Professional Documents
Culture Documents
May 1994
Contents
..................................
Introduction.................................... ....................... 7
....................
5
Acknowledgements
The publication of this Handbook has been sponsored by the following organisations:
Prefabrication is an industrialized process with a large potential information in this Hundbook which may be needed during their
for the future. It constitutes one of the possible answers to education.
questions and statements such as: The first chapter of the Hurzdhook considers the possibility of
using precast concrete for a project from the viewpoint of the
Construction becomes uneconomical choice of the construction inethod. Most buildings are suitable
There will be no volunteers for hard site work for precasting, either in whole or in part. depending on the
architectural and / or structural requirements.
Construction activity should be automated. In the second chapter, information is given concerning the
procedure to be followed in the initial design of a building.
In addition. prefabrication is completely in line with modern followed by some guidelines about the application of the most
trends towards faster and environmentally friendlier common basic structural systems in precast buildings.
construction, higher quality. energy savings and subsequent The purpose of the third chapter is to give the reader a general
service at design and execution. idea as to the appearance of the most common types of precast
The construction industry requires a wide choice in the concrete buildings, the different possible applications and which
selection of building components. In the next decade it is forecast types of precast units are commonly used. There are no details
that the increasing deniand on the performance of these or large descnptions but a lot of drawings and pictures. helping
components will overtake existing technology. Organizations the uninitiated designer to become familiar with precasting.
will be left with no other choice than to extrapolate existing Chapter 4 discusses the basic design principles from both the
knowledge to meet this demand. The cal1 for higher theoretical and practica1 standpoints. The stabilizing systems
specifications for comercial. industrial. civic and domestic which are specific to precast construction are discussed with
buildings has led to a major rethink in construction strategy. The reference to the location of the actual stabilizing components.
precast concrete industry is ideally placed to accommodate these Structural integrity is very iniportant in the design of precast
higher demands because the degree of prefabrication, using structures and the design philosophy on how to achieve this
skilled labour in quality controlled conditions, is set to increase coherence is considered. Finally. principles and design criteria
dramatically. are given to clarify the philosophy behind the types of
Prefabrication of concrete structures is often considered by connections used in the different types of precast structures.
uninitiated designers as a variation on cast in-situ construction Chapters 5 to 8 address the four most commonly used systems
techniques. In this approach. prefabrication means only that parts or subsystems of precast concrete in building construction.
of the structure are precast in specialized plants to be assembled
namely:
afterwards on site in such a way that the initial concept of cast
in-situ structures is obtained as closely as possible.
This view point is false. Every construction system has its own frame and skeletal structures
characteristics which to a greater or lesser extent influence the precast floors and roofs
lay-out, storey height. stability, statical system. etc. For the best bearing wall structures
results a design should. from the very outset. respect the specific
and particular demands of the intended structure. architectural concrete facades.
To get optimum benefits. it is very important that the design
for a precast concrete structure should be conceived according Practica1 information on each of the above is given so that the
to specific rules from the very outset. The problem has been that architect and engineer may prepare a first draft scheme on any
there is a wealth of general and detailed information on design one or a combination of the above. This may be submitted to the
guides for definite projects, but surprisingly little to help specialist prefabricator for detailed discussion. The optimum use
engineers and architects to achieve a full understanding of the of each method is discussed with regard to building coordination,
specific design philosophy of precast concrete building component sizes and location, and load transfer systems for
structures to start a project. gravity and horizontal loads. A wide range of connections with
This Haridlmk is intended to fill this gap by providing a their serviceability performance are shown.
detailed review of the subject and thereby promoting a greater The Handbook is written for predominantly non-seismic
awareness and understanding of precast concrete buildings. It structures. Brief information on how to design precast concrete
gives at the same time a synthesis of the work done by the FIP under seismic loading is given in different chapters.
Commission o n Prefabrication over the past twenty years in the Al1 the data given in the present Haiidhook are evidence of
domain of precast concrete. It has been written particularly for normal practice. The user should always bear in mind that, owing
those less familiar with this form of construction, but will also to the flexibility of the precast concrete industry, special designs
be of interest to al1 engineers. architects and others concerned can be accomodated in order to meet specitic requirements.
with the design and erection of buildings. Students of Techica1 The Handhook concludes with a list of references to good
Universities and High Schools will also find valuable literature on precast concrete construction.
i
FIP Hundbook o11precast building structures 7
1 Suitability of precast concrete construction
8 strirctirrrs
concrete construction can increase the overall speed of
construction by allowing parts of the structure to be released at
an early stage to following trades whilst work continues on
erecting the upper storeys of the building. It is worthwhile
calculating the savings on intervening interests for the total
investment in a building which is complete 6 months earlier than
if it were constructed in a more traditional way.
Concrete
Most precasting works use computer controlled batching and
mixing equipment, leading to a reduction in the standard
deviation of the characteristics such as workability, ultimate
strength, etc. Additives and admixtures are used in the mix ( a )Heat exchange between iientilation air and hollow-core
design to obtain the specific mechanical performances needed floor units
for each product. Casting and compaction of the concrete is
performed in indoor working conditions with optimum
equipment. The water content can be reduced to a minimum, and
compaction and curing are done in controlled circumstances.
The result is that the grade of concrete used can be exactly
suited to the requirements of each type of component in order to
expedite the use of more expensive and exhaustible materials.
In addition the mix efficiency is better than cast in-situ concrete.
High strength concrete grades of 1 O0 N/mm' cylinder strength
are already used daily in some precasting plants.
Variation in concrete surfaces and concrete colour can only be
achieved when the concrete casting procedure is controlled
under factory conditions (see section 1.3.3). A wide variety of
concrete colours can be used when special cement qualities, e.g.
white cement. specific additives or sophisticated production
methods are used. This is of outstanding importance for the
manufacture of concrete facade elements, but many examples
using pigmented structural concrete have also been built.
Concrete is also used when assembling precast elements into
a complete structure. In this Haiidbook the joint concrete is called
mortar, joint fill. joint mortar. padding material, fine concrete,
cast in-situ concrete, injection grout, concrete filling or grout.
Depending on the purpose and the design of the joint, the joint ( b )Ventilatiori pipes for central ofice building heating built
concrete has to fulfil additional requirements under certain irito double ceiling
conditions, e.g. shrinkage free, etc.
Recuperation and recycling of waste concrete is already done
in several precasting plants and will be accelerated by growing Fig. 1.2 E.xample.7 qf built-in building s e n k e s
environmental consciousness. However such solutions demand
signifícant research and investment efforts. but will result in
environmental friendlier construction. 1.3.3 Appearance and finishes
Precast concrete components can be produced with a wide
Reirflorcing steel variety of finishes. These range from carefully moulded surfaces
The total quantity of reinforcement can be optimized to give the to high quality visual concrete. Considerable architectural
most benefit in prefabricated concrete. High tensile ribbed bar is freedom and range of expression can be obtained by using beams
used in the majority of cases, including shear links, where the and columns with special shapes and with high quality finishes.
increased tensile strength outweighs the additional cost. The designer can inspect and accept the units before they are
Prestressing is often applied in precasting because of the transported to the site and fixed in place.
possibility of using prestressing beds and tendons anchored by Precast architectural concrete offers a wide range of top quality
bond. The latter technique gives not only al1 the constructional finishes in a panoply of colours and textures such as limestones
advantages of prestressed concrete, but also economy in or granite, complex brickwork detailing and masonry profiles
manufacture because of low labour input and the absence of reproduced in reconstructed stone or simulated stone - al1
anchorage devices. features which would be prohibitively expensive if carried out
on site by conventional methods.
Fibre concrete
The use of fibre reinforcement has progressed more in precast 1.3.4 Tolerances
construction than in cast in-situ concrete. Steel, glass and There will inevitably be differences between the specified
synthetic fibres are already commonly used in several precast dimensions and the actual dimensions of the components and
products. e.g. facade cladding. The advantage lies in the final building. These deviations must be recognized and allowed
reduction of labour input at manufacture, thinner concrete for. Precast concrete is generally manufactured with relatively
members, more complex shapes, etc. small deviations but designers should take a realistic view of
2.1 Approaches to design First step - general layout of the floor plan and vertical
There are a number of routes to the design development’of and horizontal circulation. In the chosen example, the office
building projects. In the traditional route used for in-situ spaces are along the facades, with a corridor beside the
reinforced concrete structures. the architect and consulting central line of columns.
engineer are responsible for the design and detailing of the Second step - selection of the precast structural system.
construction. The work can be fully described/specified/ Information and guidelines are given in Section 2.3 and
quantified and competitively tendered. The contractor is chosen further in the whole Handbook. A skeletal system with
on the basis of tendering results and is totally responsible for the architectural concrete cladding is chosen in the example.
construction. under supervision of the designers, and is not
normally required to contribute to the design. Third step - choice of the column grid and floor span. In
the example the column grid is modulated on a 7.2 m x 7.2 m
In precast concrete construction. the architect and consulting and 7.2 m x 9.6 m axis distance. Guidelines are given in
engineer remain the lead persons in the design and detailing of a
project, but assistance from the precasting engineer is Sections 4.6, 5.3 and 6.4.
recommended in order to get the maximum advantage from Fourth step - choice and positioning of the stabilizing
specialist design and factory production. Another reason for this components. In the example, horizontal stability is ob-
collaboration lies in the fact that the precasting industry is tained by a lift shaft and a shear wall. The latter is needed
continuously improving and adapting its construction because of the eccentric location of the stabilizing core.
techniques to market demands and competition. This should be Detailed guidelines are given in Chapter 4.
beneficia1 to the client. Fifth step - choice and preliminary dimensioning of the
At the initial design stage. there are severa1 posible routes. precast beam and floor units. Here the column cross-sec-
depending on the requirements of the job and the client. For tions are 300 mm x 400 mm, the beams are inverted
simple projects, the architect can himself develop the initial T-beams to reduce the overall construction depth of the
design on the basis of the guidelines given in this Handbook. It floor and the floors are prestressed hollow core units
is always recommended that the advice of a precasting engineer 265 mm thick. Information about the preliminary design
be requested. For more complex projects. the most appropriate of precast components with regard to load and span is
route is to establish a design team in which the precasting available in the catalogues and technical brochures of the
engineer collaborates. precasters.
At the final design stage the precast structural design is often
finalized and detailed by the manufacturer or in close Sixth step - choice of the facade cladding.
co-operation with him. It is not appropriate for the consultant to
undertake or to be responsible for the complete design of 2.3 Selection of structural precast system
important precast projects, but he must be satisfied that the
design input by the precaster has been properly executed and that 2.3.1 General
it integrates with the overall design of the project. In the precast concrete industry, the notion of ‘structural system’
is often considered to be part of the business competitiveness.
2.2 Schematic design at the initial stage Each manufacturer claims to have his own specific systems
As smn as the requirements of the project are fixed and a general offering the largest benefits to the clients.
idea of the building has been shaped. the following stages in the This is often a matter of confusion and distrust for designers
development of the schematic design are recommended. A simple who are not familiar with precast concrete and consider it an
office building. as illustrated in Fig. 2.1, is given as an example. insurmountable handicap to precast design. However, the reality
shear
wall -
core ,
-+--. 7.20 7.20 ~ + 7.20
T
t
Fig. 2.1 E.rample offloor layout f o r un ofSice building
Several of the systems can be combined in the same precast Fig. 2.2 Outline of large open skeletal structure
building. Some general guidelines are given in the following in combination with load-bearing facade walls and
sections with respect to the choice of the system. More detailed precast jloors
information about the various systems is given in the different
chapters of this Handbook.
F ‘ig. 2.4 Outline of building with load-bearing facades Fig. 2.5 Outline of facade with non load-bearing precast
and large floor spans concrete cladding
Precast floors, roofs and facades are often combined with cast problem. Apari from considerations of stability, it is the design
in-situ concrete or steel frames. Structural masonry can be and construction of the joints that requires the greatest attention.
combined with precast floors and roofs, but it is seldom Joining precast to in-situ concrete demands particular
combined with a precast concrete frame because the frame is accuracy in the in-situ work because of smaller tolerances in
normally erected too quickly for the load-bearing masonry to the precast units. There is more latitude in joining in-situ to
keep pace. Masonry is however sometimes used to provide infill precast concrete because inaccuracies can be taken up in the
walls. in-situ concrete work.
It is common for in-situ concrete to be used solely for the Although this Handbook is primarily concemed with precast
foundations and substructure,e.g. underground car parks, access concrete, the details provided may be found useful when
ramps and retaining walls. Structural compatibility is seldom a combining precast with in-situ concrete.
3.3.1 Load bearing interna1 walls 3.3.3 Mixed bearing wall system
The bearing wall system has been derived from classical The combination of the two above systems together with special
buildings with brick or block masonry walls. The cross-wall elements for oriels, etc. gives the architect a great degree of
structures are especially suited for serial housing construction freedom to create a building which excellently fulfils the
and large apartment buildings. Additional precast products are functional and aesthetic requirements.
shown in Fig. 3.5.
Facade elements /
:Y
Beam-block floors
Load-bearing walls
0.15 - 0.3m
3
I
0.2 -
U
0.4m
Fioor and roof beams
Rectangular or
circular columns
i 0.3 - 0.6m
Stairs
Fioor elements
“u
4iiii-
Plate 19. St. Patricks Church, Napier, New Zealand, interna1 view
s
c:
3
o
o?
r,
a “5
2 W
o c.
-
r4 ?2.
P c
J 3
O
3
c,
..o
W
o-
E.
E
3
3.5 Large free space buildings When large column-free areas are needed, the building is
This type of building is used for: normally designed with precast frame systems or load-bearing
facade walls.
industrial buildings Intermediate floors may be installed in the whole building or
parts of it. Staircases and shafts are normally formed using
warehouses bearing walls. Additional precast products are shown in Fig.
3.10.
department stores, etc.
Straight
Columns and
fuundations socket
Roof bcams
29
FIP Handhwk on prccast building structurcs
saddle shaped
element
straight single or
double T- element
0.3 - 0.6m
5 - 12m
P-
__ , . n
A A
L. A
0.3 - 0.8m $
0.5 - 1.6m
!
! Floor
height
0.5 - 0.8m $
Floor elements
0.3 - 0.4m
Spandrel units
- 'U
-/
Plate 35. Parking garage with precast brick-faced facade panels, Volkswagen, Belgium
ring beams
double-T-elements
hollow-core units
seating components
stairs
architectural paneis
special elements.
dlowing examples show the possibilities using precast
:te. For smaller arenas the systems can be built up in the
vay as for industrial buildings. Fig. 3.13 Outline of grandstand frame in precast concrete
5
3
I c
üeílcctcd
shape
Continuous
column
Pinncd
hahc
7rume systems
+ame systems are composed of linear elements, i.e. beams and
:olumns.There are two principally different options. In the first
:ase, stability is provided by cantilever action of the columns,
estrained into the foundations by moment resisting connections.
!he beam-column connection is pinned and acts as a hinge (Fig.
l.1 .a). In the second case, stability is provided by flexura1 and
hear continuity in the frame members (Fig. 4.1 h). The base
:onnection can be moment resisting or not as required. (See
Ihapter 5 for details.)
traced skeletal systems
haced skeletal systems are composed of the same elements as
ibove, but stability is provided by shear cores, shear walls or
imilar bracing (Fig. 4.2). The base connection can be pinned or
noment resisting. Chapter 5 also gives details.
Intermediate systems may appear where the beam-column
:onnections can transfer bending moments, even if they are not
Ully rigid. In the following al1 beam-column systems will be
reated as one group called frame and skeletal systems. Fig. 4.3 Exumple of u hearing wall stiwcture
?eur.ingwalls
%earingwalls appear as interior walls, i.e. cross walls or spine
valls, walls in shafts and cores, cavity walls and load-bearing
acades. The bearing walls support horizontal structures and
ransfer load to the foundation.
Bearing walls can be designed to carry in-plane horizontal
oading as one structural unit and transfer the load to the
oundation. The interaction between the wall units is secured by
:onnectionsand tying systems that transfer the necessary shear,
ensile and compressive forces.
'acades
:acade cladding can be load-bearing oí non load-bearing.
,oad-bearing facades support the floors and the above facade
inits, and also fulfil a horizontal stabilizing function in some
:ases (Fig. 4.5.a)
Elcvdtion
Non load-bearing precast architectural claddings are fixed to
he building structure (Fig. 4.5.b). They are designed to
withstand stresses appropriate to cladding panels, but not Fig. 4.4 In-plane action of precast walls
ntended to play any further role in the structure of the building.
letailed information is given in Chapter 8. concentrated load acting on one element will then be distributed
3recast,f700r.yand ro@ over several adjacent units.
rhe main function of floors and roofs is to carry load in the span Precast floors or roofs are also often designed to carry in-plane
ind to transfer it to the bearing structures. Floor and roof horizontal loads, in a similar manner to a deep beam (see section
:lements are normally designed and arranged to be simply 4.2.3). The in-plane action is obtained by means of connections
:upported. Systems appear where full or partial continuity between the units and overall tying systems. Floor systems are
Rtween adjacent spans is achieved by specially designed dealt with in detail in Chapter 6.
noment transferring connections at the support.
Adjacent floor units in a span are normally connected in such Cell systems
L way that they interact in carrying vertical loading. A Cell systems are composed of boxes and/or U-, T- and L- units.
/
FdGidC
/
Section Section
a
J
y-- J
( a ) Hollow coi-ejloor ( h )Rihhed sojfit jlooi.
Fig. 4.6 Precastjloors
B
3
Flmr units
Plan vicw
Di;t@on;il
hr;icin@
Exicrnal
hay
"11 1 YlCU
I I
settlernents
gas explosions
vehicle or aircraft colliaioris
tornados
explosions.
JK
Stabiliiiiiy coiiipoiieiii Sirucitire u i t l i f r m e Structure u ith dxletnl Structure with Structure with bearing Structure with cell
hylCIl1 systeni load-hearing walls facade systein
Caiitile\c.i-colulllll\
F r m c N itli iiioiiiciii
resistiiig cx)iiiiec.iioii~
Floor diqdirasiii *
Slic.:ii. \I a11
*
BO\c.\
l I
Detailed iiií0riii;itioii iibout tyiiig systems is given in sections CEB/FIP Model Code 1990. chapter 14 - Precast Concrete
6.5.1 and 7.3.7 o f t h i s / ~ l r l / r / h o o X . Elenients and Structures
Precast strtictiires are iiiore susceptible to the effect of FIP Recommendations: Design of Multi-storey Precast
abiioniial l o d s tliaii sonie ti-aditional foniis of construction Concrete Structures
because oí' thc presence of joints between the structural
compoiieiits. Ho\~cver.experience has shown that it is pertectly PCI : Considerations for the Design of Precast Wall Build-
possible t o cope M itli such loads by effectively tying together ings to withstand abnonnal loads
the various coiiipoiieiits of tlie structure. Portland Cement Association Reports: Philosophy of
Current protexsioiial consideration of abnornial loadings Structural Response to Normal and Abnormal Loads
concedes thLit failure of iiidividuiil structural elements or collapse
of a restricted portioii of ;i building because of a n abnorinal load A design approach to general structural integrity.
will be xceptable. although progressive collapse of a significant
portion of ;I xtriicttire a s ii result of local failure is deenied to be
generall!, uiiacceptable. 4.4 Connections
Progressive coll;ipse iiiiiy be defiiied as a chain reaction of Connections are amongst the inost essential parts in
failures followiiig diiiiiage t o only a small portion of a structure. prefabrication. The ingenuity of engineers and manufacturers
Progressi \,e c o l Iiipse i 11 bu i Id i iigs typical ly occurs when over the yeors has resulted in an extensive range of solutions and
abn«mial Ioaciiiig conditions ciiuse loss of structural capacity o r theoretical and practica1 justifications.
reinoval o f oiie or more critica1 iiiembers. Viirious design The overall behaviour of a precast structure will to a large
strategies tor iiiiiiiiiiisiiig the effects of accidental dainage have extent depend on the behaviour of the connections. In this
been put foru ml. iiiid these have been categorised as follows: respect, the connections should be regarded as essential parts of
the structural system.
Precast concrete connections must meet a variety of design,
Eliiiiiiiate tlie Iiiimrds uhicli cause local failures. ¡.e. pro- perfomiance and other criteria. Their principal function is to
Iiibitioii of gas iiistalliitions in niulti-storey buildings. in- transfer forces across joints so that interaction between precast
stiillatioii of specific protection at sensitive parts of the units is obtained. This interaction can have several purposes. i.e.
xtructure. c.2. bollards iiround columns to prevent vehicle to:
iiiipact. incorporiition of features i n a building which will
l i i i i i t tlic swerity of a hamxi. e.g. venting to liniit the connect units to the bearing structure
prcssure developed by a gas esplosion. However. with the secure the intended overall behaviour of precast subsys-
abow c\ceptioiis. ahiiomial loads can not be eliminateci tems such as diaphragm action of floors, shear wall action
t0t:ill). of walls. etc.
Desigii of the structure so thiit the hazard does not cause transfer forces from their point of application to the
aiiy locnl failure. I t is not possible to specify the loadinp stabilizing structure.
;issociated witli structiiral accidents with any certainty so
thiit. in ;ipplying the direct design approach. the forces to Other aspects concerning the function and appearance of
be resisted are of an idealised iiature and arbitrary inagiii- connections may result in specific design and execution
tude. Tlie British code gives data for such calculatiolis. requirements. for instance with respect to water tightness, fire
H o ~ e v e r from
. iiii ecoiiomic viewpoint. the above inethod protection. durability and aesthetics.
is harcll!, jiistifiable in the light of the sniall risk of the The detailing of connections should also fulfil requirements
OccurreIlce o f progressive collapse. with respect to the manufacture. transport and erection of the
Allou ing tlie iiiitiiil lociil failure t o occur. but desigiiing precast units. Here, the need for tolerances is an important matter
the strticturc s o that progressive collapse does not occur by to consider. Complex connections inay interfere with efficient
ensuriiig ;iii iilteniative path for the load. I n this respect. it production and erection of the units. Even the advantage of
is most iiiiportant to prevent structural inembers from precast construction may be lost by the use of inadequate
fiilliiig. thus initiating further damage by debris loading. connections and therefore the experience of the manufacturer
concerning good. appropriate and simple connections should be
Detailed iiitoi-iiiatioii iibout tie systenis and options for providing used in the design. The precaster can nomially refer to standard
an alteniative load path witliiii the structure to avoid progressive solutions that cover al1 normal needs. Solutions can be developed
collapse are given i i i sections 6.5.7. and 7.3.7. with or by the precaster during the final design study of the
Philosopliy aiid recomnieiidiitions for the design of precast prqject for specific cases.
structures coiicerning tlie risk for progressive collapse have been Not al1 connections need to meet the same criteria. Some of
presented in several publications. Besides regulations in nationiil the iteins discussed in this section are self-evident. Other
codes. puideliiies are giveii. amoiigst others. in: requirements inay not be so obvious and may require special
consideration or specification by the designer or owner of the
CEB Bulletiii 191: Genernl Principles on Reliability for structure.
Strticturt's The design of connections is not only a question of choosing
appropriate connecting devices. The connection in its whole
CEB Rulletin 169. Draft Cuide for design ofprecast wall
must be regarded. including joints, joint fill. joint faces and the
cOllllectioI1~
49
eiid m i l e s of the precast uiiits. The erid zoiies x h i e v e the force
transfer from tl1c coni~ectingdevices into the units arid must often
be detailed and reinforced with regard to the introduction of
forces and pos\ible defomiations.
The basic priiiciples and design criteria are given in this
section. eiiabling the designer to understand the design
philosophy o1 connections in precast structures in general.
Practica1 examplcs of good cotitiections are given in Chapters S
to 8.
5o
íd J
T/~<l//.qi’/. (!/’ . \ . / / ~ ~ l / / ~ , / i ~ i ~ í ’ c ’ . s Slieiir keys can be foiined by cast in-situ concrete or grout in
Shear torces bei\\een adj;iceiit concrete eleiiients can be joints between elenients with castellated j i i i t faceh (Fig. 4.30 a).
transferred t liro iig Ii hoiid. frict ion i n joi n t i n terfaces . interlock i n g When the connection i s loaded i i i stiear along the joint. resistance
by shear he!,\. d o u e l actioii of traiisverse steel bars o r rods. or is obtained by the keys acting a s mechanical locks that prevent
by Inec1i;inic;iI s h e x devices. Sliear triinsfer between precast and significant slip.
casi i n - s it u concrete i i i t erfiice s tliroug ti bond i s poss i ble for lo\v Various failure inodes are possible. Joint separation should be
shear stresses. Valties for xiiiiissible shear stresses by bond are prevented by ti’ansverse ties (Fig. 4.30 b). The connection
giveii iii Eiirocode 3. Part I €3 P i w i r s t C‘o/icwtc E/criw/i/.v i r i d nornially gives s t i f f behaviour until the loching mechanisin is
Strilc.r/r/~(~.\. destroyed by craching. The capacity then drops but the
Iii ;I joiiit iiitertxe n,ith soiiie roughneAs. shear forces are connection may have a considerable residual capacity acting in
inainly trnnsferrcd by friction. Houever. compressive stresses the shear friction mode.
are needed at tlie joiiit interface t o create the frictional resistance When steel bars o r rods are placed across ;i @ni. shear forces
(Fig. 4.29 a. werleaf). A periiiaiieiit compressive toree can be can be transfened between the elemeiits by dowcl action. The
obtained by gravity load which is traiisferred across the joint or dowel is loaded by shear at the joint interface aiid supported by
by prestressing. For iiiany iipplicatioiis i t is i i o t possible to obtain contact stresses in the concrete. The state of loading results in
a conipressive force in this wa!,. considerable bending defomiations i n the dowel. In the ultimate
However. i t is possible to induce compressive torees by state. the concrete crushes locally at the contact area and plastic
reinforceiiieiit bars which ;ire placed ;icross the joint and strained hinges are foiined in the dowel.
when the coiiiiection is loaded in shear (Fig. 4.39 b). Because of The shear capacity depends iiiniiily o11 the bar dimension and
the roughiiess in tlie joiiit interfiice. ;I wiall joint separatioii will the concrete strength. The capacity decreases considerably when
tale place when the joiiit is loiided in shear and slip occurs the dowel is loaded by shear at some distance from the interface.
along the intert’xc. The joiiit sepawtion creates tension in the Such eccentric loading should be avoided as much as possible.
reinforciiig bar.; aiid the tensile force is balanced by a Large tensile stresses may occur in the concrete around the
compressive toree ;icross the iiiterface. dowel.
The induced compre ¡ve force make shear triinsfer by friction Depending on the dimensions of the concrete eleinent and the
possible. tlie so called heiir-frictioii’ effect (Fig. 4.79 e). The distances from the edges. it may be necessary to provide splitting
sheiir resistiiiice increases with ;in iiicreiised amount of transverse reinforcement around the dowel. When the dowel is anchored by
reinforcenieiit iiiid iiicreased frictional coefficient. The shear bond or end anchors, combined behaviour of dowel action and
frictioii effect can be iiiiproved by iiidentatioiis at the joint faces. shear friction is possible.
7 t;A--''g
53
4.4.2 Types of connections I HC.i,ii
2 l>,n\c,l
1 (iroiiicil I 1 d C
Pi/i/icd(Y~/r/r<'c~fion.s 4 s"p,x>""'~p d
Precast heaiiis are usually designed t o be siniply supported. The
pinned coniiectioii is ;i typiciil solution for this case. Horizontal
forces can be traiisterred by dowel iiction of the steel bar or bolt
(Fig.3.33) wheii tlie vertical slot i i i the beam is grouted. Some
niovenient can be obtained if the slot is left unfilled. The
connectioiis lend themselves to simple detailing and
constructioii. Detailed inforinatioii about pinned connections is
given in section 5.6.
-IY,.Yi.\ Iillg .o/ln<'<.tions
Monr<J/If
Bending iiioiiic'nts are often transferred between concrete
elements by estnblishing ;I couple of tensile and compressive
forces i n the conriection. T h e principle is based on the splicing
of the reiiiforcement between units by means of overlapping,
bolting o r wldiiig. Fig. 3.33 shows examples of inoinent-
resi st i ng conncct ioiis.
TO/..\iíj//i// / / / ~ ~ i / l < ' / / f - / ~ < ' . ~ / s< f' íi ,Jr/ :/ :i I < ' í ' / / O / l . ~
Torsioiial iiioiiieiits ofteii iippear in precast tloor beains which
are loaded oiil! on one side. The resulting torque at the beam end
should be resisted ;it tlie wpport and transfonned into ;i bending
inoiiient in ilic' supporting inember. As with bending moment
transfer. the torcpe can be resisted by ii couple of forces. for
instaiice ii tensile aiid ;I coiiipressive force (see Fig. 3.33).
S i r . s l w i . s i o / l (~oIr/rwtions
Precast tacade uiiits are often fixed to the structure by ineans of
suspension fixings. They are intended to transfer the weight of
the panel hach 10 ihe structure and to resist the positive and . 1
53
II r
Firlic~tioriOf' tli"
~~o~/~/cY~/io~/.\
With regiirds to the fiinction of the coinpleted building. certain
chiiracteristics mny be reqiiired froni the connection\. Besidez the
structural requireineiita coiiccriiiiig forcc triiiisfer ;ind
freedoni for niovements in the service atate. thc follou~iiig;ispects
niay need to be considered in the desigii of the conncctions:
vapour bai-rier
water tightness
When connection details are directly exposed to fire, the force
transfer capacity may be reduced as a result of the high
temperature. Therefore, connection details which are vital parts
of the structural system should be protected to the same degree
as other structural members. Protection can be obtained by
cast-in-situ concrete or fire insulating materials. However steel
details partly embedded in concrete will have a lower
temperature rise than non-embedded steel because of the thermal
conductivity of the surrounding concrete.
Many precast connections are not vulnerable to the effect of
fire and require no special treatment. For example, the beanngs
between slabs and beams or between beams and columns do not
generally require special fire protection. If the slabs or beams rest
on elastomeric pads or other combustible materials, protection
of the pads is not generally needed because deterioration of the
pads will not cause collapse. The pads can be replaced after a
fire.
In case of fire, walls and floors have an important separating
function as regards thermal insulation and fire penetration. The
connections at joints in walls and floors should be designed in
Fig. 4.37 BCLrm-cdumn cmncc.tion with hidden c.orbe1 order to prevent the passage of flames and hot gases.
Manufacture nf pr-ecast units
sound insu lation One of the most important pnnciples in the design of connections
is to keep them simple. Maximum economy of precast concrete
heat insulation construction is achieved when connection details are kept as
deformatiains simple as possible, consistent with adequate performance and
ease of erection. Furthermore, complex connections are more
dynamic rc:sponse to vibrations difficult to design, to make and to control and will often result in
durability poor fit in the field. This can contribute to slow erection and give
aesthetics less satisfactory performance.
The following paragraphs give a list of items to consider dur-
demountak)ility. ing the design in order to improve fabrication simplicity. In many
cases, some of these items must be compromised to enable the
When vapour an(d water insulation are used, it is important to connection to serve its intended function.
detail the connections so that the insulation is not damaged by
movements from loading, temperature, creep and shrinkage. Avoid congestion - the area of the member in which the
The heat insul:ition in a precast building is strongly dependent connection is made frequently requires large amounts of
on the constructici n of the joints. The air leakage through joints additional reinforcing steel, embedded plates, inserts,
should be minim;al to achieve low energy consumption. In cold block-outs, etc. It is very important to design the connec-
climates. the con nections should be designed in order to avoid tions in such a way that sufficient room is left for concrete
cold bridges. to be placed correctly between the different details. Rein-
With regard to durability, it is necessary to consider the nsk of forcing bar bends require minimum radii which can cause
fit problems and leave some regions unreinforced. If con-
corrosion of steel and cracking and spalling of concrete with due
attention to the ac:tual environment. Steel exposed to aggressive gestion is suspected, it is helpful to draw large scale details
environments shciuld be provided with permanent protection. of the area in question.
This can be achiicved by applying a layer of epoxy, rust proof Avoid penetration of forms - projections which require
paint or bitumen , or by casting-in with concrete or mortar. In cutting through the forms are difficult and costly to place.
many cases the c:onnections cannot be inspected or maintained Where possible, these projections should be limited to the
after the buildirig has been completed. In such cases the top of the member as cast. Even this inhibits finishing of
connections, with out maintenance, should have a life expectancy the top surface, especially on deck members of double
that exceeds that Iof the structure. Stainless steel is recommended T-units and hollow core slabs.
if maintenance c)f exposed steel is not possible. The risk of Minimize embedded items - items which are embedded in
galvanic corrosion should be considered with the use of the member, such as inserts, plates, etc., require plant
dissimilar metals. Galvanic corrosion occurs when metals of labour for precise location and secure attachment. These
different nobility are in electrical contact and are bridged by an items should thus be kept to a minimum. This especially
electrolyte such 2is water. The use of electrical isolators can be applies to items embedded in the top surface. However, if
required to preveii t contact between dissimilar metals. the same steel plate is placed in the bottom or on the side
When connections are exposed in a building, aesthetic aspects of the form, it can be placed with great accuracy.
can influence the choice of the connection type. For example, the
support connectiion of a beam on a column can be a visible Use standard items - wherever possible hardware items
concrete corbel c)r a hidden metal connection inside the beam. such as inserts, steel shapes, etc., should be standard items
(Fig. 4.37). More details are given in section 5.6. Various types that are readily available, preferably from more than one
of connections cain, from the aesthetic point of view, be more or supplier. Custom fabncated or very specialized propnetary
less sensible to cope with dimensional deviations of the items add cost and may cause delays. It also simplifies
members. fabrication if similar items on a product or project are
standardized with respect to size and shape. There is also
Fir-e resistancv less chance of error.
With regards to possible fire exposure there are two main Use repetitive details - it is very desirable to repeat details
aspects which skiould be considered in the design of connec- as much as possible. Similar details should be identical,
tions, ¡.e. even if it may result in a slight over-design. Once workmen
are familiar with a detail, it is easier to repeat it than to leam
the effect (if fire on the force transfer capacity a new one. It will also require fewer form set-ups and
the separating function of the connections. improve scheduling.
56
1 1 1
I l
n
O 0
Tlie coiiiicctioii between tlie precast floor eleiiieiita aiid diiiiciisions. cte. Modulatioii iii coiiiicciioii \iiili iii;i\\ proiliictioii
the vertical clciiieiits to u hich tlie hori/.oiital loads are is theretore i i o t iiiiper;iti\,c. h i t iiiost tlesir;ihlt. ;la i t ha\ ;ti1
t raii sfei-red shou Id hav e xleq ti;i te st reiig t h and s t i ffiiess . intluencc o11 the cost of the eleiiients.
Shear heys o r iiiechaiiiciil coniiections ciin be used with This iiieaiis that prccast coiicrcte prodiictioii planta \Iioiilil he
:ippropriiitr reintorcenieiit to foi-ni such coiinectioiis. ;is \ers;itile ;ia poaaiblc i i i ordcr to gi\,c tlic rcqiiircil \.;iri;itioii biit
s t i II g u;lr;ln tee cont i 11ti i t ) of pro11tic t i011. Slaiitl;irll i /at ion \ ti0 LI Id
Tensile iii-pliiiie forces due to deep beaiii defoniiatioiis of
i i i the t'irst iiistaiice be piirsued IoI dctail\. cro\s-scctioiis.
ttie tiiaphragm betueeii ttie vertical structural eleiiieiita
slioiild be tnhen by specially desigiied teiisile reinforce- coniiections. base t!'pc prodiicts aiid s! stciiis. tahiiig iiiodtilar
iiient tliat iiiay be desigiied iiccordiiig to ;I struts and ties coordiii~itioiiinto :icco1int i-ather t t l ~ i i i I oo/; si~iiid~irdi/~itioii of
illodel. conipoiiciit s.
Tlie hnsis f o r iiiodiil;ir plaiiiiiiig is to selcct ;I \iiit;iblt. grid.
Ofteii ;I reiiiforced coiicrete top?iiig is cast iii-sitii over precast \\here the building i s located relati\cto ttie i1i;iiii ;i\is 0 1 - lille\ ot'
floor cleiiiriita. This toppiiig coiiiiccts the precast eleiiients tlie grid. The i i i o d t i l ~distaiicc\ b e t ~ e e i itlic griil liiies shotild. as
f . i I. '.1 5 possible. be eqiial. Tliia nill l i i i i i t tlic iiiiiiibci. ot'diftrrriit
togetlier xici traiistcrs ttie seisniic shear forccs dc\,eloped i i i the
tloor systeiii to tlie verticA eleiiieiits. Diaphragnis which are coiiipoiiciits to be iiiaiiiit;ictiii-ed aiid siiiiplity the dt.t;iiliiig. The
\itiole process tlicii hccoiiics iiiucli iiiorc cfficiciit.
reqiiired onl) t o distribute horimiital forces gciierated at their
ouii leve1 to uell distribtited vertical eleiiieiits will i i o t c a ~ i s e Tlic iiiost coii1iiioii iiiodiilc ot' ;I hasic plaiiiiiiig grid is ;I
problems in design. iiiiiltiple of 300 i i i i i i ( 3 M . \\,here M = 100 i i i i i i ) . Thc niost
coiiiiiioii choice ot dist;iiicca betu ecii ttic grid Iiiics i s 1700 iiiiii.
Diaphragiii t'orces are geiier;illy Iou i i i regular friiiiies iind
becoiiie relevaiit iii dual structures. Tlicy iiiay become very great 7400 111111. 4x00 111111. 01'6000 111111. I t is rccoiiiiiiciitiet1 1hat spaii
in structtires wlicre thc positioii of w d l s anct diaphiagiiis vary Iciigths Liiid siles of coiiipoiiciits that f i t iiito ibis s! atciii he
:ilong the ir heigh t. cliosen. Guidclincs I10u t o c11oosc grici line tli\t;iiice\ are gi\,eii
i n thc tollo\ving chapters tor each 1' pc ot strllL~til~~l s! stcni.
Iiidustri~llpi-oductioii lead\ t o sLl~st~lnti~ll co\t sil\ ings. ;iii11 has
4.6 Modular coordination and a l w ~ i y sbccii sccii a s ;i possiblc soliitioii to redtict. tlic high cost
Icvels o ! modei-n coiistrlictioii. For solile t> pcs 0 1 ' L~on\trllction.
standardization s ucli LIS i nd us t ri al iind con1iiierc i iil bii iId ii i gs. t he pri iic i plc of
Modulatioii is ;iii iiiipoi-t;iiit ecoiioiiiic factor in deaigning aiid tising standard building coiiipoiieiits has gciier;ill! bceii acccptcd
coiistructiiig buildiiigs. both for the structural parts iiiid the iind applied. For other btiildiiigs. iiiainl! thow \iticre rcpctitioii
finishiiig. This is geiier;iII!, truc tor iiII building methods aiid i s iiitlueiiciiig the arctiitectural qipcxmcc. ;i cc'rtaiii ;iwrsioii
iiiaterials. Houever. iii prcfiibrication. this is e v e n niore iigaiiist over-cievelopeci staiid~ircii/~itioii h;is becii ciicoiiiitcred.
proiiounced. especially i i i teriiis oí' stiiiidai-di/atioii and miss 111 industrial btiildiiigs. rnodtilatioii iiiid st~iii~l~ii.di/atioii does
production. The use of iiiodular plaiiiiiiig i s iiot aupposed t o be ;I i i o t onl) iiieaii that Al diiiiciisioiis are bascd oii ;I stiiiidxdi/ed
liinitation o11 the freerlom of plaiiiiiiig as i t is only LI tool to iiiodular grid. but a l s o that the clciiiciits Iiiivc sí;iiiil;irili/ed sh;ipes
x h i e v e systciiiatic worh mid ecoiioniy iind t o siiiiplity iii1cl reiiitorceiiieiit. Tliia eii;ibles tlie preca\ter to dispo\c ot scts
coilnections and detai ling. o f iiioulds which can be tised duriiig loiig pcriods uid tor iiiiiii!
As ;I rule. modular coordiiiatioii should be used throughout tlic pro.jects. aiid thus beiictit t'roiii tlic iid\.aiitage\ ot' m i s s
precast buildiiig in every desigii. as fiir a s it cioes i i o t coiitlict uith prod iict ion.
other coiistructioiial o r architecturnl requireiiieiits. Where For office buildirigs. schools. Iioapit;ils iiiid siiiiiliir buildiiigs.
possible. staiidiirdi~ediiiiits. elements iiiirl systenis should be ttie interna1 structure i s geiierdl! iiiodtilated. l'lic iiiodulx \iicltli
tised aiid iioii-st:iiidard solutions and details shoulci be avoided. of floor elements i s ofteii tahcii o \ e r i i i tlic plmiiiig of tlie tloor
This applies ~ i l s oto tlie grid line distarices. storey heights. step aiirfiice.
5S
For tlie t:ic;ides. iiiodiilatioii is ccrtiiinly desirable. but sliould h i i c l i an extent that stereotyped huildings w i t h tlie same
not coiistitiite ;in obstiicle tci tlie architectural concept of the appeiirnnce aiid cliaracter over tlie whole country resulted.
building. Fnr too olteii in tlie piist. iircliitectural concrete fiicades H c ~ e v e r .there are iilso a Iiirge iiumber of positive exiimples
have gi\ e11;I stereotyped iiiipressioii due to tlie repetitiveness ot Lvhere prefabrication has led to complete satisfxtion, both with
the eleiiieiit\ in tlic tiiciide. Hov.e\w. todiiy i t is unjustifiable to respect to tlie constructional ami architecturiil features.
critickc tlie ide;i ot precastiiig for laching tlexibility siiice eiich The shape o r lay-out of tlie building does not necessarily need
facade pr0;ect is 1is1i~iIlydesigned a s iI 'one-off' for whicli nevv to be rectanylar. dthougli it is the most coniiiion shape. Fig.
inoulds ~ I M Iiiivc to be iiixie. Precast faciide uiiits c;in be 4.4 1 shom s examples of possible shapes iind configurations. The
niore ile\ibie tliiiii i i q otlier product o11the inLirhet. pliinned use of the huildings will i i i most cases detemiine the
111 Iiotising x i d ;ip;irtnienth. there iire enou2h exiinipies froiii spaii lengtlis iind tlie directioii of the beams. arid thereby the
different coiiiitrics \\ Iiere st~iiidiirdi/iitioiiliiis becn ciii-riedo ~ ito
t selection of tlie type of beaiiis iind tloor iind roof slabs.
5 Frarne and skeletal structures
I Main \pandn.l k a m
2 Hollow-core unit
3 Intemal rectangular k a m
4 Gahle hpandrel heam
5 Gahle k a m
6 Main edge k a m
7 Landing suppon beam
X Staircaie and Ianding
Y Ground beam Fig. 5.8 Typical heamlcolumn skeletal structure, with core to
10 Column
I I WdII
provide horizontal stahility.
12 Douhle-lee unii
13 Interna1 heam
14 Main edge spandrel beam Table 5C Guide to span lengths and heights
1 B(m) 1 C(m) 1 H(m)
Minimum 1 4 1 4 1
Fig. 5.7 Principle elements in a low-rise precast fi-ame Optimum 1 8.4 - 12 1 6 -7.2 1 3-4
structure Maximum 1 20 1 14 1 16 and greater
5.3.2 Modulation
In frame and skeletal buildings, modulation of the grid is often
govemed by the width of floor and facade units. Since most
precast floor units have a width of 600, 1200 or 2400 mm, the
most common distances between the grid lines perpendicular to
the floor spans being a multiple of 600 or 1200 mm, for example
7.2 m.
In the direction of the span of the floors, the modulation is less
important than in the other direction. The choice is very often
govemed by the facade modulation or particular conditions of
the project.
o4
5.41.4 Comparison of the systems
Cantilever action of columns is easy to use, but the maximum
he¡ ght of the structure, without additional stabilizing
COInponents, is limited to about 12 m because of the architectural
K Strictions on the sizes of the columns and the allowable
def lections.
Structures stabilized by frame action alone are seldom used,
:ame of the elaborate connections on site. Frames containing
rble T- or H- shaped fmme units avoid this problem to a certain
g-ee. However they may create some problems during
nsport and erection.
Braced systems are the most effective solution for multi-storey
ske:leton structures because the stair and elevator shafts are
alr<:ady present for functional reasons so that the additional costs
of utilizing them as stabilizing members is negligible. The
COIicentration of al1 horizontal actions in some selected members
Pelmits smaller columns and simpler connections. Furthermore
the columns will in effect have a horizontal support at each floor
lev el, which can also contribute to the slendemess of the Fig. 5.15 Cantilevering halcony with intermittent insulation
col urnns. layer. to avoid cold bridges
The skeletal structure must be looked upon as a whole in its
thriee-dimensional shape. Normally it consists of two principal
Perpendicular directions. The system may be different in the two
dirixtions. It is, for example, rather common to use frame action
in im e direction and bracing in the other. The system may also
vary along the height of the building, for example with shear
waIls in the lower storeys and beam-column systems at the higher
levels.
Flooi. h ~ t r r ~ / . ~
Floor beniiis nomially have a rectangular cross section. although
1-shaped beains are also used. especially for large spans and
loads. Rectangular benms can have either the same width as the
coluiiiii (Fig. 5 . 3 a). or ;i larger width (Fig. 5.35 b). In the first
case. it will he necessary t o cut notches in the floor units around
the coluiiina. but not in the second case (see also Fig. 6.13).
Nomial diniensions are as follows:
67
Table 5F Recommended straight beam sections
700 1
750 1
300
400
500
T 1
Rec tiiiig ti lar bcniii s are les5 e ffic ie nt st ruct iiral I y t han in verted
T-beniiis. biit they are siiiipler t o ninnufacture arid may theret'ore
be iiioi-e ecoiioiiiical. They iiiay be considered where the
structiii'al depth is not ;I limiting factor. Changes in tloor leve1
iliay be ~iccommodatedby L-beaiiis. single boot beariis. or by
building up oiie side of aii iiivertcci T-beam.
OS
1
A
11 11 11 II
11 11 II 11
II 11 1 1 11
II II II II
Y u
70
IL
.
...
.,
.
-c
v
....-...
c
.-.
.
z
.-
?-
e
e
.
=z
'>
L
.....
.
c
.-.
.
.Y
=
.
Y
*
.
I
I
5.6.6 Beam-to-column-to-floor connections
Floor beaiiis are usuiilly coiiiiected to the columii o r corbels by
iiieaiia of grouted douels or bolts. I i i soiiie iiistiinces. especially
for edge beaiiis. torsional iiioiiieiits have to be i-esisted. This can
be doiie either by bolting or ueldiiig (see ;ilso Figs. 1.35. 5.33
;ind 5.31).
7.3
6 Precast floors
Kciiitorcetl coiici-clc
Rihhctl
Coiii incrc ial 5 34 ( 3 0 ) 200 - xoo I700 - 3300 2. I - s.0 120
I ntl ti st ri ;i I (240)
Parhing
Coin ine rc i;iI s 30 600 - 1300 1 so0 - 5000 3.0 - 3.6 120
I iidiis t ri al
Parking
Miissivc
Housiiig 17.2 100 - 200 600 - 2400 2.1 - 4.x 130
D w e l l iiigs (240)
Coiniile~c i al
Bcaiii-block
Hoiis iiig 57.2 300 - 300 1.x - 2.3 130
Dwelliiigs
( e ) Exumple of hollow core units used for wall c.laddin<g
Fig. 6.2 Examples of hollow cw-e jloor-s atid r-oofi
cross-sections exist due to differences in the shapes of the cores than the nominal size to allow for construction tolerances. They
and the edge profiles. are mainly used in buildings with larger spans or loadings such
Narrow floor elements of 300 mm width are generally made as office buildings, hospitals, schools, shopping areas, industrial
in reinforced concrete although prestressed elements also exist. buildings, etc. They are however also used in apartment
They have been used for a long time in domestic low rise buildings and social housing because of the favourable cost rate
buildings. Wider hollow core units appeared on the market in the and the fast erection.
sixties. Units in reinforced concrete are up to 2400 mm wide and Prestressed hollow core units are manufactured using either a
are manufactured to a maximum span of 9 m. The majority of long line extrusion or a slipforming process. The degree of
the units are normally 600 or 1200 mm wide, although other prestress, strand pattem and depth of unit are the main design
dimensions are also available. Reinforced hollow core units are parameters. In some countries an altemative process, called
generally produced in moulds with removable parts and 'wet-casting' is also used. The latter elements are characterised
longitudinally moving tubes to create the cores. by large square openings.
Prestressed hollow core units are normally 1200 mm wide and After hardening, the elements are normally cut to the specified
up to 20 m long. The actual unit width is usually 3 to 6 mm less length using a circular saw. A rectangular end is standard, but
ch are necessary in a non-rectangular These units have excellent stability and load-bearing capacity
d. offering a long span unit able to carry relatively high loads.
-e profiled to ensure adequate vertical Where units with a shallow tlange depth (50 mm) are used, an
:routed joint between adjacent units. in-situ reinforced concrete structural topping is normally
I c e s does not readily permit required to ensure both vertical shear transfer between adjacent
om the joint faces. The shear capacity units and horizontal diaphragm action in the tloor .
, sufficient to provide transverse The single T - unit offers the longest span solution of al1 ribbed
d loads without the use of an in-situ soffit units, but at the expense of greater depth. The slab element
:alt with in detail in Section 6.5.4. may be up to 3.0 m across and the shear capacity of the wide ribs
can allow higher loadings than are posible with the double T.
Single T- units are particularly suited to situations where the floor
of ribbed softit precast concrete units, slab is required to support load bearing columns and walls.
U-elements are ribbed elements with a flat and smooth underside.
For roof applications, only the longitudinal joints between the
elements are grouted. The overall depth varies between 250 mm and
650 mm and the span can go up to 22 m. For floors, the U-elements
are covered with a shuttering slab unit and an in-situ topping is cast
over the whole surface. This constitutes a different solution to box
girders. The overall depth lies between 500 mm and 700 mm and
either upright or inverted. These the maximum span is 18 m.
prestressed. Inverted U-shaped units
ed for light loading over short to Massive sluh poor..~
produced in typically 600 mm wide Massive slab units are often made in lightweight or in cellular
i r low self weight. concrete to reduce self weight and improve the thermal
.e in fact a combination of a beam and properties. They are mainly used in housing and for roofs of
, tie reinforcement in the transverse industrial and commercial buildings. Massive slab units are also
al1 depth of double T-units can vary manufactured in normal concrete either for acoustic insulation
n,allowing spans up to 22 m. The width or for hygrothermal reasons. Both reinforced and prestressed
O0 mm, e.g. 2400 mm, 3000 mm, etc. massive slabs are used.
77
floor-plates normally need propping during construction at a
spacing of 1.5 m to 3.5 m depending on the upper tlange of the 1
girder.
The essential advantages of this system, compared to
traditional cast-in-situ floors are, that, apart from the props, no
moulds have to be used and most of the reinforcement is already
incorporated in the prefabricated piank. However, self weight is
higher than for hollow core or ribbed floors. 1
l
\ame \ccii«nal ilreii a\ ihe inrnwersal
reinlnrccmcnt o1 ihe tloor pliiie..
\ Rough wrtacc l
6.4 Modulation
Precast concrete floors are extremely versatile and can
accommodate almost any arrangement of support walls or
beams. There are, however, certain guideiines on the
proportioning of a building in plan which can be usefully
employed to simplify the construction. Totally precast floor units
are generaiiy moduiated on a 300 mm base. The most common
ate tread units dimensions are 600 mm, 1200 mm and 2400 mm. Elements for
composite floor systems are sometimes made to specific
trary, are industrialised dimensions. When planning a building for design with precast
ranging from smooth as concrete floor elements, it is advisable to modulate dimensions
n-situ solutions, they are to suit the commonly available element widths.
e designer requires a Composite beam and block floors are less sensitive to
~bleamount of repetition, modulation. The required coverage can be achieved by varying
ey buildings. The most the beam spacings, either using beams in pairs or special infill
section . blocks. Where beams are positioned at reduced centres it may
iposed of separate tread not be possible to use flush soffit blocks uniess special sizes are
t steps or for spirai stairs. available. With careful modulation these situations can be
j by an angular toothed minimised, restricted to the edge of the building or avoided
-e anchored in a central complete1y.
In a simple structure al1 the floor elements should preferably
pht stairs. The staircases span in the same direction, simplifying the lay-out and, in the
it flights and landings or case of prestressed elements, limiting the number of camber
uctures 79
Support he.im\ lor hali-l.inding .mi 1.indinp
' Floor-lcvel C ~ $ Chcaiii
(u) Separate lunding,Jlight und hulf-landing units ( h ) Comhined landing,jli,pht und half-lunding unit
Fig. 6.8 Alternative luy-outs,for hilo-jlight staiirases
PIS,, "WW
width it will be necessary to form notches in the floor units (Fig.
6.12 b). It is normally possible to remove up to 1/3 rd of the floor Fig. 6.1 O Esanzple cfflooi. plan modulation
unit width without causing overload or instability at the
remaining bearing. It is essential that the longitudinal floor joints
coincide with column positions to facilitate notching of the units
and this should be considered when proportioning the building
lay-out. A number of variations may be required to suit the
particular lay-out of individual buildings but the economics of
the floor constniction are maximised where plain ends can be
used.
When a building tapers in plan, the precast units will require
non-square ends. The units should not be skewed more than 45".
Even within this range, a series of skewed ended units may
quickly deviate from their intended shape and lead to
complications such as loss of bearing. Units with both ends
skewed greatly increase the probability of complications during
erection and should be given accurate consideration in the design
and manufacture.
Prestress in pretensioned precast components may not be
effective in very short floor units and therefore precast units used
on short spans may need to be designed as normally reinforced
concrete sections. At the apex of a tapered floor area it may prove
difficult to accurately produce skew cuí ends which maintain the
correct floor coverage and these areas are best detailed in in-situ
concrete when the span falls below 2 m.
( a ) Lai;qr hram
structural integrity
distribution of horizontal forces by diaphragm action
transverse distribution of concentrated loadings over the
adjacent floor units.
side of the
7
1 1
[ 0.31 0.17 0.17 0.07 0.03 O
>5 1 1
0.1I O.17 1 O.17 1 0.07 1 0.03 1 0.01 1 O
Tlie distaiice befu een .joists is i i o t greatei- tliaii XOO iiiin
Tlie coiiceiiti-ated lo;ids are iipplied to tlie ceiitral half of
the tloor \p;iii.
Pai-titioiis or other Iiiieai- l o x l a are iisstiiiied to exteiid over
the full leiigtli o f the spaii. 01'have sii1iiII occasioiial inter-
i-LlptiOilS. e.g. ;I door. 01'tl1e load i s coiiceilti-atcd in the
cei1ti';il half of the spaii.
I n these cases the effective load cai-i-ied b!. encli j > i s t is obtained
by iiiiiltiplyiiig tlie total coiiceiitrated loxl by tlie load factors
giveii i i i Table 6B. Wheii tlie load does not ;ict on ;I .ioist. but in
bet\\eeii two of theiii. tlie load is divided betwecii tlie two
iici.jiiceiit .joists aiid the siiiiie pi-ocedui-eLIS iibove is iipplied.
More data are iivailiihle iii tlie FIP Giiide to Good Priictice
Hoi.i:otlttrl Coiir/>o.sifc'
.$f/~ilí~f//i~~ps.
l l l ~ , s i g /~/ ~ / ~ ; l l l ~ / / ~ / l ~ . s
Tlie tollowiiig atiiges shoiild he clieched iii the desigii:
cast. biit has iiot yet h;irdened. Stresses occiir oiily i i i the
precast iinits resiiltiiig froiii their self-weight ;ind the
weight of the \ve1 coiicrete.
The coniposite \tructiirc after hardeiiing o f the ¡ t i - a i t i i
concrete. Additional stresses resiiltiiig froiii the superiiii-
posed loads. service aiid partitioii loadings. cliffereiitiiil
shrinkage aiid the total creep relasation ;ict o n the mono-
iithic coiiiposite structiire.
\tippoi't coiiiiectioii\
coiinec t i oiis ;ir loiigit tidi ii;iI joi 11t s
lateral coiiiiectioiis at LIIl~tIppOi-tedtlooi-edges.
To ciistii-e tliat pi-ecast tlooi-s peifoiiii siitisfactoiily. i t i \ iiiost
iiiipoit:iiit t o coiicei\,e xid desigii the coiiiiectioii\ propeil!,. Tlie
piiiiciples giveii i i i sectioii 4.4 \hotild be tollo\\ed. This sectioii
gives pi-acticnl i-ecoiliilieilcl~ition4;iiid eic;iiiiples foi- ttie ciesigii
aiid detailiiig o f t!.pic;il flooi- coiiiiectioiis. Tlic essciiti:il
«b.jectives ~ e :
6.7.2 Support connections Table 6C Nominal values for support length to he used
The detailiiig of coiiiicctioiia ;it thc siippoi-t dcpeiids o11the type at the initial stage of projects.
«f tlooi tiiiit and tlie material o f tlie stippoi-ting structui-e. ¡.e.
coiici'ete. stccl oi- bi-ich iiiasoiiry. The pi-actical poiiits to be
coiisideied are:
S l / / l / " ~ l ' t Icvrgtlr ;ici.jaceiit \ti'ticttii'e toi both 1101111;11 iiild ~ibiionii~il lo;idiiig sucli as
Table 6C g i w s iioiiiiiiiil desigii \ ~iltiesfoi- the siippoi't leiigth of fi i-e oi- ;ice ideiit . Tlie coiiiicct ioii ni tist t Iiei-ctoi-e sat isf> t he
pi-ecaat tlooi- eleiiients in tlie loiigittidiiial dii-ectioii M Iiich caii be icqtiii-eiiieiits of foi-cc ti'aiistei-. \ti-ticttii-;iI iiitcgrit! . dctoiiii;ibilit!
tised iit tlie i i i i t i d stage of ttie pi-oject. The effective stippoi't aiid dtictilit!. Tlie detailiiig of tlie 1oiigitiidiii;il. ti-iiiis\ ersc aiid
leiigth is the desiyii v d u e decreased b!, dI iipplicahle tolei'anccs pei-ipliei-al ties i s ci-iticiil iii this coiitest. l't1ei.c Llfc diffei-ent
i i i iiiaiitifiictiii'e aiid coiisti-tictioii. I i i soiiie cases. shoiter Iciigtlis
pi-actical solutioiis dcpciidiiig 011 the t! pe ot tloor ;iiid \lippoi-tiiig
c m be al I ow cd w.1iei-t t e i i i poiai-y \ti ppoi-ts are pi-ovided . st rtic t tire.
The figiii-es i i i Table 6C iiicliide provisional vnliies foi. I i i hollou coi-e tlooi-\. tlie loiigittidiii;il tie bar\ ;irc pliiced eithei.
toleraiices o11botli tlie leiigth of ttie ílooi- i i i i i t aiid the positioii ot iii the ~ i o u t e dloiigitudin:il .joiiits 0 1 i i i coiici-eted sleeve\ (Fig.
the wppoi-tiiig \triicttii-e. AIIo~;iiicehas also becn iiiade foi- tlie 6.26). Thc Iattei- ai-e iiiade i i i ttic top tl;iiige\ 01' tht. i i i i i t \ dui-ing
rish of sp;illiiig. iiiiintitxmie. Tie bai-s placed in loiigitiidii1;iI joiiits iieed iin
Tlie stippoi-t Iciigth depeiids iilso o11 the iiiagnitiide ot the ;iiichoi-nge leiigth of iibotit I .O to 1 .5 111 becaii\e ot tlie louei-
loiiding . For hol Ion, core i i i i i ts. heaiii- block flooi-s ami ~iiiclioiiigc coiiditions ttiaii toi coiicicted \lee\ e\. \4,llei-e iin
tloor-pliites. tlie heai-iiig sti'esscs are i-arely ci-iticd. However. foi- xiclioiagc leiigth of 0.6 to 0.X iii ofteii siiffices depeiidiiig oii the
i-ibbed soffit tiiiits. tlie loxiiiig c;iii be veiy tiigh iiiid ttie stippoi-t t)'pe iiild diiiieii~ioiiof the tie bar ~ i i i dthc \trciigtli o f thc gi-Otlt.
mne rathei' siiiall. c.:. M heii double T-tinits ;ire stipported o11theii- At iiiteriiiediate stippoits. tlie loiig'ittidiii~iltic h a n ;ire iiindc
webs. l i i s t i c h cases tlie i i i i n i i i i i i i i i \,nliie iii tlie Table sliotild be coiitiiitiotis over the stippoi-t sti'uctiire. w,liei-e:is ;it cdge hemi\ ttie
tised. loiigitiidiiial tic biii-s ;irc dii-ectl! mchoi-erl to tlic ti'aii\vcrse tie
Rigid iieopreiie sti-ips. wet iiiortni' beai-ing. steel plates oi- bcani oi-the suppoiíing sti'tictiii'e that ftiiictioii\ ;i\ ;i tic-beam
siiiiilai- iii:itcri:ils x e t i m i to locali/e tlie wppoi-t i-eactioii aiid (Fig. 6.27)
iiiipi-ove tlie stippoi-tiiig coiiditioiis M heii beiii-ing sui-faces ;ire The Iiollo\h core tlooi- t i i i i t h iii-c iiiiclioi-ed to the stippoi'tiiig
tiiieveii oi- M heii ttie coiitxt sti'esses iii-e tiigh. Iii liglit loadiiig. \ti-tictiii-e eitlier b!,:
e.g . doiiies t ic hii i Id i iig s. t l i q are iio t ;I Iu a y s s trtic t tii-;iI 11,
iiecessai-! aiid tlooi iiiiits caii ofteii be laid directl!, onto the direct ;iiichoriiig i'eiiifoi'ceiiiciit bct\\ ecn tlie pi-cc;i\t heaiii
siippoi-tiiig sti-tictiii-e. Iii otliei' c;ises tlie uw of beariiig pads i s aiid coiicreted coi-es
;I IW I y s x i v is d l le . b!. overlnpping hetneeii i-ciiifoi-ciiig loop'
Iii double-Tcoiisti'iictioii it i s i-ecoiiiiiieiicied tlie suppoi-t be
located ;ir tlic \\cbs. cveii M . t i e i i tlie tiiiit eiids with a piotrtidiiig
by ,jointing loops ;iiid lorlgitlidiiial tic bX'
top plate. 111 t h i s Mil!' the \tippoi't foi-ces iii-e inti-oduced dii-ectl'
LoiigittidiiiLiI tic bai-s sliotilci preferabl!, be placcd iiiidei-iie;ith ttie
iiito tlie \\ehs.
traiis\ erse tie bai-s.
111 i-ibbed d f i t tloois. the coiitiiitiit!, bet\\eeii iiiiits iind tlie
Tic, c r i ~ i ~ c r i i ~ ~ i ~ i t rc cr i~ tlic
i 1 i . ~s i i p p o i ' i
The ob.ject of tie coiiiiectioiis at tlic stippoi-t i s to eiistii-c thc \tippoi-tiilg structtii'e i\ obtaiiied by dii-ect ~iiiclioi-iiig of
ti-aiisfei-of \,crtic:il iiiid hoiimiital loiidiiig fi-oiii the tlooi- to the
proti-tidiiig bais fi-oiii tlie iiiiits iiiio tlie tie bcaiiis (Fig. 6.2X) oi-
bb, \heldiiig (Fig. 6.29).
SS
CoiitiilLiit~ he(\\ re11 pi-ccaat tlooi- Liiiits iliid the supportiiig design philosophy t o heep connectioiis siiiiple iind to provide
structure iiiii) iilso he obtaiiied by iiieiiiis of ii structural topping. stability by a liinited iiumber of stabilir.iiig coiiiponeiits.
Tlie reiiitorceiiieiit of the toppiiig iiiay he coiitinuous over the However. unintended i-estraiiiing effects can appear. for
intei-iinl hemi\ mid lapped u itli projectiiig reiiiforceiiieiit in tlie iiistance due to heavy uall loads o11the ends of the tloor units.
tloor beaiiis. In liollon, core units M ithout i-einfoi-cement at the top. one
Coiinectioii\ betseeii coiiipo\ite floor-plate tloors aiid solution t o the probleiii is to support the tloor uiiits on wall
suppoi-tiiig iiieiiibers preseiit te\v probleiiis. Coiitiiiuitl can be corbels. and another is by usiiig partial soft joiiit fill or slrinted
pi-ovided b! Iiippiiig the iiiesli u i t h reiiiforceiiient pmjecting ends.
froiii tlie siippoi-tiiig beniiis oi- v.nlls. Also i i i coiiiposite Tlie justification of the latter solution is based oii tests. I t has
heaiii-bloc tlooi-iiig coiitiiitiity is also iiiade in ;I rather elassical been stated that in the case of slaiited ends. the first crack always
\4a! \\ itli pi-ojectiiig biii-\. i-einforced toppiiig etc. Typiciil det;iils appears betweeii the slanted tloor end and the concrete joint fill.
ot' the heaiii-tlooi- coiiiiectioii are showi i i i Fig. 6.3 1. iind that this crack ends inside the supportiiig zone of the eleinent.
011 fuither loading. the elernent behaves as a fi-ee supported unit
iind shows the saiiie sheai- ciipacity as when siinply supported
froni the begiiining. Of course the problein caii also be avoided
b), designing the units i i i such 21 way that they can take up the
iiegat i ve iiioiiient s. b! top i-ei nforcemeii t.
89
In conclusion:
Unless the supports are designed for moment continuity. it
is recommended that the connecting reinforcement bars be
located in the middle of the cross-section rather thiin in the
upper side. This is to avoid undesirable restrliining mo-
ments Lit the support. Placing of the reinforceiiieiit close to
the bottom is less favourable iii reliitioii to the design
philosophy with respect to structural iiitegrity as further
explained in this chiipter. Therefore the best locatioii is in
the middle of the cross-sectioii.
Uiiintentioniil cwch iiiduceiiieiit should he :ivoiclecl iii the
eiid miies of the tloor iinits. Such iiiduceiiieiits can be
foiiiied by ti'ansverse slots in the top s~irf;iccof the panels.
iiiiproper cndiiig of the tie bar\ xicl possiblc sliriiihage or
pi-oduction ci-achs i i i tlie hollon core iiiiii. For iiistarice.
the eiidiiig of the coiicrcte till i i i the cores will foiiii ;i discon-
tiiitiity in the holloh core u i i i t mil create ;i potentinl plaiie
oí' crxhiiig. Thrreforc. i i i Al core\ w,itliotit tic ;irrmge-
meiits. the coiicrete fill shotild he eiided M i i h i i i thc siipport
Ieiigth (Fig. 6.33 a). In cores providecl \A itli tie biirs. the
coiicrete fill h h o u l d be e\teiicled to tlic ciitii-c /oiic wliere
t he pre s tres si iig force i \ triiii s fei-red.
The quality of the concrete t'ill ;it tlic ciicls of thc iiiiits iieed
iiot be as high as that o f the elemeiits. Iiideed. partial
re\trnint can iilso be iiiduced by ;idhesive hoiid betweeii the
eiid face of the hollow core i i i i i t aiid tlic iii-\itti coiicrete iii
the traiisverse .joiiit ;it the stipport.
t.'/C~.\-i/>l<'.\11pp/wr.\
Studies have recently beeii cai-ried o u t coiiceriiiiig tlie iiltiiiiate
cnpacitb of hollow) core tloor\ \iipported oii tlie bottoiii tliinge of
\iipportiiig beaiiis. Duriiig the last feu !.ears. ;i great variety of
innovative beaiiis for slencler tloors h;ive beeii iiitroduced (Fig.
6.33).The beaiiis are noiiiially desigiied ;ix iioii-coiiiposite beiims
but composite tliit bemis iiiay A o be toreseeii i i i the design.
provided that stresses iiitroduced iii [he s l h ~ire~ i i l c ~ q ~ i n t e l ~ ~
taheii i i i t o iiccount.
Tlie defoniiatioiis aiid atresses in tlic s h b s c;iii be iiiiiiiiiiiied
by iiicreasing the stiffiiess of the beaiiis. liiteractiiig effects may
be ricglected if the design shear of tlie s l h i s Iiriiitecl to the shear
tlcxurnl ciipacity.
YO
c ' , -,..
1 - -
' 1111.1
. .
.. ..
f-l i1-
.. p
6.8 Openings and cut-outs
Openings i i i precnst tloors c;in he pro\~idetliii ;I \\ idt. \ kiriet! of
sires and positioiis \4 hich \4 i l l he iiitlut'iiccil h! coii\iclerntioii\
of strLictlii'al de'rign. handling. \ i s l i a l ~lppe~lr~lllce ~ i i i dcosts.
Large Opeilillgs are generiill' ill~ideriliriiig ii~~liiii~iictlire. If the
uiiits ~e ciist i i i steel iiiot11d'r. opeiiiiig'r x i d hloch-outs are
produced usiiig ;idditioii;il iiioiild pieccs (Fig. 6.i')).
111 estrusioii 01' slipton11 processes. holes Liiid opeiiiiigs are best
foilned iminediiltel)~iitter c;isting in the iioii-li~irtlciicdconcrete.
7- The eclges of the openinga are i-ather rough \\ hich ¡\ 1101 ;il\\.;i>,s
A A \ iw;ill>, accept;ihle. Tlie ;id\,iiiit;ige of tliis s o l t i t i o i i i s iliat i t is
1 4 1
v cheap.
I n hollom core u iiit' r . the \\ idih aiid 1oc;itioii o f \,()¡Lis iii;i!. iieed
t o v a q vi i t h di ffereii t cro'r s -'rec t ion 'r o f ti 11it s. espcc id I >
regarding tlie si/e aiid iiuiiiher ot loiigitudiiial cores. 111 geiicral.
opeiiiiig4 i i i the ceI1tr;ll part of thc cross-scctioii c;in he inade up
to 400 miii viide. Opeiiiiigs iii the edges ;ire liiiiitcd to iibotit 250
to 300 iiiiii. hut it is :iI\\ii> s po
:1cr04s the loiigitlidiiiiil j 0 i i l t ' r ot
Where the i1ppearance i'r iinportoiit. opelli11g4 01' ciit-»tits are
s;i\vii in the hardened coiicrete. Siiiall tioles. up to ;ihout 150 i i i i i i
diniiieter. caii iilso be core-driilcd oii aite ivitli ;iil\~mtage.
Where the opeiiings are too large to hc iiicoi-por;ited \\ ithin the
hollou core uiiit. triiiiiiier ;ingle\ o r cast iii-sitti triiiiiiicr bemis
-3--
are used to cai-r)' the ends of the tloors at the edges o f large Iioles
(Fig. 6.41 ). The self weiglit of the uiiits i'r tr;iiisferrcd to the
adjaceiit uiiits througli the triiiiiiicr ;iiigles. \\ here;i\ the
\Liperiill posed Ioiid i ng i s t raii s te rred t Ii r o Li? 11 t Iit. gro Ll ted
long i t Udi na I joi n t 4 011 coiid i t i on t I1at t he \\ 110Ie 110 0 1 - i s enc losed
by itdeqiiate peripheral xid iiiteiiial tie'r. The tloor uiiits o11eitlier
coniiection is required. These iiiay he foniied either by Li'ring ii side of the hole iiiiiat be 'rufficieiitl!. rciiiforced t» c ~ r ! the
softit unit o r iiiay exteiid to the fiill depth. The sliib is sLifticiently ildd i t i olla I I oiid i iig .
flexible to ;iccoiiiiiiod;ite differential \ ertical mo\'eiiieiits caiised 111 coiiipo\ite tlooi--pliiiih tl0oi-i. \,(>id\iiiid C i i t - O t i t i ciii1 eii>il>
by teiiiperature tluctLiatioiis aiid loiida. he added even after placiiig the tloor plaiihs diie to tlie siiiiill
Typical coiiiiectioiis betvieeii double-tee uiiits aiid lateral tliichness of tlie plates. If required. xiditioiial reiiitimwiieiit iiiii>
vialls are s h o w i i i i Fig. 6.38. he placed i i i thc ¡ii-'ritu p x t of tlic 'rliih.
Y2
" 7 - .-
r
Trimmer hedm
Fig. 6.42 Large ivids ~mhe mude at the longitudinal joints Fig. 6.43 Slab units supported by trimmer angle
qffloor- units
I
7.1 Types of wall structure
7.1.1 General
Precast walls are mainly used in apartment buildings, housing,
hotels and similar structures. The system is composed of bearing
walls with precast floors and roofs of massive panels, hollow
core units, floor plank systems, etc. (Fig. 7.1). This prefabricated
component system can be considered as the industrialized form
of conventional cast in-situ shear wall construction. The system
was used extensively in the 1950s. Projects of 500 to 5000
apartments were manufactured in large precast plants according
to the principle of closed system construction, ¡.e. al1 components
manufactured to specific plans developed by one precaster.
In the meantime, precast bearing wall construction has evolved
into an open system construction. In the open system two
complementary parts can be distinguished, i.e.:
a load bearing structural part
a finishing part.
( h )Spinc ~ i a l system
l
98
Rrq ii i rciiicii t 4 rcgxdi iig 111i 11i 111iini ti, force capiici ties are later filled with in-situ concrete to increase the load-bearing
1
N :it ioii ;il Lind I nte mit ioiinl St iiiidxds . e .g. Eurocode
w;i i I ablr i 11 capacity and the thenniil and sound insulation properties of the
ENV IW7- I -.3. British Standard BS X 1 10. Swedish Building uall. To secure bond m d position of the two prefabricated
Codc St.ciic>ii7:2. S B N 1980. cte. planks. lattice girders are cast at the factory into the planks. with
a spacing ofabout 0.6 ni. Tlie voids of the walls can be reinforced
to tahe stabilisation forces or large vertical loads.
7.4 Elements The surface ofthe inner and outer wall F x e can be smooth, ¡.e.
readg for wall paper. or can be finished i i i any architectural
, 7.4.1 Elements for load-bearing interior walls surfiice. The composite wall elements can be designed for inner
The thichiiess of iiiassive wiill Linits viiries between 90 to 300 nim ~ a l l sand for outer walls subject to earth pressure o r other
dependiiig o11 the reqLiiremeiits of strength ;ind sound iiisulation. horizontal effects. Both surfaces of the walls are usually finished
The eleiiients are m r c ) heiglit. u i t h ii maximuni length of about and ready for wall papering or pninting after soine small
4 ni. This valiie is generally govemed by transpoit conditions. 'touching up'. Electriciil conduits can be incorporated during
The length of the paiiels is iisunlly between 7.4 to 13 m. casting
7.5.1 Wall-to-wall connections The vei-tical tie coniiectioii at horizoiitiil joints between
superimposed wall units is obtaiiied by tie reiiiforcement placed
cither iii the vertical joiiits (Fig. 7 . I X b) or iiiside the eleinents
(Fig. 7.19 a).
101
1--T
8 Architectural concrete cladding
8.1 Introduction the matter. At the initial design stage. the required experience is
rather limited and al1 relevant information is piven in this
8.1.1 General Hciridbook. Final detailed design is usually carried out later on
The term 'Architectural cladding' refers to precast units. by the precast manufacturer.
generally used for facades of buildings. which are intended to The usual procedure for the initial design of architectural
contribute to the architectural effect of the construction through concrete cladding is as follows:
application, finish. shape, colour. texture and quality of First. the architectural elevational appearance of the build-
fabrication..
Architectural concrete has evolved during the last decade ing is established. without paying too niuch attention to
towards a high quality building material offenng a range of top details at this stage.
quality finishes such as limestone or granite. complex brickwork Having amved at outline sketch design for the elevations.
detailing and masonry profiles reproduced in reconstructed or the role. if any, to be played by the wall panel joints in the
simulated stone, al1 features which would be prohibitively overall effect of the elevation has to be determined. e.g.
expensive if fabricated on site by conventional methods. Should they be expressed. o r conceded within the
Today's precast architectural cladding offers the designer a
model?
vista of styles. allowing his imagination to range from the repro-
duction of styles of the past to the creation of imaginative build- Where are joints acceptable froni the architectural
ings of the future. point of view and where not?
Next. the facade elevation is split into individual units to
8.1.2 Capabilities be prefabricated. The subdivision is dependent on the
Architectural concrete cladding has the potential to perform possible joint positions, changes in facing material, pro-
more functions in the building design than any other types of truding architectural parts, size and weight of the units. and
cladding on the market today. the relation between the internal structure and the facade
with respect to planning and panel tixings. etc. The nianu-
Aesrheric firtictioti facturer's advice is often desirable.
Precast concrete architectural cladding offers an extremely wide
range of visual appewances. Despite the basic structural material Generally. the larger the wall units. the more economic the
being reinforced concrete, the finished elenients do not always project and the better the site productivity. Of course limitations
need to have the appearance of concrete. Buildings clad in can be imposed by the capacity of site craneage and transport
precast architectural cladding can give the impression of being constraints. This is examined in detail in section 8 3 .
constructed in brickwork. faced in intricate carved and profiled
masonry, polished marble or granite. Altematively, if a designer 8.2 Structural systems
wishes to maintain the appearance of concrete, the elements can
be produced in a vast range of self finishes - an array of profiles Depending on their function within the building. architectural
and textures which bring out the natural beauty of the aggregates concrete cladding can be designed as either single or double skin.
from which the elements are made. The most common structural systenis are described in the
Small reveals. chamfers and chases may be used to increase following section.
the visual definition in addition to disguising the true positions
of the construction joints between the prefabricated units. 8.2.1 Load bearing facade elements
Load bearing facade elements support the vertical loads from the
Structural jirtictioti tloors and the structure above. These elenients can also
Precast concrete cladding can form an integrated part of the contribute to the horizontal stability of the building. Fig. 8.1
framework of a building. Concrete in itself has good structural illustrates how the load-bearing function is achieved. The tigure
properties which can be used in an economical way. by designing shows a framed facade element carrying the integral vertical load
the facade elements to be load bearing. of the floors and the above facades. It can be fabricated as a split
structure system (see section 8.8.1) with the thermal insulation
lsolatitig fiiticrioti layer and outer skin applied aftenvards or as a sandwich element.
The excellent performance of concrete in airborne sound As previously mentioned. the above facades can in principle
insulation is well known. Thermal insulation is achieved by the also fulfil a horizontal stabilizing function like any concrete wall.
insertion of light expanded foamed or mineral fibre materials into This is seldom done in practice. In such a case shear connections
the facade. Another important characteristic of concrete is its between the elements may be necessary.
heat absorption capacity. Up to date, the energy conservation The facade can also be coniposed of load bearing spandrel
effect of the mass of heavyweight materials has been ignored by panels as shown in Fig. 8.7. Here the spandrel elements act as
most designen. beams, transfemng vertical loads to columns. In this case one
Architectural concrete cladding has the advantage of can distinguish between single skin and double skin units. The
combining the effect of m a s and lightweight material through double skin can be either sandwich or split structure. When the
either sandwich construction. in which a layer of insulating exterior cladding is made in architectural concrete, then it is
material is set between two concrete leaves. or by fixing the classified as a 'double skin' element. When another material is
insulation material on site at the same time as the internal wall used. e.g. brickwork. masonry. aluminiuni etc.. then it is a 'single
lining is constructed (see section 8.8.1). skin' element.
f 4 -
interior
lining
insulation
extemal
loadbearing
facade unit supports facade
self weight
factory placed
m
insulation
precast
concrete
double skin
(or sandwich)
site or factoni
site
cladding
Plate 45. Detail, office building, La Hulpe, Belgium Plate 46. Office building, European Union, Brussels,
Belgium
Plate 48. Office building, Canary Wharf, London, UK Plate 49. Interior detail, oftice building, Canary Wharf
Plate 51. Office building, S. Gallen, Switzerland Plate 52. Office building with brick-faced panels, Brussels,
Belgium
Blate 54. King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Plate 55. St Kreuz Church, Merzhalben, Germany
--
. --
si-
111
Plate 60. Balcony unit in polished concrete
' i bearing
a. Non b. Self bleafing facade
facade
Fig. 8.3 Principle of self bearing and non bearing facade
elements
GFRC panels are suitable for wall units, window wall units, Detailed information on GFRC and other fibre products is
spandrel panels, comices, column comers, etc. Specific available in specialized literature.
charactenstics of the product are:
8.2.6 Interna1 structural elements
Low self weight - the thickness of the GFRC composite is Architectural concrete can also be used for decorative purposes
usually 10 to 13 mm. The panels can be faced with a thin inside buildings. As a matter of fact, al1 precast components can
layer of conventional decorative concrete. be made in architectural concrete when this is needed for
Large variety of complex shapes and surface pattems and decorative purposes. Numerous examples exist, e.g.:
textures.
special columns in large entrance halls
The units are non load-bearing.
floors with decorative underside profiles
The panels can be either single skin or sandwich with an
interior thermal insulation layer. suspended decorative ceilings
Plate 65. Stair in polished architectural concrete Fig. 8.5 Example of two storey height facade units
intemal walls Facade units covering more than one storey need a larger
central cores column section than single storey units because of the loads and
bending moments during manufacture and erection. As a general
polished stairs, etc. rule it is recommended that the bending moments in the units
during transport and erection be kept as small as possible in order
to reduce the risk of cracking.
8.2.7 Guidelines for the choice of the structural system
A pertinent question in connection with the choice of the facade 8.3.2 Hinged connections between panels
system is whether to use load bearing or non-load bearing facade Load bearing facade elements normally transfer only the
units. There is no all-round answer to this question. The vertical loads from the floors and the above structure. The
following guidelines may be of help in making this decision. horizontal forces acting on the facade are transferred to the
stiffening structural elements, i.e. cores, shear walls, etc. via the
The architectural appearance of the facade elevation diaphragm action of the floors. The connections between the
Load bearing panels are suggested for pronounced vertical facade elements and floors are normally designed as hinges in
facade architecture provided that the vertical load bearing parts the direction perpendicular to their plane.
of the facade are not too far from each other, e.g. a maximum of When required, the load-bearing facade elements can aiso
7.2 m, and possess a sufficient cross-sectional area. If the contribute to the horizontal stability together with the cores and
concrete section needed for carrying the vertical loads aíready shear walls.
exists, it is good economy to use it. For a pronounced horizontal For non-bearing elements the overall stability is assured by
facade, either load bearing spandrel panels or non-load bearing the bearing intemal stmcture. The connections between the facade
facade units can be used. elements and the bearing structure are designed as hinges.
For facades without a dominant vertical or horizontal structure
the choice between load bearing and non-load bearing facade 8 3 3 Stabiiity provided by load bearing facade elements
panels will be govemed by the specific conditions of the project. composed of facade tubes and facade shear wails.
Framed panels are often load bearing, whereas special shaped
units are usually non-load bearing. The load-bearing facade elements have to be designed to resist
in-plane horizontal forces due to wind or earthquake. The
The modelling of the exterior sugace vertical joints should be able to transfer shear forces. This may
Fiat cladding is often made with sandwich elements or with split be obtained through grouting of the vertical joints, by welded
intemal and extemal wall systems. Cladding with a pronounced connections or other suitable materials.
expressive shaping, for example with heavy curved surfaces, is
normally made as single skin.
8.4 Principles of calculation of members
Concrete or steel structures
Precast architectural concrete cladding is often associated with 8.4.1 General considerations
a precast concrete building frame. However there is no reason Precast cladding in architectural concrete is usually produced in
not to use such cladding for cast in- situ concrete structures or reinforced concrete. In some cases a small partial prestressing
steel skeleton structures. In this case the facade will be non will be applied, e.g. to limit tensile stresses during handling. Full
load-bearing or self-bearing. prestressing is seldom used for facade panels.
The calculationsfor facade panels are in principle no different
to those for normal reinforced concrete structures. Cracking
8.3 Stability principles for load-bearing should be avoided as much as possible because it disturbs the
facade panels aesthetic appearance. For these reasons larger limitations will be
imposed on the serviceability stresses. Possible additional
8.3.1 Stability provided by restraint of the facade stresses due to different deformations should be taken into
elements to the foundation account.
For low buildings, i.e. 1 to 3 storeys, without central cores the The following construction phases should be taken into
load bearing facade cladding can be used to contribute to part of consideration for the calculation of the elements:
the horizontal stability of the building. In this case the facade unit
is fixed into the foundation and covers the full height of the during manufacture, storage, transport and erection
facade in one piece. (See Fig. 8.5.) in service, after hardening of the connections.
rii""" core
Pinned connections between
facade panels and frame
Fig. 8.6 Principle of a solution for horizontal stabilis, of buildings with stabilizing core
9
@ t ;/-p t p 9
-.
- L- - -_ -
Plate 79. Facade with smooth and water washed concrete
e
Plate 81. Office building, Brussels, Belgium Plate 83. School building, Lund, Sweden
Flexible
grommet
Dowels inclined in
opposite directions
f Granite-facedpanel
'13 thicicness
Thickness
Section
Ir
-4-4-
facade
panel
steel beam
-4-4-
=l
vertical sections
1-
Jfloor
Spandrel
unit
1st floor
Floor plan
First phase
Erection of the internal facade
panels which are erected with the
smooth as cast side inwards.
After erection of al1 the storeys
the thermal insulation is fixed
to the outside of the panels with
the help of mechanical anchors.
Second phase
Erection of the exterior leaf
of the architecutral concrete
facade.
The cladding units are going
over different storeys. They Vertial cross-section
are partially in transparent The precast floor
and partially in opaque glass, elements are supported
according to the place by the interior panel.
in the facades. The exterior leaf is
also supported on the
'interior panel by means
of metal U-profiles.
The horizontal fixing
is done by means of
push and pul1 anchors.
Plate 87. Split facade with architecturai concrete cladding during erection - interna1 load bearing elements
Plate 88. As ahove, placing of thermal insulation and erection of ciadding panels
Caiculation example
' 30 40 4g 50 dB
Fig. 8.18 Resulting soundproofingfor heavy and light wall cladding with different types of windows
inert material when the application has been satisfactory,namely Face-sealed joints are easily inspectable and can be
sufficient width and depth of the joint filling and with sound repaired when needed. The superficial closing of cracks in
joint edges. the seal or between seal and joint edges makes no sense.
Lack of watertightness is often caused by bad quality The seal surface is exposed to the weather. It is recom-
workmanship, both with respect to the composition of the mended that the seal be set back in the joint for protection
sealant, and insufficient dimensions of the joints. The from wind, rain and ultraviolet light.
watertightness of an open-drained joint depends critically upon
the integrity of the air seal at the rear of each joint. Experience Open drained joints
has shown that most open-drainedjoints give little trouble. The placement of the different joint stages is carried out
Failures in the air seals can be caused by movement of the during erection and is not always easy to perform. Special
panels, failed grouting at the rear of the joint or loss of adhesion care is needed at the intersection of vertical and horizontal
of an air-seal membrane. Loss of baffle protection can be the joints because these are the weak points of the system.
result of vandalism or lack of support causing the baffle to fa11
out of the joint. The inciined grooves in the joint edges should be suffi-
Finally, attention must be paid to inspection and maintenance ciently parallel to enable the insertion of the baffie.
of weatherproof joints. The expense of damage and repair will Movements due to variations in temperature and hygro-
never counter-balance the small expense of maintenance. Faults metry of the panels do not generally affect the effectiveness
also OCCUT at ihe inteísection of vedcal and horizontal joints. of h e joints.
Here, instances have been reported of baffies lapping the wrong
way so that water is directed into the building and of flashing The joint materials are less exposed to the weather condi-
being omitted or damaged. In some cases, the upstands or tions than face-sealed joints.
horizontal joints have been insufficient to prevent the ingress of Inspection of open-drainedjoints is rather difficult, espe-
driving rain. cially at the intersection of horizontal and vertical joints.
In conclusion, both types of joints show advantages. A brief Repair of leaking joints is not so easy. Flashing at the
summary is given below:
intersection of horizontal and vertical joints is usually
. inaccessible, and thus irreplaceable. The same often
Face sealed joints appiies for the baffies. Repairs to those parts of the joints that
The placement of the sealant is rather simple, but should are accessible from the outside may be possible with seal-
be done by specialisís. The weather should be dry and the ants or adhesive strip flashing.
temperature of the concrete at least 2" C .
Tolerances with respect to joint openings can be taken up In spiit stnictures, the weathmjmmf joints are sometimes placed
by the sealant on condition that the joint width remains in at the leve1 of the interior facade leaf before erection of the
between the maximum and minimum acceptable values. exterior cladding. The above mentioned types of joints can be
horizontal section
Horizontal section
1- - drained and
Fig. 8.19 Examples of recessed joints ventilated airspace
baffle
, used for the interior leaves, but the conclusions with respect to
their application might be different. The joints between the a
exterior cladding units are left open. The insulation material has
of course to be water tight.
8.8.4 Changes in appearance with time
Al1 building materials exposed to the elements change in
’ appearance with the passage of time. Such changes are the result
of three influences:
environmental grime
the degree to which the surface of the material encourages
organic growth
flashing
the ageing of the material, caused by chemical changes
resulting from the atmosphere and its pollutants.
However, not al1 weathering is detrimental. It can add a quality
l of mellowness to materials, like stone and brick, a quality which
is equally imparted to architectural cladding composed of these
materials.
Architectural concrete cladding, too, can enjoy this same
mellowing effect, provided two factors are assured:
the quality of the concrete - its mix design, uniformity and
the care with which it is cast and cured is of the highest b
standard,
the rainwater flow over its surface is successfuliy control-
led by the architectural detailing.
Fig. 8.21 Example of open drained joints
Every building deteriorates over time. This ageing pmess goes
hand in hand with a gradual darkening of the wall colour through
deposition of small particles from the atmosphere. affected by rain that virtually al1 the dried-on particles are
If a large roof overhang prevents walls from being affected by washed away by the water. These areas are completely cleaned.
rain, the surface of the wall will gradually become covered with Other areas receive much lower quantities of rain, or none at all,
a patina, and darken uniformly. Often there is no overhang, or it with the consequence that they are cíeaned to a much lesser
is inadequate, and this means that the surface is affected by rain. extent, or not at all. It also happens that the water, running off
The quantity of water which then comes into direct contact with the very exposed parts of the wall, deposits the particles it is
the wall is unevenly distributed. Some areas are so intensely carrying further down the wall, which means that the staining of
Climatic factors
b
The wind direction and speed define the direction in which the
rain falls. Obstacles, such as buildings which lie in the path of
the wind, deflect the airflow. Depending on the variation of the above: Path followed by raindrops falling against buildings
wind direction and speed in the vicinity of the obstacle, the
direction of falling rain also changes (see Fig. 8.22). This is the
reason why the rainfall on the facades is not spread in a uniform
way. The sun also plays an important role. A wall which receives
a great deal of sunlight will dry out a lot faster, and will be less
likely to attract airbome particles. Fig. 8.22 Direction of weather effects
A few guidelines are listed below:
The pattem of stainingvaries depending on the direction in A coarse texture often stains in a way which is not that
which the wall faces. As an example, in West Europe, a striking. The naturally present surface contrasts are
South-West facing wall is always exposed to more rain and usually enhanced.
sun than a North-East facing wall. In a structure with vertical grooves, it is normally the ribs
The rainfall on the edges of a wall is greater than in the which are washed clean by rainwater. Shadow effects can
middle. It is only true on paper that an extensive, uniform disguise possible uneven cleaning pattems in the grooves
area will remain unaltered over time. In practice, an unde- and heighten the contrast.
sirable pattem will be produced. Design
The direction of rainfall varies from diagonally at the top The architect has the following options:
of the wall to almost vertical from halfway down the walls
of high buildings. From that point, a small air buffer can prevent the surfaces getting wet - a large roof overhang can
prevent contact between rain and the wall. Any projecting solve a lot of problems.
element would naturally be drenched. channel and direct rain run-off.
As a rule of thumb, the angle of rainfall direction from the camouflage staining with colours, texture and shadow
vertical is 11.3" (gradient 15). effects (see above).
cleaning walls efficiently.
Wall materials
Concrete, &e any material with a very fine pore structure,reacts The following deals only with the possibilities of controlling the
slowly to water. It absorbs water slowly and dries slowly. During run-off of the water.
the absorption phase, the particles which are aiready on the A large number of basic design guidelines can be derived from
surface are drawn onto and into the upper surface layer. This studying the staining pattem on a projecting component.If a wall
explains why architectural concrete should be well compacted, with a projecting component abc., as shown in Fig. 8.23, is
limiting the porosity as much as possible, so that when it is wet assumed, the concentration of dirt particles on the horizontal
the water runs off almost immediately and the suríace dries very plane a is greater than on planes b and c. Using the design rule
quickly. The designer must take these characteristics of the that the rain drops fall at an angle of 11.3", plane a receives five
material into account when designing the walls. times the rainfall per unit of area than plane b. This angle also
As mentioned earlier, the possible variations in colour and marks out the rain shadow zone, plane c, which never gets wet
texture are almost limitless. The following may be helpful: with an adjoining section of wall undemeath.
From the moment the intensity of the driving rain on plane a
It is advisable to build walls in a darker material where is greater than the volume of water which can be absorbed per
undesirable staining effects are to be expected. This will unit of time, water will start to collect and then spill over onto b.
make staining less noticeable. This extremely dirty water washes the vertical plane and,
A staining pattem on the area of wall which is uniform in dependingon the amount of rain and the absorption capacity, will
flow over onto part or al1 of b.
colour is much more striking than one where there are great In the first case, a jagged dark line will be the tell-tale sign of
variations in colour. the edge of the area covered by the water and where it dumped
The texture influences the adhesion of particles and how its load of dirt. This forms the separation between a light
easily they can be washed off again. The particles will find (washed) zone and a dark (unwashed) zone.
it easier to adhere to a rough, uneven surface, than on a In the second case, the water has partly fallen down from the
smooth, polished area which is easy to wash. edge and has partly been moved by absorption. It may reach the
This section gives not only references of publications from FIP State of the art report Prefabricated thin-walled concrete
which text and drawings are used in this Handbook, but also units, Thomas Telford, London, 1984, 32 pp.
information concerning useful complementary literature on tlie
subject of precast construction. The latter list is certainly not General information about the technical properties and production
methods of thin-walled products reinforced with different types of
complete, since so many articles, brochures and books have been fibres and ferro-cement.
published on the subject. We have made an attempt to mention
as much as possible interesting documents know by the FIP Technical report Precast concrete piles, Thomas Telford,
members of the FIP Commission on Prefabrication. London, 1984,49 pp.
The report deals with important aspects of the manufacture, design
and use of precast reinforced and prestressed concrete piles. It
References contains technical niles, recommendations, advice, selected Dutch
FIP Recommendations Precast prestressed hollow core floors, standards and description of execution procedures.
Thomas Telford, London, 1988, 3 1 pp.
Design recommendations and calculation methods for precast
FIP Technical report Ductility of tie connections f o r concrete
prestressed hollow core units and floors. components inprecast structures, FIp/9/9, London, 1982,40pp.
The report is based on experimentalwork on the theme ‘Progressive
FIP Recommendations Design of multi-storey precast concrete collapse’. It aims to establish the deformation capacity of
structures, Thomas Telford, London, 1986, 26 pp. conventional tie connections and new types. It provides calculation
methods for evaluating the displacement capacity in a specific
Design recommendations for precast apartment buildings, office situation..
buildings and car parks.
Elliot K.S. and Tovey A.: Precast concrete frame buildings,
FIP Guide to good practice Precast composite floor structures British Cement Association, Slough, 1992,88pp. ISBN O 7210
(in preparation). 1416X.
Design guidelines for structures where precast and cast in-situ Design guide, providing a detailed review of precast concrete frame
concrete are working together to form an integral structural buildings in an effort to promote greater awareness and understanding
component. The document contains 3 parts: Theoretical design of the subject. Gives details of the design, manufacture and erection
aspects, Beam-block floor systems, Composite action between floors of precast concrete frame buildings and their components.
and toppings, and between floors and supporting beams.
Handbook, Architectural Cladding Association; ACA,
FIP Guide to good practice Quality assurance of hollow core slab Leicester, 1990, 52 pp.
floors, SETO, London, 1992,30 pp.
A guide to the design, detailing and economics of modern precast
Manual for quality assurance and quality control for the design, concrete cladding. Covers architectural design and procedures,
manufacture, transport and erection of extruded and slipform includes guidance on a variety of finishes and gives information on
hollow-core units. buildability and economics. Concludes with technical aspects of panel
design, joints, fixing and manufacturer involvement.
FIP Guide to good practice The design, manufacture and
erection of architectural concrete elements, FIP/9/5, London, Eléments en Béton Architectonique, Precast Concrete Federation
1982,56 pp. FéBé, Belgium, 1992, 107 pp. FrenchDutch.
The document provides basic knowledge and experience on design, Technical guide bringing together existing basic knowledge and
manufacture and erection of architectural precast concrete cladding. experience about the design, manufachm and erection of architectural
concrete for building elements, especially for facade claddings. Deals
FIP Guide to good practice Shear at the interface of precast and with structural systems, capabilities with regard to shape, colour,
in-situ concrete, FIP/9/6 London, 1982, 3 1 pp. texture and finishes. Includes detailed guide specifications about
dimensioning, tolerances, connections, thermal and acoustical
Guidelines how to design, detail and construct the interface isolation. Gives guidelines on weathering.
connection between the precast components and the in-situ concrete
in order to achieve composite action. PCI Design and typical details of connections for precast and
prestressed concrete, 2nd Edition, MNL- 123-88,270 pp.
FIP Guide to good practice Acceleration of concrete hardening
by thermul curing, FIP/9/7, London, 1982, 16 pp. Design manual for connections: concepts, materials, design
procedures with examples, and a full spectrum of typical connection
Overview of current knowledge on accelerated hardening of concrete details.
by means of increased temperatures.
Betongelementjioreningen:Betongelement, Swedish Association
FIP Guide to good practice for The design of thin walledfibre for Concrete Building Components, Box 14104, S-161 14
reinforced units (in preparation). Bromma, 1985, Swedish.
Design guidelines for fibre reinforced thin-walled panels especially A guide of precast concrete structures,consisting of 15 volumes with
for glass fibre reinforced cement, but also for various other types of the following titles: Planning, Economy, Columns, Floors and Roofs,
discontinuous fibre reinforced materials made with carbon fibres, Walls and Facades, Foundation elements, Stairs, Balconies,
polymer fibres, natural fibres, ferro-cement, and weather resistant Complementary details, Connections, Dimensioning, Building
glass fibre reinforced gypsum. Besides the strength and stiffness, acoustics, Thermal capacity, Fire resistance.
strain of the composite material is also introduced as an important
design critenon.
Stupre (Dutch study association for the development of precast Anderberg Y. and Pettersson O.: Brandteknisk dimensionering
concrete): Glass fibre reinforced cement; Study group 30 Glass av betongkonstruktioner, 1981; Svensk Byggtjast Box 1403,
reinforced cement, Stupre, The netherlands, 1988, 8 1 pp. S-11484 Stockholm; Swedish
Overall view of the factors which influence the structural behaviour Precast Concrete Frame Association: Frames for multi-storey
of GRC panels, and design guidelines based on strength, stiffness and buildings. An economic comparison. BPCF 73.341 Leicester,
strain properties of the material. 1985; 16 pp.
Provides an economic comparison between steel and precast
multi-storey buildings. Practical guide for those responsible for
Building types supervising various stages of precast concrete construction.
Sarja A.: Principles and solutions of the new system building
technology (TAT), Espoo 1989, Technical Research Centre of Saja A., Hanus, Mattie: New systematics for the system buildings
Finland, Research Report 662; 61 pp. and information process. Manuscript to be published in 1994.
Technical Research Centre of Finland.
PCI: Parking structures: recommended practice f o r design and
construction; MNL-129-85; 141 pp.
Research
Concepts in design and construction including many details and Engstrom B.: Ductility of tie connections in precast structures;
design examples with pictures. Chalmers University of Technology, Division of concrete
structures, Goteborg, Sweden, 1992; 368 pp. and 7 appendices.
Dardare J.: Structures réalisées a partir de composants
manufacturés en béton, 1975; Monography N$6 CERIB, BP 59, PhD thesis conceming the ductility of tie connections in precast
F-28231 Epernon, France. French. floors. The aim of the research was to develop a method for the