
2 2 2
1 1 (r − a )
a r2 − a2 2 + r2 − 2a2 arccos
 
H=z= + (4.64)
πR a

Defining x2 = r2 − a2 we have
Z ∞
00
W = 2π φ [H(x, a)] xdx (4.65)
0
and
1 h  x i
ax + x2 − a2 arctan

H(x, δ) = + (4.66)
πR a
Thus, the force will be

56
4.8. Introduction to contact mechanics

dWS dW 0 S dW 00 S dW 00 S
FS = = + = πRφ() + (4.67)
dδ dδ dδ dδ
With respect to equation 4.65

W 00
Z
dH(x, δ)
= 2π φ0 [H(x, δ)] xdx (4.68)
dδ 0 dδ
Assuming the contact area is very small, from equation 4.66 we will have

dH 1
|δ−→0 = − (4.69)
dδ 2
and

x2
H|δ−→0 = − + (4.70)
2R
Hence

xdx = RdH (4.71)

Therefore, equation 4.68 will be reduced to



W 00
Z  
0 1
= 2π φ (H) − RdH = πRφ() (4.72)
dδ 0 2
Returning to equation 4.67 the general force will be

FS = 2πRφ() = 2πRγ (4.73)

Comparing equation 4.49 and 4.73, the two theories seem to be contradictory.
Tabor [94] indicated that this difference belongs to different assumptions in the models,
which affect the value of the surface energy. His experiments revealed that JKR model
is more compatible with the experiments for wide range of non-dimensional parameter
µ.

 31
Rγ 2

µ= (4.74)
E ∗ 2 z0 3
When µ is close to unity the DMT theory seems more reliable [94].

Additional models

taking into account the effect of roughness, static and sliding friction, led to develop
more sophisticated models such as extended Johnson model [96], Greenwood and
Williamson (GW) model [97].

57
Chapter 4. Fouling phenomena

4.9 particle surface interaction


Regarding to the theories described in the last section, the marginal situation for stick-
ing condition can be defined. Ning [98] proposed a marginal velocity for each particle
to predict the possibility of particle deposition on the surface based on JKR theory.
Combining equations 4.25 and 4.49 the final approach distance is defined as
  53
3 1
δf = k2π2γ 2R 3 (4.75)
4
Therefore, the required work to separate two surfaces is
Z δf
Wcr = F.dδ (4.76)
0
According to behavior at the surface it will be correlated [98]
 31
Wcr ≈ 0.9335Fcr δf = 5.8267 k 2 γ 5 R4 (4.77)
Considering elastic wave propagation as an isentropic process, the energy balance
will be restricted to change in kinetic energy between before and after impact
1 1
mp Up,i 2 − mp Up,r 2 = Wcr (4.78)
2 2
Through this relation a critical velocity can be defined to show the possibility of
separation. It means that there is a maximum initial velocity, Ucr , that the restitution
velocity still remains zero. So, the equation 4.78 will be reduced to
1
mp Ucr 2 = Wcr (4.79)
2
Therefore, in the case of a spherical particle hitting a flat surface the critical velocity
calculated as following
 16
k2γ 5

Ucr = 1.67 (4.80)
ρp 3 R5
It means that if the impact velocity is less than this critical value and the Stokes
number will be high enough, the particle will stick to the wall.

58
CHAPTER 5
Deposition Numerical modeling

5.1 Introduction
In this chapter the developed model of particle deposition and related applied equations
are introduced. Then, the model is evaluated with experimental data and is applied to a
compressor case. Also, the Eulerian-Lagrangian scheme is also applied and discussed.
It is necessary to clear out that for the cases studied in this chapter, the effect of de-
position film on the deformation of boundary is completely neglected for various rea-
sons. Firstly, for applying the mesh motion solution the wall patch cell faces should
be triangular. This will increase the number of cells inside the geometry significantly.
Secondly, the control over non-orthogonality would be more critical. Finally and more
importantly, as the solution is applied for few seconds or even less than one second,
the effect of mesh deformation on the aerodynamics of the surfaces are completely
negligible.

5.2 Eulerian-Eulerian approach


In this approach the particles are introduced as secondary phase with defining equiva-
lent parameters for the discrete solid phase. The momentum transfer includes various
interaction phenomena in terms of force [99]. Drag and lift force, virtual mass mo-
mentum, and Basset force are the major terms. Gosman [85] claimed that only drag
force has significant effect. However, in current research the other sources are taken to
account.
Gosman proposed a two-phase turbulence model consisting of the standard model, by
solving the phase-combined transport equations for turbulence kinetic energy k and dis-
sipation rate . In this set of equations, the k and  for the dispersed phase is predicted
from the one fluid similar relations of the continuous phase, applying an empirical tur-

59
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling

bulence response coefficient.


Based on two phase equations derived by Ishii (4.5 and 4.6) a gas kinetic theory is used
to describe the phase stress produced by kinetic and collisional contributions separately
for particle phase in solid-gas flows. The original work is introduced by Lun [100].
In this method the Granular temperature, Θ, is defined to express energy of particle
fluctuations (granular energy) [101].
3 1 2
Θ = Up0 (5.1)
2 2

The key point in this theory and definition of granular temperature is to evaluate
how much the particle motion is dominated by the collision phenomena. Therefore, it
can be useful to define solid phase stress tensors as a contribution between the kinetic
of the particles inside the flow and particle-particle collision.
According to this definition, the generation of granular energy and the dissipation rate
transport equation can be also derived as a function of granular temperature. To extract
the particle flow properties such as solid pressure and viscosity as a function of Θ
several other models have been developed [59, 102].

5.2.1 pressure
The particle-particle collision is applying dynamic force to the system. The term of
solid pressure is defined as the effect of normal derivative of these collision forces.
Therefore, it is also expressed as a function of granular temperature

pp = ρp γp Θ + 2ρp γp 2 Θ(1 + e)g0 (5.2)


The first term represents the kinetic contribution and the second term shows the effect
of particle collision contribution. g0 is the distribution function which is defined as
[103]
"   31 #(−1)
γp
g0 = 1 − (5.3)
γp,max

5.2.2 viscosity
The viscosity of solid phase is defined as a shear resistance of particles against change
in motion. The expression used in this research study presented by Gidaspow [59]

Θ 1√ 1√ 10 √
r
4 2 ρ p dp
µp = ρp γp dp g0 (1+e) + Θπρp γp 2 dp g0 (1+e)+ Θπρp γp dp + Θπ
5 π 15 6 96 (1 + e)g0
(5.4)

5.2.3 conductivity
The effects of particles are also significant in energy transfer. For energy transfer also
both kinetic and collision contributions are playing important roles regarding to the par-
ticle density. The conductivity expression calculated by Gidaspow [59] is as following

60
5.3. Eulerian-Lagrangian approach


√ 9√ 2 15 √
 2 
2γp g0 (1 + e) 25 π
kp = ρp dp Θ √ + πγp g0 (1 + e) + πγp +
π 16 16 64 (1 + e)g0
(5.5)
The amount of granular energy is associated with the oscillation of the velocity and
should balance the governing equations of each phase (continuity, momentum equa-
tions and energy equation). Hence, a transport equation can be introduced as 5.6 to
describe the balance between the rate of change in the granular energy, the rate of gen-
eration due to stress tensor and heat transfer, and the rate of dissipation according to
particle-particle collision and phase relative velocity.

  
3 ∂ 
(γp ρp Θ) + ∇. (γp ρp ΘUp ) = −∇pp I¯ + τ¯p : ∇Up − ∇. (kp ∇Θ) − Γp − Jp
2 ∂t
(5.6)
The first term in the right hand side of the equation depicts the kinetic granular
energy generation in the particulate phase regarding to the introduced forces, while
the terms Γp and Jp are representing collision and interaction dissipation rates in the
granular energy, respectively.
In order to solve the transport equation and calculate the granular temperature, it is
mandatory to have an estimation about two latter terms. For low gradients of phase
change Lun [100] proposed
 γp 2 ρp g0 3
Γp = 12 1 − e2 √ Θ2 (5.7)
dp π
While interaction dissipation term mainly is affected by the drug coefficient, CD
[104]
!
2
CD dp Urel
Jp = CD 3Θ − √ (5.8)
4γp ρp πΘ

5.3 Eulerian-Lagrangian approach


Eulerian-Lagrangian approach to study multiphase flows is quite popular. In this ap-
proach, Eulerian relations are used to study the continuous phase, while the dispersed
phase particles are tracked individually ( Lagrangian scheme).
Therefore, the important point in deriving the governing equations for each phase is
investigating the phase interaction, which mostly appears as an external source term.

5.3.1 Governing equations in continuous phase


Continuity equation is written as
∂ρ ∂ρUi
+ = Sc (5.9)
∂t ∂xi
In this equation the source term, Sc , is defined as mass transfer between two phases
( for example due to boiling, melting, chemical reaction, etc.).

61
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling

An additional source term is also added to the momentum equation, as can be seen in
equation 5.10
∂ρUi ∂Ui Uj ∂p τij
+ =− − + SM (5.10)
∂t ∂xj ∂xi ∂xi
SM is the momentum exchange between the phases and is completely described in
previous chapters.

5.3.2 Governing equations in discrete phase


The continuity equation is identical also for this phase. On the other hand, in lagrangian
approach, mostly the second Newton’s law relation is derived to capture the momentum
of each particle, which means the change in the momentum of each particle is equal to
the net of applied forces on that particle
dUp
mp = Fi (5.11)
dt
Therefore, the coupling between momentum equations is defined in the terms of
transfered momentum between two phases. However, the coupling can be discussed in
different situations according to the nature of multiphase flow.
For the very dense particulate flows, the possible particle-particle interaction will also
affect the system and should be considered in equation 5.11. In contrary, when the
concentration of particles are very low, not only the chance of the particle-particle in-
teraction is rare but also the effect of particles on the mean flow is negligible. This can
be a critical assumption which can reduce the system of equation from two-way cou-
pling to one-way coupling in dilute flows. It means, in the case of dilute flow, the set
of governing equations for continuous phase can be solved independent of the discrete
phase [105], which brings huge advantages in computational cost as well as stability of
the solution. Usually it is reported in the literature that for the concentration less than
10−3 the assumption of dilute flow is considered to be correct.
The applied integrated momentum transfer is introduced in literature by Gosman [85]

3 ρ 
SM = α C fp Ūr Ūr
4 p Dd
+ αp Cl ρf Ūr × ∇ × Ūf +

DŪf DŪp

ρ (5.12)
αp Cvm ρf Dt
− Dt
− CD 34 dfp Ūr ∇αp

The four terms in the right side of equation 5.12 are drag, lift, virtual mass and Basset
force, respectively. Through this study, the Wen-Yu [106] model is used for calculating
the drag force based on Rowe drag coefficient prediction (equations 5.13 and 5.14).
This relation is valid for low density gas particle flows. The other terms of lift, virtual
mass and Basset force are considered negligible for this study. The drag coefficient is
calculated as

(
24
1 + 0.15(αf Rep,rel )0.687

αf Rep,rel
if αf Rep,rel < 1000
CD = (5.13)
0.44 if αf Rep,rel ≥ 1000

62
5.4. Surface deposition calculation

and

3 αf αp ρf Ūr −2.65
F D = CD αf (5.14)
4 dp
In this equation Rep,rel is defined with the relative velocities.

dp Ūr
Rep,rel = (5.15)
ν

5.4 Surface deposition calculation


In addition to solve the multiphase flow problem either with Eulerian-Eulerian or Eulerian-
Lagrangian approaches, it is necessary to provide a realistic physical model to predict
the particle-boundary interaction.
For this reason, a deposition calculation technique is developed. The model is capturing
the behavior of the particles near the boundary walls both before and after the impact.
The first question is to identify if the particle meets the surface. To provide the an-
swer few assumptions are required. Firstly, the particles are very small in comparison
to the computational cell dimensions, which guaranties the validity of the multiphase
equations inside the cell. Secondly, The particles are assumed to be spherical and
elastic. It is a necessary condition for most of the surface contact models as well as
drag coefficient relations. Finally, the particles are uniformly dispersed and have a uni-
form average velocity inside the calculation cell closest to the boundary wall (for the
Eulerian-Eulerian approach).
Let’s consider an infinitesimal computational cell close to the wall. If the cell height
is small enough, inside the boundary layer (or sublayer) the average velocity normal to
the wall patch can be considered zero (except for porous walls). Then, if the particles
in the discrete phase have the normal velocity derivative toward the wall (shows high
enough Stokes number) there is a possibility to meet the wall (see figure 5.1).

Figure 5.1: Schematic figure of the particle motion in a cell close to the wall

Therefore, the rate of deposition mass, α, is calculated as

∂δp
= γp ρp Aw (Up .~n) (5.16)
∂t
63
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling

In this equation, Aw is the wall face area and ~n is its normal vector.
Then, the second question is that if all the particles which are meeting the surface will
stick to the surface or not. It is already discussed that there is a marginal velocity for
each specific particle with a specific size to reveal the answer. Considering the equation
4.80 it is observed that if the normal velocity magnitude of the particle will be less than
the critical value, the particle will remain on the surface, and if the value exceeds the
particle will leave bounce back from the surface.

5.5 Deposition-adaptive mesh deformation


Another effect of the deposition on the surface in turbomachines is to change the aero-
dynamics of the surface through the time and as a result decrease in efficiency of the
machine [45]. Through this research, a computational tool is generated to capture the
boundary deformation caused by particle deposition. The idea is to calculate the aver-
age deposition thickness change at each time step,δp , for each boundary face.

δp = γp ρp Aw (Up .~n)∆t (5.17)

Then, the cell points will be calculated by linear interpolation between the cell cen-
ter new positions (see figure 5.2). To secure the planarity of the face, for the linear
interpolation, the moving face should be triangular.

Figure 5.2: Schematic 2-dimensional view of the boundary deformation

The deformation in boundary faces through the time will change the structure of the
generated grid, which can cause further mesh quality problems. To avoid the problem,
the deformation is dispersed through the geometry, through a Laplacian motion function

∇.(λUc ) = 0 (5.18)

In this equation, Uc is the rate of motion vector of the points and λ is dispersion coeffi-
cient.
Therefore, the whole internal mesh will be updated gradually and safely as shown
schematically in figure 5.3

64
5.6. Study of deposition in a 90◦ bend

Figure 5.3: Schematic 2-dimensional view of the deformation Laplacian dispersion

5.6 Study of deposition in a 90◦ bend


5.6.1 definitions and basic relations
The distribution of particulate flow inside a bend is first predicted by Einstein [107].
Landahl [108] studied the deposition of particles in human lung. He used the parabolic
velocity distribution for particles passing a bend and calculated the deposition (im-
paction) as a linear function of Stokes number in a bend. The same configuration of
the bend was used by Cheng [109] to predict the impaction efficiency in a more sophis-
ticated method for idealized flow, and then to improve the model [110]. His method
was based on deriving the velocity components in three dimensions, capturing the sec-
ondary flow and solving the simplified equation of motion.
The case study is on a two phase flow inside an elbow which was first introduced by
Cheng [109] and Pui [111]. In the later study, different regimes for particle-fluid inside
a 90◦ bend is experimentally investigated. The objective was to study the flow for
different ranges of Dean number, De. Dean number is defined as the ratio of Reynolds
over the curvature.
p
De = Re/ R0 (5.19)
The curvature R0 is defined as the ratio between the radius of the bend curve and
the radius of the pipe.
The results show that the efficiency of deposition (equation 5.20) is a function of Stokes
number, at constant Reynolds and constant particle Reynolds number.
ṁbend
η= (5.20)
ṁbend + ṁexit
In a circular pipe Stokes number is defined as

ρp Dp 2 U0
Stk = (5.21)
18µat
Also, the particle Reynolds number will be

Dp U0
Rep = (5.22)
ν
The experiments has been conducted for both laminar and turbulent cases in stainless
steel and glass tubes.

65
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling

5.6.2 Grid generation


The similar geometries of three dimensional structured mesh is generated in Open-
FOAM to study each experimental configuration . The block structured mesh grid is
illustrated in figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4: Computational grid of the elbow

Based on experimental data [111] three geometries have been used for this study
which are presented in table 5.1.
Table 5.1: The characteristics of the test geometries [111]

Case ID Material R0 Dtube [mm] De


1 Stainless steel 5.7 5.03 446
2 Glass 5.7 3.95 503
3 Stainless steel 5.6 8.51 2057

In order to study the grid independence of the solution, three different grids are
constructed for related experimental apparatus. The specifications of grids for Re =
1000 are introduced in table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Specifications of the cases for grid independence study

Case Name: Refined Coarse Very coarse


mesh type hexahedral hexahedral hexahedral
No. of cells 272320 128865 43420
maximum non-orthogonality 35.23 32.49 27.10
maximum skewness 0.616 0.632 0.621
η|s tk = 0.33 0.674 0.672 0.665

comparing the flow fields, it seems that the coarse mesh, with about 100k cells
can completely satisfy the grid independence restriction. In figure 5.5 the profiles of
velocity at 45◦ and 90◦ are illustrated over A-A line (see also figure 5.6)
As it is shown in figure 5.5 the velocity profile inside the bend is slightly different
for the very coarse case, while two other cases are almost identical. The same trend is
achieved for efficiency of deposition, as stated in table 5.2.

5.6.3 solution settings


Two laminar cases with Re = 1000 were modeled to study the effect of Stokes number
on particle deposition efficiency. A parabolic velocity distribution is considered for

66
5.7. Results and discussion

(a) (b)

Figure 5.5: The comparison of the velocity profile for three different mesh refinements for glass pipe at
Re = 1000 at (a) 45◦ and (b) 90◦

Figure 5.6: the configuration of 90◦ elbow and cutting planes at 45◦ and 90◦

both cases at inlet patch. In order to compare the results with previous works and
analytical models, the surface roughness of the pipes is neglected for both stainless
steel and glass tubes. To study of the turbulence case, Re = 6000 is considered. In
order to predict the turbulent velocity profile at entrance of the bend, an extension inlet
pipe is considered to capture the boundary layer development physically.

5.7 Results and discussion


The particular flow is modeled for both laminar and turbulent cases, as addressed in
[111]. The velocity profiles are verified with the results of [112, 113] (figure 5.7).
Through this study the concentration ratio of the dispersed phase is assumed to be
very low (γ ≈ 0.001) at inlet to avoid further complexity and provide the same ref-
erence situation with other references. Dilute flow assumption can provide one-way
coupling between continuous and dispersed phase; In other words, the particle-particle
interaction and effect of particles on the mean flow will become negligible. However,
the applied kinetic theory of granular flow as well as developed particle-boundary in-
teraction are not restricted to this assumption.
The results of model show that for both Re = 1000 and Re = 6000 a good agreement
is achieved regarding to the experimental results presented by Pui [111]. Unlike the
previous Eulerian methods [113], for dispersed phase the current study is focused on

67
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling

(a) (b)

Figure 5.7: The comparison of the velocity profile with the results of Pilou [113] and Tsai [112] at
Re = 1000:(a) over B-B line at 0◦ , 45◦ and 90◦ (b) over A-A line at the same angles

solving a full set of Navier-Stokes equations.


The introduced deposition prediction model shows that for certain conditions deposi-
tion mechanism depends on the surface characteristics. The surface interaction along-
side with surface roughness (which is already neglected in all the models) can explain
the difference in experimental results of stainless steel and glass pipes in study of
Pui [111];While, in the most of the other models and studies even with more sophisti-
cated wall boundary conditions this effect is ignored.
Figure 5.8 shows the flow pattern inside the elbow for different Reynolds numbers.
Normally, as Reynolds number increases the uniformity of the flow should decrease
inside and after the bend. But, in contrary, a huge difference can be observed between
the behavior of the flows at both laminar and turbulent regimes with what is expected.

In laminar flow test case, a big vortex appears upstream of the bend zone and causes
a significant velocity gradient inside it; However, when Reynolds number is higher (at
Re = 6000) the vortex is stretched out to the down stream and does not affect the flow
pattern inside the bend, as depicted in figure 5.9. Obviously, the former will cause
stronger secondary flow at bend which influences on the concentration of the particles
near the wall.

Also, looking into the concentration profile at low Stokes number illustrates and
approves these differences (see figure 5.10).
To deeply investigate the phenomena, secondary flow patterns are depicted in figure
5.11 for different projectile surfaces. Such behavior can play a game changing role in
particle deposition process and make it more complex than it normally is.

As it can be seen the appearance of secondary flow is different according to Reynolds


number. The main reason is that the secondary flows are produced by the flow vorticity.
Since the vorticity itself is transfered through the flow passage of elbow as a function of
bulk Reynolds number (as shown in figure 5.9),the characteristic of the secondary flow
in the elbow curve is completely changing. This can significantly affect the mechanism
of deposition inside the elbow.
The other important point is the fact that particle concentration near the pipe does not
result in high rate of deposition over the wall. In such situations, the secondary flows

68
5.7. Results and discussion

(b)
(a)

(c) (d)

Figure 5.8: Flow pattern: (a) at 45◦ , Re = 1000 (b) at 90◦ , Re = 1000 (c) at 45◦ , Re = 6000 (d) at
90◦ , Re = 6000

have a significant role. Therefore, as it is addressed in figure 5.12 the deposition of


the particles over the surface can be completely different from the concentration of the
particles near the wall. Hence, high mesh refinement near the wall will be a critical
issue of precision for Eulerian-Eulerian approach.
comparing figure 5.10 and 5.12, there is a difference between the position of parti-
cles deposition on the wall and the zone with maximum concentration of the particles
near the bend wall.
As depicted in figure 5.9 since the vortexes of the streamlines are more stretched in
higher Reynolds number, particles are deposited over the bend surface in a more ex-
tended area. Moreover, looking at figure 5.11 it can be seen that moving from the outer
to inner curve radius, inside the bend, the normal velocity vectors are changing direc-
tion and do not push the particles to impact the wall. That cause less deposition rate
thanks to increase in drag force, and also chaotic enhancement in the particle-particle
impact probability.
Reviewing the available experimental data, it can be seen that for Re = 1000 there are
two different experimental test setups as described in table 5.1. One set of results are
captured using a glass elbow, while in the other case a stainless steel bend is used for
the experiment. The reported experimental results depict a slight difference between
two sets of data. The results are briefly illustrated in figure 5.13.

69
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling

(a) (b)

Figure 5.9: Flow streamlines inside the bend for (a) Re = 1000 (b) Re = 6000

Figure 5.10: Particle concentration profile near the bend wall for (a) Re = 1000 (b) Re = 6000 at
Stk = 0.33

As stated before, there is a slight difference between the results of two geometries
even with the same test conditions. The difference can be seen in both model and ex-
periment. This various behavior can be described through the effect of particle/surface
interaction.
Normally, there are two major parameters affecting particle/wall interaction. The first
one is surface roughness (or smoothness). This factor can serve various roles. Not
only surface roughness can change the particle impact probability [114], but also they
can affect behavior of the boundary layer [115]. In this case, according to the litera-
ture [114, 116], the effect of surface roughness can be moderate or even negligible.
The other critical parameter is the particle/surface adhesion force, which can be com-
pletely different for stainless steel and glass. The adhesion energy can significantly
change the sickness mechanism.
The results of deposition efficiency from this model within an Eulerian-Eulerian ap-
proach is compared with the experimental results and available analytical and Eulerian-
Lagrangian models. The results show that the model can predict the deposition effi-

70
5.7. Results and discussion

(b)
(a)

(c)
(d)

Figure 5.11: Secondary flow pattern: (a) at 45◦ , Re = 1000 (b) at 90◦ , Re = 1000 (c) at 45◦ ,
Re = 6000 (d) at 90◦ , Re = 6000

ciency with quite satisfactory precision (figure 5.14).


For the flow with Re = 6000, the k −  model was used. According to Breuer [117]
standard k −  has a poor performance for low-Reynolds turbulent multiphase problems
with complex geometries. However, in this study, the modified second order k − 
strategy is applied. The results were satisfactorily comparable with the experimental
data (figure 5.15)
The main advantage of the presented model is that it can be generically applied to
both laminar and turbulent flows, avoiding the drawbacks of simplified previous Eule-
rian models, such as poor RANS turbulent flow model results as reported in [117].
Moreover, as stated before, a closer look at the problem reveals that the particle/wall
interaction can significantly influence the efficiency of deposition. Comparing the ex-
perimental data for glass and stainless steel pipes at equal Reynolds number, a slight
difference can be observed, while through previous presented models the effect of con-
tact mechanics parameters were completely ignored. The restitution coefficient, surface
specific energy as well size of particles will be effective. Of course there are other pa-
rameters such as surface roughness and wet-ability which can also be considered.

5.7.1 Deposition in centrifugal compressor


After evaluation of the presented model, it is applied to study the mechanism of fouling
inside centrifugal compressors. For this purpose, the reduced grid of the compressor

71
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling

(a) (b)

Figure 5.12: Particle deposition pattern near the bend wall for (a) Re = 1000 (b) Re = 6000

(a) (b)

Figure 5.13: Comparison of deposition efficiency results for (a) glass and (b) stainless steel test cases
at Re = 1000

is used. The grid is described and the performance results are validated in previous
chapters.
To do so, both Eulerian-Eulerian and Eulerian-Lagrangian schemes are considered.
However, as described before, various modifications are applied to the solvers to achieve
more physical results.

The Eulerian-Eulerian scheme

The Eulerian-Eulerian approach is used in this section. Applying dynamic mesh with
a sophisticated geometry of compressor to a multiphase solver encountering particle
wall interaction is an extremely costly computational problem. Therefore, only the few
milliseconds of operation is calculated to study the mechanism of deposition.
The particles are considered one micron uniform spheres. The selected material is alu-
minum oxide which has a specific surface energy almost similar to the dust aerosols in
the atmosphere. the entrance particle concentration is assumed to be identical to the lo-
cal mean flow velocity. In order to reduce the computational process, the concentration
is assumed to be 0.001 which can satisfy the dilute flow (one-way coupling) assump-
tion.

72
5.7. Results and discussion

Figure 5.14: Comparison of the results with experiment and other models at Re = 1000

Figure 5.15: Comparison of the results with experiment at Re = 6000

The particle concentration is strongly affected by applied momentum of the rotation


impeller. As a result, the dominant deposition mechanism is inertial deposition.
The results show that the particle concentration is higher in the pressure side of blade
to blade space (see figure 5.16).

In reality concentration of the particle phase is dominated by the high inertia of the
moving impeller blades and magnified by the secondary flows between impeller blades
which can be observed in figure 5.17).
Going into detail of various plane cuts in figure 5.17, there are spots with huge particle
concentration close to the hub of the blades at pressure side. The particles are trapped
in these areas due to very high rotational speed of the blades and concave blade shapes.
Of course, these effects highly depends on the particle Stokes number.
The particle deposition is also affected by main and secondary flows, as also studied
for the bend case study. Needless to say, at the leading edge of the impeller blades
there is a big possibility for particle deposition, since they will be faced to sudden huge
gradient which is depicted in figure 5.18.
Then, according to the higher concentration of discrete phase in the pressure side of
the blade, thanks to the high curvature of the impeller base and the effect of secondary
flows, particles are trapped and stick in the high curvatures near the hub of the blades,

73
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling

Figure 5.16: The profiles of the particle concentration around he impeller at different axial planes

specially the zones with higher flow speed.


Furthermore, as it happened for the bend case study, regarding to the effect of sec-
ondary flows the deposition can be extended to the surface of impeller plates, which is
illustrated in figure 5.18.

The chronological study of particle deposition reveals that the amount of particles
stuck to the surface of stationary part (mostly after the impeller) not only is not negli-
gible but also even more than the rotating part (figure 5.19). This observation, with no
doubt, strongly depends on the Stokes number and the critical velocity of the particles,
which is defined in equation 4.15.

The strange behavior which can be seen in the figure is that the rate of deposition
over the stationary part is much higher than the rotating part. The first reason can be
huge velocity gradient between the already accelerated particles when they confront the
volute walls. The second reason is due to very complex geometry of volute which can
tremendously affect the deposition mechanism.

The Eulerian-Lagrangian scheme

The Eulerian-Lagrangian approach is also used to investigate the behavior of solid par-
ticles inside the turbocharger compressor. However, there are big challenges to achieve
this purpose. The compatibility of the Lagrangian dispersed phase with the dynamic
mesh, the tolerance in the position of arbitrary mesh interfaces and the dislocation of
the curved geometries to the linear edges are some of the faced problems. Such chal-
lenges make the approach even more complex than it is. Also, the size of the particles
cause another restriction in cell refinement process. The first assumption in the most of
the Lagrangian solutions is to assume that all the dimensions of each computational cell

74
5.7. Results and discussion

Figure 5.17: The profiles of the particle concentration around he impeller at different planes perpendic-
ular to the main flow stream

is much greater than the size of the particle. However, it is a matter of consideration in
the complex turbomachine geometries especially near the sharp edges.
To study this case, the uniform source of particles is considered that are entering the
turbocharger with a uniform normal velocity vector. Since, the Stokes number of the
particles are very small, then, we can assume that the particles will adapt to the flow
before they meet the impeller.
In figure 5.20 the deposited particles sticking to the surface are shown.
As it can be seen in this figure, the a significant amount of particles are sticked to
the leading edges and near the curvatures mostly at the pressure side.
As also shown in Eulerian-Lagrangian results due to the huge amount of particles
trapped through the concaveness of rotating blades’ pressure side and thanks to sec-
ondary flow, also particles are sticking to the blade hub and impeller plate.
However, the most important portion is deposited over the volute curved walls. This
dense deposition reveals a unique fouling behavior of centrifugal compressors, since
in similar cases like axial turbomachines deposition mostly happens on rotating blades
[118, 119].

75
Chapter 5. Deposition Numerical modeling

Figure 5.18: Deposition rate of particles over the impeller surface (Eulerian-Eulerian scheme)

8E-13

7E-13

6E-13
total deposition mass [cub.m/sec]

5E-13

4E-13
impeller
fixed walls
3E-13
total

2E-13

1E-13

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025

-1E-13
time [sec]

Figure 5.19: Deposition rate of particles over the impeller surface (Total deposition mass formation
calculated with Eulerian-Eulerian scheme)

76
5.7. Results and discussion

Figure 5.20: Deposition rate of particles over the impeller surface (Eulerian-Lagrangian scheme)

77
CHAPTER 6
Introduction to 1D-3D coupling model of
turbocharger compressor

6.1 Introduction

The interaction of engine and turbocharger is an important subject in internal combus-


tion engine systems behavior. Not only the turbocharger is improving the characteris-
tics of the engine, but also operation of the engine parts influences the performance of
turbocharger components.
It is obvious that a turbomachine is not ideally suited to operate with a reciprocating
machine. Internal combustion engines are capable of operating over a wide range of
flow conditions. In the earlier applications of turbochargers, they were used in a special
range of engine work to boost the power or provide acceleration.
Recently, turbocharger are widely used in passenger cars. The main objective behind
this application is to increase the ratio of power/volume of the engine, so called as
downsizing. With the aim of downsizing the system, also turbochargers should support
the whole range of engine operation, which means working on mass flow rate marginal
areas. However, not only the efficiency but also the whole performance parameters of
turbocharger components highly depend on the quality and situation of the mass enter-
ing the impellers. Therefore, close to the operational margins, the unsteady behavior of
system is critical and a major topic of investigation.
In this chapter a coupling tool to study turbocharger/engine matching behavior is intro-
duced.

79
Chapter 6. Introduction to 1D-3D coupling model of turbocharger compressor

6.2 Study of turbocharger compressor behavior in unsteady situation:


a state of the art
One of the most critical situations is when the load reduces and the turbocharger com-
pressor is working near the surge zone. The effect of any sudden change in the engine
parameters can be severely critical.
The unsteady behavior of compressors has been investigated in several publications
[120–122]. Also, the unsteady behavior of compressor specifically investigated for
turbocharger applications [33, 123, 124]. In the former research, the performance pa-
rameters of the compressor has been experimentally studied regarding various intake
valve opening strategies. In the second research the experimental performance data,
provided by internal combustion engine group at University of Genoa are combined
with a 1D thermo fluid dynamic code. The code is called Gasdyn and is provided by
internal combustion engine group at Politecnico di Milano. Finally, through the latter
study, the blade vibration is investigated experimentally and numerically according to
local pressure fluctuations bought by imbalanced pressure waves.

6.2.1 Compressor stall and surge


Surge is an unstable condition resulting in flow, reversals and pressure fluctuations in
the compressor. It happens when the compressor is unable to deliver continuous mass
flow to downstream. Therefore, the instability will be dispersed to the whole system.
In this situation an aerodynamic instability causes resistance in mass delivery of the
compressor, which occurs due to flow reduction and cause a rotating stall inside the
compressor. The stall regions propagate in the same direction as the blades at a fraction
of the rotor speed. The part of the area of the annular flow path the stalled regions oc-
cupy may also grow exponentially with time, until a certain size is reached. If the stall
has enough power, then the magnified instability can spread through the whole system
and is called surge.
Surge is a self-excited cyclic phenomenon, affecting the compression of the whole com-
pressor and characterized by large amplitude pressure rise and averaged mass flow fluc-
tuations. The fluctuation can be so high that even flow reversal is also considered. This
type of behavior is a large amplitude limit cycle oscillation. It starts to occur in a region
of the compressor map where the pressure ratio for constant speed have a positive slope
that exceeds a certain value as mass flow rate increases [125].
Surge phenomena in compressor applications is also studied in various other researches
(see [126, 127]).

6.3 Introduction to engine/turbocharger hybrid solution


In order to study the interaction of engine and turbocharger through CFD, normally
a very complex model with a huge number of cells is required. However, a hybrid
strategy is introduced to decrease the computational procedure. Through the following
sections, theoretical aspects,the calculation mechanism and the model of compressor
case used for this study will be introduced. However, the final objective of the research

80
6.3. Introduction to engine/turbocharger hybrid solution

would be to study the effect of unsteady behavior of IC engine on the behavior of com-
pressor near the surge zone (see also [128, 129]) and could be a separate work of PhD
research.

6.3.1 1D-3D coupling solver


The multidimensional modeling approach is a useful tool to solve the sophisticated
numerical problems. The strategy is very popular in internal combustion engine field
of study [130–133].
As a 1D/3D case study two numerical codes are combined: a 1D (Gasdyn) scheme and a
3D (OpenFOAM) scheme. The codes have been adopted for the prediction of the wave
motion inside the intake and the exhaust systems of internal combustion engines [134].
The simulation of a complex engine exhaust system, namely the 5 into 1 junction of
a Lamborghini V10 engine, has been performed. The results pointed out significant
differences between the only 1D and the 1D-3D approach, related to the multi-D wave
motion effects which cannot be captured by the 1D model resorting only to corrective
lengths.
In another study a four-stroke, 4V-cylinder, 1.0L motorcycle spark ignition engine was
modeled, in order to predict the wave motion in the system and its influence on the
cylinder gas exchange process [135]. Also in this work 1D Gasdyn code is used along
with 3D OpenFOAM platform. Gasdyn is a 1D thermo fluid dynamic code developed
in ICE group at Politecnico di Milano [136].
For combining two codes a coupling solver has already been developed by the same
group. The solver is based on solving a Riemann-Godunov problem (see equation 6.1),
by using HLLC Riemann solver.

Ut + F (U, t)x = 0 (6.1)

U (x, 0) = U0 (x)

U (xL , t) = Ul (x), U (xR , t) = Ur (x)

HLLC Riemann solver is the modified version of Harten-Lax-Vanleer (HLL) ap-


proximate solution [137]. HLL approximate solution results propose a zone which
contains the field value results due to wave propagation speed (SR and SL ) difference
close to the boundary (see figure 6.1).

U , x ≤ SL
 L t


Ū (x, t) = Uhll , SL ≤ xt ≤ SR (6.2)

UR , x ≥ SR

t

In HLLC approach a middle wave speed, S ∗ , is defined to correct the assumptions


of HLL method (figure 6.2).
Therefore, the solution will be presented in the form of equation 6.3

81
Chapter 6. Introduction to 1D-3D coupling model of turbocharger compressor

SL SR

Uhll

UL UR

Figure 6.1: Schematic view of HLL approximate Riemann solution

SL S* SR

Uhllc,R Uhllc,R

UL UR

Figure 6.2: Schematic view of HLLC approximate Riemann solution



 UL , xt ≤ SL


Uhllc,L , SL ≤ x
≤ S∗

t
Ū (x, t) = (6.3)

 Uhllc,R , S ∗ ≤ x
t
≤ SR


UR , x ≥ SR

t

Through this research a 3D transient solver library, which is capable of capturing


the dynamic mesh problem, was added to the coupling solver in order to capture the
behavior of compressor part, while the engine behavior is modeled by Gasdyn.

82
6.4. The compressor case study

6.3.2 The effect of engine unsteady behavior on compressor performance


The effect of engine unsteady parameters are recently investigated in the literature.
In [138] the effect of inlet structure on the compressor behavior and compressor perfor-
mance, especially close to the surge line, is investigated. Also, Yano [139] experimen-
tally and theoretically pointed out that the dynamic effect of valve opening/closing can
decrease the chance of surge to happen.
In [140] the surge line position of a heavy-truck turbocharger compressor is investi-
gated experimentally. The performance data of the surge dominated area (left side of
the surge line) is also extracted and discussed.
The same research group studied the valve actuation strategies affecting the transient
behavior of performance which can be illustrated in compressor performance map [33].
Also, this study was extended to the operations near the surge line and pointed out a big
difference in compressor surge behavior between steady-state and unsteady operation
of the system.

6.4 The compressor case study


In this section, the performance map of a selected compressor at steady state condition
is studied.

6.4.1 Geometry and mesh generation


The RHf3G compressor model belongs to a small turbocharger manufactured by IHI.
The turbocharger is of high speed small automotive class, which mostly used in pas-
senger cars.

Figure 6.3: Exploded view of the turbocharger (courtesy of ICEG University of Genoa)

83
Chapter 6. Introduction to 1D-3D coupling model of turbocharger compressor

The compressor has been experimentally analyzed in Internal Combustion Engines


Group (ICEG) at University of Genoa. The reported detail dimensions of the impeller
part are illustrated in figure 6.4

Figure 6.4: Impeller of the compressor with details (courtesy of ICEG University of Genoa)

Table 6.1: The dimensions of impeller (courtesy of ICEG University of Genoa)

No. Dimension Value [mm]


1 hc 15.5
2 hc,b 3.95
3 Dc,in,tip 31.4
4 Dc,out,tip 40
4 Dc,seal 7.35
6 Dc,in,hub 9
7 number of blades 10

6.4.2 Steady-state performance study


The compressor geometry is modeled through CAD softwares, from available blue
prints (figure 6.5)
Unfortunately, the plan was related to the preforms geometry. Therefore, the finish-
ing and tip clearance was assumed. Then, the 3D CAD model was constructed. The
Surface geometry is extracted and redefined in STL format. Using STL format is help-
ing the mesh generation algorithms to define the boundary points easily and precisely.
Similar to the procedure introduced in chapter 3, a structured grid is generated. Detail
of the generated grid is shown in figure 6.6.
Also, in this generated grid the flow alignment is considered to achieve more precise

84
6.4. The compressor case study

Figure 6.5: Compressor casing blueprint (courtesy of ICEG University of Genoa)

flow field results.

The generated grid specifications are shown in table 6.2

Table 6.2: Generated grid specifications

No. of cells 804120


No. of hexahedral cells 662840
No. of polyhedral cells 106845
maximum non-orthogonality 69.979
average non-orthogonality 14.6766
maximum skewness 8.34337

Again the number of grid cells are minimized to provide a fast reliable case for the
final complex solution approach. Because of very high As stated before, to simplify
the dynamic behavior of the rotating compressor to a steady-state problem, a Multi
Reference Frame approach is assumed. However, with such approach some transient
phenomena (such as blade to blade pressure oscillation) are ignored. To do so, the gen-
erated 3D geometry is separated into two stationary and rotating zones as depicted in
figure 6.7.

85
Chapter 6. Introduction to 1D-3D coupling model of turbocharger compressor

Figure 6.6: Generated mesh details of the compressor

It is stated before that MRF approach is freezing the dynamic geometry. This sim-
plification can have undesirable minor effects on the solution of physically unsteady
problems such as flow properties inside a centrifugal compressor. Not only the oscil-
lating impact of the impeller blades, but also, the non-symmetric shape of the passage
can significantly affect the flow streamlines. Therefore, in order to decrease the effect
of this chaotic assumption on the solution, the rotating part is constrained far from inlet
and outlet patches, where the physical boundary conditions are applied.

Figure 6.7: compressor zones in MRF approach: rotating part is red and stationary parts are gray

86
6.4. The compressor case study

Solution settings

The experiments are performed at four rotational speeds. Various mass flow rates be-
tween surge zone and choking criteria have been experimentally studied. Table 6.3
shows the experimental setting values of the test points.

Table 6.3: Experimental test-points data

No. Corr. N [krpm] Corr. flow [kg/sec] No. Corr. N [krpm] Corr. flow [kg/sec]
1 58889 0.035 18 117984 0.053
2 59094 0.031 19 117978 0.043
3 59052 0.027 20 117775 0.032
4 59181 0.022 21 117917 0.022
5 59001 0.018 22 162017 0.114
6 58933 0.013 23 161840 0.101
7 58992 0.009 24 161943 0.088
8 88951 0.062 25 161932 0.076
9 88986 0.054 26 161711 0.062
10 89023 0.046 27 162188 0.048
11 89026 0.038 28 161829 0.036
12 88887 0.030 29 206946 0.130
13 88867 0.023 30 206835 0.117
14 89126 0.015 31 207251 0.106
15 117995 0.083 32 207235 0.093
16 118184 0.074 33 207011 0.085
17 117995 0.064

The compressible SIMPLE based steady state solver is also used in this study. The
turbulence model is k −ω −SST which uses k −w model near the wall and k − model
far from the wall, to increase the precision and consistency of the turbulence equations.
Also, fixed total pressure is assumed at compressor inlet, while the mass flow rate is set
at the outlet patch.

Results and discussion

The solution is continued for all the operational points to reach the convergence. Then,
the results are verified with the available experimental data. The experimental data is re-
vealed through the performance map. Figure 6.8 depicts the experimental performance
map of the compressor obtained in ICEG lab of University of Genoa.
Five different rotational speeds are considered. The pressure, temperature and flux
at inlet and outlet of the compressor is measured. Then, the non-dimensional charac-
teristics are calculated.
For the model, the same operating points are considered. The results of the performance
study are shown in figure 6.9.
Comparing the experimental data and the modeling results inside the performance
map, it is shown that for the lower rotational speeds and low mass flow rates there is
almost a perfect matching. However, as the velocity magnitude inside the domain in-
creases, the model can not capture the physical measured value, although the trend is
the same.

87
Chapter 6. Introduction to 1D-3D coupling model of turbocharger compressor

Figure 6.8: Experimental performance map of IHI-RHF3 compressor (courtesy of ICEG University of
Genoa)

3.000

2.500

60K-exp
60K-model
2.000 90K-exp
90K-model
Pressure ratio

120K-exp

1.500 120K-model
160K-exp
160K-model
207K-exp
1.000
207K-model

0.500

0.000
0.000 0.020 0.040 0.060 0.080 0.100 0.120 0.140
Corrected mass [kg/sec]

Figure 6.9: The comparison of performance resulted from model and experimental data

It was noted before that as rotational speed and mass flow rate increase, transonic
regime will be more dominant inside the compressor. Therefore, density change will

88
6.4. The compressor case study

have significant effects on the fluid flow. In such cases, the precision of the pressure
based solver are reduced.
Comparing the results with the experimental data a deviation in the pressure ratio can
be seen, as it is also observed in the first compressor case (see figure 3.6). To figure out
the reason, the range of gas velocity is surveyed. Table 6.4 shows the values of Mach
number for different rotational speeds.

Table 6.4: Maximum calculated local Mach number for the operational area of the compressor

No. Corr. N [krpm] Corr. flow [kg/sec] Mach number


1 58889 0.035 0.334
2 59094 0.031 0.343
3 59052 0.027 0.346
4 59181 0.022 0.352
5 59001 0.018 0.398
6 58933 0.013 0.367
7 58992 0.009 0.355
8 88951 0.062 0.567
9 88986 0.054 0.489
10 89023 0.046 0.515
11 89026 0.038 0.519
12 88887 0.030 0.532
13 88867 0.023 0.532
14 89126 0.015 0.531
15 117995 0.083 0.584
16 118184 0.074 0.635
17 117995 0.064 0.673
18 117984 0.053 0.674
19 117978 0.043 0.688
20 117775 0.032 0.687
21 117917 0.022 0.696
22 162017 0.114 0.754
23 161840 0.101 0.857
24 161943 0.088 0.884
25 161932 0.076 0.889
26 161711 0.062 0.913
27 162188 0.048 0.91
28 161829 0.036 0.915
29 206946 0.130 1.04
30 206835 0.117 1.15
31 207251 0.106 1.19
32 207235 0.093 1.2
33 207011 0.085 1.1

From the data given in table 6.4 it is shown that almost all the operational region
with high rotational speed are in transonic zone. It can clear out why the results of
these areas have a significant deviation from the experimental data.
Also in figure 6.10 a set of pressure, velocity and temperature sample profiles are
shown.
As it is expected, the maximum value of the flow velocity is observed at the end
of rotating part, while the volute has the duty to transform this huge amount of kinetic

89
Chapter 6. Introduction to 1D-3D coupling model of turbocharger compressor

Figure 6.10: Field profile distribution resulted with static mesh and transient solver using MRF approach
(60krpm and 0.027kg/sec)

energy to pressure.Therefore, the maximum pressure value is achieved at outlet patch.


Gas temperature is starting to increase as the flow entering the impeller zone. In the
volute as the almost isentropic expansion happens, the temperature rise is continuing.
Therefore, the maximum temperature can be also seen at the outlet patch.

6.5 Future work


As stated in the previous section, the high-speed rotation of the impeller induces an
error in pressure based algorithms, such as SIMPLE, especially in the energy equation.
Therefore, a possibility is to switch to density-based approaches. The density-based
models instead of solving the reduced Navier-Stokes equations are trying to solve their
complete form taking into account the density change. However, these methods have a
big disadvantage in convergence and solution stability [5] as well as high computational
cost. Therefore, a future challenge can be providing a stable density-based steady-state
solver to evaluate the compressor. Also, The coupling solver can be evaluated by a real
turbocharger/compressor case study.

90
CHAPTER 7
Conclusion and Summary

7.1 Introduction
Application of turbochargers in internal combustion engine systems is a wide spread
technology, helping to achieve the downsizing of the engine. Using small turbocharg-
ers in passenger cars has brought new opportunities in optimization of the power trains.
However, it can cause some new challenges in this field of science and technology.
Through this thesis various aspects of study in the internal combustion engine tur-
bochargers have been investigated using computational fluid dynamic containing: per-
formance study, fouling phenomena and engine/turbocharger interaction.
In the first section of the research a steady-state model has been developed and opti-
mized in OpenFOAM platform to study the performance of the turbocharger compres-
sors.
The results correlate satisfactorily with the experimental data in most of the operational
region. However, when the flow reaches close to transonic velocities, a significant de-
viation appears. For this reason, a modified solver is used which could improve the
results.
However, there is a penalty of convergence problem and the costly computational pro-
cess. Also, the generated grid is optimized to achieve the best results with a faster
solution.
Various boundary conditions are applied to the steady state solution. it is shown that
each physical boundary condition can significantly influence on the stability and con-
vergence speed of the solution.
The other problem in steady state modeling of centrifugal compressor is that as the ef-
fect of compressibility increases, the pressure based solutions are less reliable. In the
case of small turbocharger compressors, high mass flow rates and high rotational speeds
are leading the flow into transonic situation. Although, a correction modification is ap-

91
Chapter 7. Conclusion and Summary

plied to the solution to add the effect of density change on the flow field solutions, it
reduces the stability of the SIMPLE based solvers and increasing the convergence time.
Therefore, even with decreasing the grid size maybe density based solvers can be con-
sidered. However, the complexity and stability issues of such solvers, especially for the
complex geometries are a major problem.
The case of complexity is become more critical when an additional behavior or phe-
nomena such as compressor fouling is also studied.
Fouling in turbocharger compressors can significantly affect the system performance.
Therefore, gaining a precise knowledge about the mechanisms of particle deposition in
turbomachines is extremely valuable.
Through this project an Eulerian-Eulerian solver has been developed to predict the de-
position of the solid particles. the solver is based on the two-fluid strategy. On this
way, the dispersed phase (particles) is defined as a secondary continuum fluid, using
kinematic theory of granular flows.
Navier-Stokes equations are solved separately for each phase, taking into account the
phase interaction. Such sophisticated strategy has the advantage of satisfying stability.
Also, it is generic according to the number and concentration of solid particles. How-
ever, in Eulerian-Lagrangian approaches, the number and concentration of particles is
highly critical.
The results of Eulerian-Eulerian solver inside a bend point out that the particle deposi-
tion is highly sensitive to the velocity of the flow and the particle/wall interaction during
the contact. Most of the researches both in Eulerian-Eulerian and Eulerian-Lagrangian
approaches are focusing on the dynamics of the flow, particle-particle impact and parti-
cle flow interaction. In this situation, the Stokes number is the main parameter affecting
the deposition of particles over the surface. However, through this research it is shown
that impact velocity and particle-surface interaction forces might have also critical roles
in the procedure of deposition.
Also, the results show that for geometries like a centrifugal compressor with curved
boundaries, the secondary flows also have important role in this process.
Although, the particles were very small the deposition spots are mostly seen in the lo-
cations, where the flow meets curve geometries. The other interesting conclusion is the
effect of secondary flows, as it can be seen near the hub of the blades and also the wheel
surface near them.
The most important advantage of applying the model on the centrifugal compressor is
that unlike axial turbomachines, most of deposition is happening over the walls of sta-
tionary part. This fact reveals that the mechanism of fouling centrifugal compressors
are completely different from the axial ones. It can be also a critical problem for the
manifolds and connections in the specific applications such as small turbochargers.
Small turbochargers have also other critical issues to take care of. One of the most
important topics of study in the turbocharger field is matching problem. The classical
matching deals with fitting the operational performance lines of the engine over the
highest performance zones of the turbocharger compressor.
However, with the popularity of applying turbochargers for normal passenger cars, new
objectives for the matching study id appeared. Since, normally the range of work for
turbocharger component (specifically the compressor part) is not well cover the range
of work of engine, therefore, study of marginal operational zones are considered in-

92
7.2. main conclusions and suggestion for the future work

teresting topics to research. The interaction between engine and turbocharger at these
zones bring about both new challenges and new opportunities. However, modeling the
combination of engine and turbocharger numerically will be extremely costly.
Through this project an available coupling 1D-3D solver is presented and modified to
cover the dynamic behavior of the engine (through 1D Gasdyn code) as well as turbo-
harger compressor transient operation (through 3D OpenFOAM).
A compressor case has been studied and evaluated for this purpose. The results show
that the compressor is working mostly near the transonic area. Therefore, the pressure-
based solvers are not completely reliable and the development of a density-based effi-
cient solver can be a major task for the future work.

7.2 main conclusions and suggestion for the future work


Regarding to the objective of the project which is introducing the computational fluid
dynamic modeling of turbocharger compressor in the OpenFOAM platform, the fol-
lowing items are presented:
• The steady-state SIMPLE based solver and second order turbulence model are
completely reliable for low rotational speed.
• It is shown that the secondary flows have significant effect on the particle deposi-
tion inside a centrifugal compressor.
• For the centrifugal compressors the deposition rates over the stationary walls ex-
ceed the values of the rotating parts, which can make new topics to study it also
inside the manifolds, valves and junctions.
• Since the effect of particle surface interaction is found critical in the deposition
phenomena, it is suggested that some experiments will be conducted to identify
the effect of surface forces on deposition rate.
• It is suggested to work on Density-based solver and try to improve their efficiency
to study the steady-state behavior of the complex cases like turbocharger com-
pressor.
• To study the secondary flows and their effect on particle deposition, it is suggested
to provide more realistic models (such as more refined grid and LES turbulence
model).
• According ro recent modification in lagranian library of the OpenFOAM software,
modeling the moving mesh with considering boundary deformation is possible.
• 1D-3D engine-compressor model based on GasDyn and density based 3D solver
can be a topic of study.

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