3rd International Conference on Research and Innovation in Information Systems – 2013 (ICRIIS’13)

Literature Review on the Feasibility of Mobile-Assisted Language Learning

(MALL) in Developing Vocabulary Skills among Non-English Speaking Migrant
and Refugee Women

Kham Sila Ahmad1, Jocelyn Armarego2 and Fay Sudweeks3

School of Engineering & Information Technology
Murdoch University,
Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia
syll70@yahoo.com1, J.Armarego@murdoch.edu.au2, F.Sudweeks@murdoch.edu.au3

Abstract— Acquiring and learning English as a new language
is a challenge faced by non-English speaking migrant and
refugee women when they arrive to settle in Australia. This
paper reviews the literature to explore the feasibility of using
mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) to enrich and
develop these women’s language skills. The findings from the
literature review indicate that some women prefer non-formal
rather than formal learning even though support for language
learning is available. This is due to personal and sociocultural
factors that affect these women. The literature also indicates
that vocabulary skill is a significant branch of language
learning in developing proficiency among non-English
speakers. MALL suggests potential benefits when applied and
supports different areas of language skills development and
learning. The literature review also indicates that no research
has been undertaken in the context of integrating MALL into
migrant and refugee women’s language learning within a non-
formal learning setting. A research project is proposed to be
undertaken in collaboration with a local community centre to
explore and answer four research questions that were
generated from this literature review.
Keywords - migrant, refugee, women, mobile-assisted
language learning (MALL), vocabulary, language learning, non-
formal learning
I. INTRODUCTION
Settlement into a new life in Australia by migrants and
refugees involves: learning and adapting to a new culture;
dealing with sociocultural and socioeconomic challenges;
navigating complex and unfamiliar service systems
specifically for refugees; dealing with additional emotional
and psychological effects; and finally, the overarching and
transcending issue for both migrants and refugees, acquiring
and learning English [1]. English language skills are
challenging but critical for the personal, social and economic
wellbeing of migrants and refugees because they lead to
building an inclusive Australia [2]. As such, the Australian
Government is committed to providing essential support for
eligible migrants and refugees to acquire functional English
and/or to improve their English language skills .
Language learning support is provided by the
Department of Immigration and Citizenship through its
settlement program and by non-profit organizations such as
community centres, multicultural centres and religious
establishments [3]. The former provides formal English
education through the Adult Migrant English Program
(AMEP). The latter provide non-formal education, such as
sessions for practicing conversational English.
Participation by eligible women in the AMEP is limited
due to conflicting sociocultural issues and fears about
engaging in formal learning [4-6]. In contrast, non-formal
education offered by non-profit organizations attracts
participation by women [3] because it provides a supportive
and conducive environment for learners. However, as these
non-formal English language learning avenues operate with
limited funding, they are only able to offer a restricted
number of hours and resources for learners [7]. In contrast,
mainstream education is able to enjoy a stable and permanent
operation and applies state of the art technology for teaching
and learning, including for language learning [8, 9]. As part
of computer-assisted language learning (CALL), mobile-
assisted language learning (MALL) utilises mobile devices
such as smartphones and tablets to support learning [10-12].
Studies [13, 14] have demonstrated the feasibility of MALL
in language acquisition within formal education settings.
Some of the factors central to the MALL environment are
the accessibility and portability characteristics of the mobile
devices used, allowing language learners to access learning
materials without time and space constraints.
This concept paper reviews the literature that explores
non-English speaking migrant and refugee women’s English
language learning. Particular attention is given to vocabulary
as an essential language skill because mastery of vocabulary
may lead to better comprehension that, in turn, leads to
enhanced language acquisition. This is followed by a review
on factors that affect these women’s language learning on
personal and sociocultural levels. The review traces the
evolution of MALL from CALL and the potential benefits
that MALL suggests. The review also reveals that no
research has yet been undertaken in the context of integrating
MALL into migrant and refugee women’s language learning
within a non-formal learning setting. Hence, a research
project is proposed to explore and answer four research
questions that were generated from the literature review. The
proposed research project will be undertaken in collaboration
with a local community centre.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
This section reviews the literature on vocabulary as the
basis for English proficiency among non-English speakers,

336
 3rd International Conference on Research and Innovation in Information Systems – 2013 (ICRIIS’13)
the factors that affect migrant and refugee women’s English
language learning on a personal and sociocultural level, and
the evolution of MALL from CALL.
A. Vocabulary as the Basis of English Proficiency for Non-
English Speakers
Krashen and Terell [15] claimed that without
vocabulary, comprehension is not possible. The more one
masters vocabulary, the better the comprehension, thus more
acquisition of language occurs. Kenny [16] also suggested
that in order for humans to acquire other words and syntax,
they will have to initially acquire vocabulary.
For the English as a Second Language (ESL) learner,
vocabulary learning is an essential process in acquiring
proficiency and competence, as word power facilitates
fluency in speaking and effective writing. Vocabulary also
substantiates knowledge acquisition and production as it
enriches the learners' total language skills that include
listening, speaking, reading and writing [17].
There are two approaches to vocabulary learning-
incidental and intentional [17-19]. Incidental vocabulary
learning is the process when something is learnt without the
intention of doing so, as well as learning one thing while
intending to learn another. In this case learning is based on
context to promote deeper mental processing and better
retention. In contrast, intentional vocabulary learning
disregards the context and is focused on antonyms,
crossword puzzles, multiple choice synonyms and
scrambled words word substitution.
B. Factors that Affect Non-English Speaking Migrant and
Refugee Women‘s English Language Learning
For non-English speaking migrant and refugee women,
the factors that may affect their capability and attitude to
learn English can be categorised as personal or
sociocultural. Personal factors indicate these women’s
individual capacity to learn the language considering their
own attitude towards learning and their life history and
background. On the other hand, sociocultural factors relate
to their attitude to Australian mainstream culture and society
and their participation in it.
1) Personal Factors
a) Family Responsibility and its impact
Both men and women migrants and refugees’ full
participation in employment may be restricted due to limited
English proficiency, lack of Australian work experience and
lack of knowledge of the Australian workplace culture [7].
Women confront further challenges that flow from their
family responsibilities and also the gendered nature of the
labour markets in their home countries [6]. Upon arrival in
Australia, men’s employment generally assumes priority
while the women’s become secondary and they are
pressured to juggle domestic responsibilities to facilitate the
transition to settlement of the family into a new environment
[20, 21]. Women also have poor access to and lack of
information on culturally appropriate childcare which
337
becomes a barrier to participating in employment and
training [20, 22].
b) Native Language Literacy Level
English language learners’ literacy levels are varied, and
can be grouped based on their sociolinguistic backgrounds.
Table I illustrates the variety of native language literacy that
is typically found in an English class for non-English
speaking adult learners.
TABLE I. TYPES OF NATIVE LANGUAGE LITERACY OF
ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS [23]
Native Language Explanation
Literacy
Preliterate Native language has no written form or is in the
process of developing a written form (e.g., many
American indigenous, African, Aboriginal
Australian, and Pacific languages).
Non-literate Learners have no access to literacy instruction.
Semiliterate Learners have limited access to literacy instruction.
Non-alphabet Learners are literate in a language written in a non-
alphabetic script (e.g., Mandarin Chinese).
literate
Non-Roman Learners are literate in a language written in a non-
alphabet literate Roman alphabet (e.g., Arabic, Greek, Korean,
Russian, Thai).
Roman alphabet Learners are literate in a language written in a
literate Roman alphabet script (e.g., French, German,
Spanish). They read from left to right and recognise
letter shapes and fonts.
The native language literacy typology above is a factor
that may have an impact on English language learning.
Further sub-factors include the level of oral and written
proficiency in the native language, exposure to and
experience with literacy in and outside of formal education
settings (for example, the number of years of formal
schooling in the home country) and learner motivation [24-
27].
An English language learner who is unfamiliar with
English language conventions and literacy will need to
understand that written English text is structured in such a
way that sentences have a beginning, middle, and end; is
read from left to right and from the top to the bottom of a
page; and written text in word form can represent a message
or story just as spoken words and pictures can [28]. In
learning and mastering the English language, the learner has
to gain such familiarity so as the acquisition of language
skills - reading, writing, speaking, listening, grammar,
vocabulary, pronunciation, and culture will be easier [29].
c) Migration History
Migrants and refugees in Australia fall under the category
of new and emerging communities by the Australian
Department of the Local Government [30]. The
characteristics of these communities include being small in
population. Compared to more established communities,
these communities usually lack established family networks,
support systems, community structures and resources, thus
needing additional support and resources for settling in
Australia. Unlike migrants who come to Australia
voluntarily, refugees have often experienced trauma in their
 3rd International Conference on Research and Innovation in Information Systems – 2013 (ICRIIS’13)
lives prior to their arrival. Their experiences include fleeing
and/or being injured from war, witnessing murders , living
in transitional refugee camps for long periods of time or
having experienced travelling for several days or weeks on a
boat in dangerous seas [1]. As a result, it may take time to
adjust. Whilst adapting to life in Australia, refugees
typically face at least two of the following challenges [30]:
although multilingual in other languages, they have low
levels of English language proficiency; low or no literacy in
their main language; low levels of education and skills due
to extended periods living in refugee camps; unfamiliarity
with Australian urban living; experience of torture and
trauma prior to arrival in Australia; health problems due to
lack of health care in their home country or refugee camps;
visible difference; isolation and social exclusion; and
susceptibility to unemployment and under-employment.
d) Learning preferences as an adult learner
Knowles’ principles of andragogy are widely used for
developing adult learning curricula [31]. They are based on
five crucial suppositions about adult learners’ characteristics
that differ from children’s pedagogy [32]: adult learners are
self-directed; equipped with experience; ready to learn; their
learning is oriented toward being problem-centred rather
than subject-centred; and they are motivated [31]. However,
migrant and refugee learners have specific needs such as an
opportunity to access basic reading and writing skills and
bilingual support, since they usually have minimal, if any,
experience of being literate in their first language.
Migrants and refugees who decide to commit to learning
English, whether in a formal or non-formal setting,
generally have the following attributes [33]: courageous
learners; have a wide range of life experiences but may
experience stress in their new surroundings; highly
motivated but may be feeling nervous about learning
English; learn best when the material is related to something
they already know or need to know and use immediately;
want useful lessons that are relevant to their goals and
needs; and have familial or job responsibilities outside of
the classroom. Overall they share a desire to learn English
despite the challenges they have to face.
2) Sociocultural Factors
a) Social Inclusion vs. Social Exclusion
The federal government formulated a Social Inclusion
Agenda to ensure that all Australians, particularly those who
are most in need and who start a step behind, have access to
the resources and opportunities they need, to shape their
own life and to fulfill their potential . The vision of a
socially inclusive society is that all Australians feel valued
and have the opportunity to participate fully in the life of the
society. As such, all Australian will have the resources,
opportunities and capability to: learn, thus participate in
education and training; work, thus participate in
employment, paid, unpaid or voluntary; engage and connect
with people; use local services; participate in local, cultural,
civic and recreational activities; and be heard where they
338
have a voice to influence decisions that affect them [34].
Studies [35, 36] briefly addressed social inclusion in
relation to migrants and refugees. Boese and Phillips [37]
observed that, in general, the Australian literature on social
inclusion has not referenced the specific barriers
experienced by migrants and refugees, and that social
exclusion persists.
Social exclusion is defined as the “restriction of access to
opportunities and limitation of the capabilities required to
capitalise on these” [38]. According to Hayes, Grey and
Edwards [38], social exclusion is not the equivalent of
poverty or inadequate economic resources, or lack of
socially perceived necessities. It is essentially social
disadvantage that is caused by lack of connectedness and
participation. Many of the opportunities to be socially
inclusive in Australian society are not seized by migrants
and refugees due to ongoing barriers and disadvantages. As
persons from culturally and linguistically diverse
backgrounds, they are disadvantaged in employment and
housing and, more often than not, discriminated against,
compared to mainstream Australians [6]. Boese and Phillips
[37] argue that the linkage and the potential between the
Social Inclusion Agenda and multiculturalism in Australia
remained underexplored, thus continuing limited impact on
migrants and refugees unless longstanding barriers such as
racism and sufficient provision of English language teaching
are addressed, and that reliable data with which to measure
the impacts are obtained.
b) Support for English language teaching and learning
Even though the AMEP has been the mechanism to
support English learning in Australia, there is still a barrier
to achievement among the enrolling students; there is a need
for suitable curriculum content for former refugees who
have no or minimal previous schooling [28]. Due to the mix
of literate and preliterate learners in formal English
classrooms, preliterate learners are left behind [39]. As such,
curriculum designers and teachers need to cater to these
varying abilities and non-abilities of students. Another
typical problem in the AMEP is that many students do not
complete the 510 hours of study provided free for them. The
reasons for this include work commitments, poor long-term
health, being pregnant or having a baby, and the absence of
child care or culturally appropriate child care [4, 5, 40].
Therefore, a demand exists for non-formal English classes
run by non-profit organisations due to their supportive and
relaxed setting [3].
C. Mobile-assisted Language Learning (MALL)
According to Beatty [41], the result of CALL to a
learner is that the process and the use of computers cause
the improvement of his or her language. The term computer
includes desktop and laptop devices, the networks that
connect them, the associated peripherals and other
technological innovations such as tablets, PDAs (personal
digital assistants), mp3 players, mobile phones, electronic
whiteboards and so forth. Beatty [41] further indicates that
 3rd International Conference on Research and Innovation in Information Systems – 2013 (ICRIIS’13)
the term improve has to be viewed from different
perspectives such as learning efficiency and effectiveness,
learners’ automated and convenient access to material, the
increase in learners’ motivation as they enjoy the learning
process and thus engage fully, and finally the efficiency of
the institution where less teacher time or fewer teachers are
needed or less expensive resources are used.
Unlike CALL, MALL utilises mobile technology and
devices such as smartphones and tablets to support and
facilitate language learning [10, 11]. These devices are
appealing and effective in language learning due to their
wide availability, convenience, portability, accessibility,
multimedia capability, internet connectivity and cost
efficiency as compared to desktop or laptop machines [42].
These factors allow language learners to access learning
materials and communicate with their teachers or facilitators
and peers with no time and space constraints.
Mobile learning takes place place when the learner is
mobile, not at a fixed, predetermined location, or when the
learner takes advantage of learning opportunities offered by
mobile technologies [43] . Mobile learning is defined as
being concerned with learner mobility in the sense that
learners should be able to engage in educational activities
without being tied to a tightly-delimited physical location
[44, 45]. MALL supports different areas of language
learning, such as vocabulary acquisition [13], pronunciation
skills , writing skills , and listening skills. MALL provides
the following learning advantages:
x Spontaneity - where learners can learn anywhere
[13]
x Portability and connectivity - where it is accessible
to the learner during their learning activities [13, 46]
x Blending – where, combined with classroom
instruction, it maximizes the benefits of both in-
class, face-to-face and online learning [12, 47]
x Interactivity - where learners are active and the
mobile learning setting allow varying levels of
interaction [46]
x Collaboration - where the mobile device and
technologies can support communication between
learners and teachers in a collaborative learning
activities [13, 46].
III. POTENTIAL OF MALL FOR MIGRANT AND REFUGEE
WOMEN VOCABULARY LEARNING
A research project is proposed based on the review of
literature relating to non-English speaking migrant and
refugee women language learning in a non-formal learning
setting. This project will explore the feasibility of MALL to
help develop vocabulary skills among these women
considering their personal factors and the sociocultural
factors surrounding them.
A. Context of Proposed Research Project
The proposed research is informed by a review of the
literature and one of the researchers’ professional experience
as an English language teacher of adult migrants and
339
refugees. The researcher works in a local community centre,
in a suburb in Western Australia. This centre provides
community access to both non-formal and informal learning
opportunities as well as services such as emergency relief,
financial counselling, food voucher/parcels, non-interest
loans (NILs), and referrals to other agencies. The learning
opportunities and programs offered to the community
include English classes, sewing and knitting sessions,
computer classes, a women’s support group, one-off
workshops, and talks by experts on topics such as health,
parenting, diseases and so forth. . Even though the learning
settings are not formal and what is learnt is non-accredited,
these learning spaces and opportunities fulfill the needs of
adult learners who, due to personal reasons and preferences,
do not engage in formal education offered by the
government.
Specific to the English class, the objective is to provide a
setting for people to meet and socialise with others who also
want to practice their spoken English. Though the class is
open to both men and women, the majority of participants
are women from low socioeconomic backgrounds, who are
full time mothers, have little or no English and unique pre-
migration histories. Some migrate to Australia under the
Migration Program visa and others under the Humanitarian
Program visa. They have different literacy levels as a result
of educational backgrounds that range from high levels to
very little experience of formal education. They may be able
to speak and write many languages, or may have only a basic
knowledge of reading and writing in their first language.
Countries of origin of these women include Afghanistan,
Burundi, China, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Libya, Myanmar and
Sri Lanka.
These women are motivated to attend this class because it
provides a learning atmosphere that is relaxed and supportive
and provides a somewhat level playing field to practice and
improve their conversational and other language skills.
Improving their conversational skills enables them to
communicate with neighbours and community members,
thus reducing feelings of isolation. Being confident and
comfortable communicating will make it possible for them to
find employment and participate in the job market.
Based on the literature, the branch of English language
skill that should be the focus of this class is vocabulary, as
having an extensive vocabulary, knowing how to pronounce
words, when to use them correctly and in the right context,
are seen to help build confidence in learners. Learning
vocabulary is an essential component in the process of
acquiring proficiency and competence, and for
comprehension and productive skills (speaking and writing)
[17-19].
B. Research Questions
We conceive that utilising MALL as a teaching and
learning tool in this class should enrich, benefit, and provide
meaningful and effective learning outcomes for these
women. From the review of literature that was undertaken,
the following research questions have been developed to be
explored during the project:
 3rd International Conference on Research and Innovation in Information Systems – 2013 (ICRIIS’13)
x What sociocultural factors affect non-English
speaking migrant and refugee women’s vocabulary
learning?
x What are the characteristics of MALL that affect
these women’s vocabulary learning?
x What form of representation for vocabulary on
mobile devices for MALL is most effective for these
women (words, audio, pictures or combination of
these)?
x How does vocabulary acquisition impact these
women’s perception of their English conversational
proficiency?
The outcomes of the proposed research project will
provide indicators on how sociocultural and MALL factors
affect these women’s vocabulary learning, how to
effectively utilise MALL to teach across varying levels of
literacy among these women, and provide an understanding
of the effects of MALL in these women’s perceptions of
their English conversational proficiency.
IV. CONCLUSION
This concept paper reviewed the literature that explored
non-English speaking migrant and refugee women’s
challenges to settle and learn English upon arrival in
Australia. The personal factors that affect these women’s
language learning include family responsibility and its
impact, their native language literacy level, their migration
history, and their learning preferences as adult learners. The
sociocultural factors include social inclusion and exclusion
issues and the support available for language learning.
Vocabulary skills are seen as a significant branch of
language skills for developing proficiency among non-
English speakers. The discussion of the literature also traced
the evolution of MALL from CALL, and the potential
benefits that MALL suggests [12, 13, 46, 47]. The benefits
of MALL for learners include spontaneous learning,
accessibility and portability of learning material, blended
instruction in-class or online, interactive user interface and
collaborative learning and communication. A research
project is proposed to be undertaken in collaboration with a
local community centre to explore the potential of MALL
applied in migrant and refugee women’s language learning,
based on the research questions that were formulated from
the literature review.
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