Chapter 4-Masonry PDF

Chapter 4: Brick and Masonry 81
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials
Chapter 4
BRICK AND MASONRY
4.1 Classification of bricks
4.2 Types of bricks
4.3 Manufacture of bricks
4.4 Bricks bonding and arrangement
4.5 Mortar
4.6 Standard testing for brick
Masonry” refers to a construction material that formed by combining masonry

units, such as stone, tile and brick with a binding material, mortar. Brick masonry
is construction in which uniform units “bricks”, small enough to be placed with
one hand, are laid in courses with mortar joints to form walls. As one of the
oldest construction materials, masonry can be found in historical landmarks all
over the world, including the pyramids of Egypt, the Great Wall of China, the Taj
Mahal of India and Roman and Greek ruins. Today, masonry is used in various
types of structure ranging from high rise buildings to water retaining structures.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.0: (a) Great wall of China (b) Pyramid
Prepared by: Noor Azlina Abdul Hamid, January 2010

4.1 Classification of bricks

Masonry can be formed as solid or hollow units. Each type of bricks has different
characteristics in terms of fire resistance, insulation and water absorption. One
of the oldest manufactured building materials still in use today is clay brick.
Masonry unit
Solid Hollow
Stone Glass Clay Concrete Structural

block brick brick clay tile
Concrete
Modular Non-modular
block
Figure 4.1.1: Types of masonry units
(a) (b)
Figure 4.1.2: Typical clay brick (a) Modular brick (void 25% or less of
cross-sectional area) (b) Non-modular brick (common)
The term “brick” is used to denote solid clay masonry units, usually small,
rectangular and made of fired clay. Cored units are considered solid as long as
the cores do not exceed 25 percent of the total cross-sectional area of the unit.
The cores, which vary in size and number, reduce the weight of the brick,
increase bond strength and allow more even drying of the units during the
burning phase of brick manufacturing.

4.2 Types of bricks

Bricks may be solid or hollow can serve structural function and also decorative
function. These various types of brick are different in their formation and
composition and can be classified into different types according to their uses:
Common bricks
Common brick also called as building brick. This brick
is produced for construction, without great concern for
appearance like texture and colour. Normally it used
as a structural material where strength and durability
are the most important requirements.
Facing bricks
This brick is made especially for facing purposes and
has better quality, durability and appearance than
common brick. Mostly are used in exposed or exterior
wall faces. Manufactured from selected clays and
available in various sizes, colours, have in smooth, fine
and medium surface and textures.
Floor bricks
Floor brick is smooth, dense, highly resistant to
abrasion and used on finished floor surface.
Engineering bricks
This is special bricks that made for carrying heavy
loads such as reinforced wall and retaining wall.

Paving bricks
This is low abrasion brick, generally furnished with
spacing lugs and produced in smooth or wire-cut surface
finishes. It is used for roads, sidewalks, driveways and
interior floor. The appearance is depends on the colour,
size, texture and bond pattern of bricks.
Fire bricks
This brick is made of from a special type of clay, very
pure and uniform and is able to withstand the high
temperatures of fireplaces, boilers, and similar
constructions. Fire bricks are generally huge than
other structural bricks and are often hand molded.
4.2.1 Strength of brick

The main factors governing the strength of a brick are brick strength, mortar
strength and elasticity, bricklayer workmanship, brick uniformity, and the
method used to lay brick. The strength of a single brick masonry unit varies
widely, depends on its ingredients and manufacturing method.
Brick can have an ultimate compressive strength as low as 11 MPa and some
brick can exceed 104 MPa. Portland cement lime mortar is normally stronger
than the brick, brick masonry laid with this mortar is stronger than an
individual brick unit. The load-carrying capacity of a wall or column made with
plain lime mortar is less than half that made with Portland cement lime mortar.
For mortar to bond to brick properly, sufficient water must be present to

completely hydrate the Portland cement in the mortar. Bricks sometimes
have high absorption rates, and, if not properly treated, can “suck” the
water out of the mortar, preventing complete hydration.
According to general physical properties such as minimum compressive

strength, maximum water absorption, maximum saturation coefficient, durability
and resistance to weathering, building bricks are graded into three grades:

• Grade SW (Severe weathering)

Highest minimum compressive strength and lowest maximum
water absorption.
• Grade MW (Moderate weathering)

Average minimum compressive strength and water absorption.
• Grade NW (Negligible weathering)

Lowest minimum compressive strength and no limit on the water
absorption.
4.3 Manufacture of bricks

Bricks are manufactured from clay. Chemically, clays are composed mainly of
silica and alumina. Too much silica tends to make the brick brittle and too much
alumina makes the brick wrap and crack on drying and burning. The other
agents like lime, iron, manganese, sulfur and phosphate act as colouring agent
and flux during burning phase.
There are three types of clay that used in brick manufacture:

• Surface clays are found at the surface of the earth
• Shales are clays that have been subjected to high pressures and
have hardened into a rock formation
• Fire clays are deep-mined clays
The best material for brick making is clay containing about 30 percent sand and
silt, because the presence of sand reduces the shrinkage occurring during the
burning of soft clays. To be molded and shaped, clays must have plasticity when
mixed with water. Furthermore, they should have sufficient tensile strength to
retain their shape after forming.
The majority of clays turn to a red colour when fired at a temperature of 900–
1000 oC. Above this temperature, the colour turns to dark red and then to brown
at about 1200 oC

4.3.1 The manufacturing process

The steps in manufacturing process of brick are illustrated in this figure.
Figure 4.3.1: Manufacturing process of bricks
Winning or mining : Process of obtaining the raw clays from surface pits or
underground mines.
Crushing and storage : The clays are crushed to break up large chunks and
screened to remove stones.
Pulverizing : Pulverized with 4 to 8 ton grinding wheels.
Screening : The clays are screened to control particle sizes going to pugmills.
Pugmills are large mixing cambers where the clays are blended with water and
ready for molding.
Forming and cutting : Three types of forming methods; stiff-mud, soft-mud and
dry press. However, stiff-mud method is commonly used in most brick
production :
• Stiff-mud method : clay blended with approximately 10 to 15

percent water by weight to produce a plastic mass which is then de-
aired in a vacuum to reduce the air content of the wet clay. Cutter wires
used to cut the brick to size.

• Soft-mud method : Clays which contain 20 to 30 percent water in

their natural state. The clays are mixed and then molded in forms.
• Dry-press method : Utilized for low-plasticity clays. Clays are

blended with less than 10 percent water and formed in molds under
pressures ranging from 500 to 1500 psi.
Glazing : There are two methods are utilized. High-fired glazes are applied to
the units before or after drying and then kiln-burned at normal temperatures,
whereas Low-fired glazes are applied after the clay unit has been kiln-burned
and allowed to cool. The clay units are then sprayed with glazing compound and
refired at low temperature to set the glaze.
Drying : The wet units coming from the cutting or molding machines normally
have moisture contents ranging from 7 to 30 percent. This water is removed in
dryers at temperature ranging from 100 to 300 oF about one to two days.
Burning : Bricks are fired in continuous tunnel kilns with the process requiring 2
to 5 days. This tunnel kilns allows the brick to move through various temperature
zones. After that, the cooling down process normally requires 2 to 3 days in a
periodic kiln. The rate of cooling will affect color and cracking.
Storage and shipping : After cooling, the units are removed from the kilns,
sorted, graded and prepared for direct shipping or storage.
4.4 Bricks bonding and arrangement

Bond refers to the type of procedure used in laying the masonry units. There are
various types of bond arrangement use today like running bond, stack bond,
English bond and Flemish bond. The running bond is the simplest patterns
has been used largely in cavity wall construction, brick veneer walls, and
facing tile walls.
In masonry construction, brick is laid on its larger face called bed. A bed joint is
the horizontal joint between two courses of brickwork. A head joint is a vertical
mortar joint placed between masonry units. Tight mortar is essential for good
performance of walls. All joints either vertical or horizontal directions must be
filled over the depth of the face shell.

Figure 4.4.1 : Types of bonding

Figure 4.4.2: Types of joints
4.5 Mortar
Mortar is a mixture of Portland cement, sand and water. Adding a small
percentage of lime to the cement mortar makes the mortar more workability.
Mortar can be classified as lime mortar or cement mortar. Lime mortar is made
of lime, sand and water, whereas cement mortar is made of Portland cement,
lime, sand and water. As depends on its different proportion, the minimum
average compressive strengths of cement mortar at 28 days are ranging from
17.2 MPa to 2.4 MPa.
In masonry works, mortar is used for the following functions:

• Bonding masonry units
• Serving as a seating material for the units
• Leveling and seating the units
• Providing aesthetic quality of the structure
Mortar starts to bind masonry units when it sets. During construction, bricks
should be rubbed and pressed down in order to force the mortar into the pores
of the masonry units to produce maximum adhesion. The mortar is very

important to distribute the pressure uniformly over the surface. However, the
weakest part of masonry is the mortar, hence, the less the mortar, the better the
performance of the wall. A thin layer of mortar is stronger in compression than a
thick one.
1. Making a furrow

3. Pressing down the bricks

Figure 4.5.1: Steps to be taken
in masonry construction

2. Cutting off excess mortar

4.6 Standard testing for brick
A good brick should have sharp edges and angles, absorb less than 20 percent
of water by weight, high compressive and bending strength. In order to
determine the quality of brick, several sampling preparation and testing process
can be made as follows:
According to ASTM standard C67-03a :

Specimen preparation
For laboratory testing, full-size brick shall be selected and shall be free of dirt,
mud, mortar or other materials unassociated with manufacturing process.
Weight determination:
• Drying : Dry the test specimen in a ventilated oven at 1100 to 1150C for
not less than 24h and until two successive weightings at intervals of 2h
show an incremental of loss not greater than 0.2%.

• Cooling : After drying, cool the specimen in a drying room maintained at a

temperature of 24 ± 80C with a relative humidity between 30 and 70%.
Store the units for a period of at least 4h and until the surface
temperature is within 2.8oC of the drying room temperature. The
specimen should be stored in drying room with the required temperature
and humidity maintained until tested.
4.7 Others testing
(1) Modulus of rupture, MOR (Flexure test)

Purpose: The purpose of MOR testing is to calculate the bending strength of
clay brick specimens.
Test specimens: Whole dry full-size units. The specimen is dried at 110oC for
24h and cooled for 4h.
Procedure:
1- Measure the average cross-sectional dimensions
2- Support individual units flatwise.
3- The span length is 25mm less than the basic unit length.
4- The specimen is loaded at the midspan.
5- Apply the load to the upper surface through the steel bearing plate
and make sure the supports are free to rotate in the longitudinal
and transverse directions of the test specimen.
6- Furthermore, the speed of loading at a rate of 1.27mm per minute.
7- Using the maximum load to calculate the value of MOR:
1.5 Pl
MOR =
Bt 2
where,
P = failure load
l = span length
B = unit width
t = height

Figure 4.6.1: MOR test
(2) Compressive strength

The compressive strength of clay units depends on:
• Composition of the clay
• Method of manufacture
• Degree of burning
Test specimens: Dry half brick. The length of the specimen is one half the full
length of the unit.
Procedure:
1- Measure the dimensions at the top and bottom of the specimen.
2- Cap the specimen with sulfur.
3- Allow the cap to cool for a minimum of 2h.
4- Test the specimen flatwise and load is applied in the direction of
the depth of the brick continuously so that the failure takes place
within 2 to 3 min.
5- Calculate the compressive strength as:
failure load
Compressivestrength =
net cross − sec tional area

Figure 4.6.2: Compressive strength test
(2) Absorption
The absorption of bricks is defined as the increase in the weight of brick due to
water. Water absorption greatly affects the durability of brick. Good, hard bricks
may absorb less than 10 percent water.
Test specimens: Half brick.
Procedure :
1- Dry and cool the specimens and weigh each one.
2- Submerged the dry and cool specimen in clean water (soft, distilled or
rain water) at 15.5 to 300C for 24h.
3- Remove the specimen, wipe off the surface water with a damp cloth
and weigh the specimen.
4- Calculate the absorption by using this formula:
(Ws − Wd )
Absorption , % = x1 00
Wd
where:
Wd = dry weight of the specimen
Ws = saturated weight of the specimen after submersion in cold
water

Saturation coefficient :
5- Return the bricks to the bath and subject it to the boiling test. Heat the
water to boiling and continue boiling for 5h.
6- Allow it to cool by natural loss of heat.
7- Remove the specimen and wipe off the surface water and weigh the
specimens.
The boiling water absorption of specimens can be calculated as follow:
(Wb − Wd )
Absorption, % = x 100
Wd
where:
Wb = saturated weight of the specimen after submersion in boiling
water
The saturation coefficient is defined as the ratio between absorption after 24h in
cold water and absorption after boiling 5h and calculated as follow:
(Ws − Wd )
Saturation coefficient =
Wb − Wd
where,
Ws = saturated weight of the specimen after 24h submersion in
cold water
Wb5 = saturated weight of the specimen after 5h submersion in
boiling water.

Tutorial 4
1. What is the different between solid and hollow masonry units?
2. Briefly explain the manufacturing system most commonly used to produce clay
bricks.
3. What are the advantages of using masonry units for road and driveway?
4. What is the different between grades and types of brick?
5. What functions does mortar serve in masonry construction?
6. Explain why bonding and arrangement is important in masonry construction?
7. What factors influence the compressive strength of bricks?
8. Describe the procedure to determine the strength of masonry units.
9. What the procedure should be taken during masonry construction in order to

ensure the bonding between masonry units?
10. In your opinion, what happen if masonry units used as a submerged structure?

Chapter 4-Masonry PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 4-Masonry PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 4: Brick and Masonry 81

1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

Masonry” refers to a construction material that formed by combining masonry

4.1 Classification of bricks

Stone Glass Clay Concrete Structural

Figure 4.1.1: Types of masonry units

4.2 Types of bricks

4.2.1 Strength of brick

For mortar to bond to brick properly, sufficient water must be present to

According to general physical properties such as minimum compressive

• Grade SW (Severe weathering)

• Grade MW (Moderate weathering)

• Grade NW (Negligible weathering)

4.3 Manufacture of bricks

There are three types of clay that used in brick manufacture:

4.3.1 The manufacturing process

Figure 4.3.1: Manufacturing process of bricks

Pulverizing : Pulverized with 4 to 8 ton grinding wheels.

• Stiff-mud method : clay blended with approximately 10 to 15

• Soft-mud method : Clays which contain 20 to 30 percent water in

• Dry-press method : Utilized for low-plasticity clays. Clays are

4.4 Bricks bonding and arrangement

Figure 4.4.1 : Types of bonding

Figure 4.4.2: Types of joints

In masonry works, mortar is used for the following functions:

According to ASTM standard C67-03a :

• Cooling : After drying, cool the specimen in a drying room maintained at a

4.7 Others testing

(1) Modulus of rupture, MOR (Flexure test)

Figure 4.6.1: MOR test

(2) Compressive strength

Figure 4.6.2: Compressive strength test

Test specimens: Half brick.

The boiling water absorption of specimens can be calculated as follow:

1. What is the different between solid and hollow masonry units?

4. What is the different between grades and types of brick?

5. What functions does mortar serve in masonry construction?

6. Explain why bonding and arrangement is important in masonry construction?

7. What factors influence the compressive strength of bricks?

8. Describe the procedure to determine the strength of masonry units.

9. What the procedure should be taken during masonry construction in order to

You might also like