PART

WELL PRODUCTIVITY
I
The upstream of the petroleum industry involves itself in the business of oil and gas exploration
and production (E & P) activities. While the exploration activities find oil and gas reserves, the
production activities deliver oil and gas to the downstream of the industry (i.e., processing plants).
The petroleum production is definitely the heart of the petroleum industry.
Petroleum production engineering is that part of petroleum engineering that attempts to
maximize oil and gas production in a cost-effective manner. To achieve this objective, production
engineers need to have a thorough understanding of the petroleum production systems with which
they work. To perform their job correctly, production engineers should have a solid background
and sound knowledge about the properties of fluids they produce, and working principles of all the
major components of producing wells and surface facilities. This part of the book provides
graduating production engineers with fundamentals of petroleum production engineering.
Materials are presented in the following eight chapters:
Chapter 1: Well Components 1/3
Chapter 2: Properties of Petroleum Fluids 2/19
Chapter 3: Reservoir Deliverability 3/37
2 PART I WELL PRODUCTIVITY

Chapter 4: Wellbore Flow Performance 4/83

Chapter 5: Choke Performance 5/111
Chapter 6: Well Deliverability 6/129
Chapter 7: Forecast of Well Production 7/179
Chapter 8: Production Decline Analysis 8/197
 CHAPTER

WELL COMPONENTS
1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Role of a production engineer is to maximize oil and gas production in a cost-effective manner.
Familiarization and understanding of oil and gas wells are essential to the engineers. This chapter
provides graduating production engineers with some basic knowledge about petroleum production
wells. More engineering principles are discussed in the later chapters.
Wells fall into categories of oil, condensate, and gas wells depending on the producing gas
oil
ratio (GOR). Gas wells are wells with producing GOR being greater than 100,000 scf/stb; conden-
sate wells are those with producing GOR being less than 100,000 scf/stb but greater than 5000 scf/
stb; and wells with producing GOR being less than 5000 scf/stb are classified as oil wells.
Fig. 1.1 shows a simple oil production system where a well provides a link between an oil reser-
voir and surface facilities. The well consists of a wellbore, a wellhead, and a flowline leading the
produced fluids to separators.

1.2 WELLBORE
Fig. 1.2 shows a typical flowing oil well, defined as a well producing solely because of the natural
pressure of the reservoir. It is composed of casings, tubing, packers, down-hole chokes (optional),
wellhead, Christmas tree, and surface chokes.
Oil and gas wellbores are constructed like an upside-down telescope. The large-diameter bore-
hole section is at the top of the well. Each section is cased to the surface, or a liner is placed in the
well that laps over the last casing in the well. Each casing or liner is cemented into the well (usu-
ally up to at least where the cement overlaps the previous cement job).
The last casing in the well is the production casing (or production liner). Once the production
casing has been cemented into the well, the production tubing is run into the well. Usually a packer
is used near the bottom of the tubing to isolate the annulus between the outside of the tubing and
the inside of the casing. Thus, the produced fluids are forced to move out of the perforation into
the bottom of the well and then into the inside of the tubing. Packers can be actuated by either
mechanical or hydraulic mechanisms. The production tubing is often (particularly during initial
well flow) provided with a bottom-hole choke to control the initial well flow (i.e., to restrict over-
production and loss of reservoir pressure).
Most wells produce oil through tubing strings, mainly because a tubing string provides good
sealing performance and allows the use of gas expansion to lift oil. The American Petroleum
Institute (API) defines tubing size using nominal diameter and weight (API, 1987a). The nominal
Petroleum Production Engineering. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809374-0.00001-5
Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 3
4 CHAPTER 1 WELL COMPONENTS

Gas
Wellhead

Oil

Water

Separators

Wellbore

Reservoir
Pwf P Pe

FIGURE 1.1
A sketch of a simple petroleum production system.

diameter is based on the internal diameter of the tubing body. The weight of tubing determines the
tubing outer diameter. Steel grades of tubing are designated H-40, J-55, C-75, L-80, N-80, C-90,
and P-105, where the digits represent the minimum yield strength in 1000 psi. The minimum per-
formance properties of tubing are given in Chapter 9 and Appendix B.

1.3 WELLHEAD
The “wellhead” is defined as the surface equipment set below the master valve. As we can see in
Fig. 1.3, it includes casing heads and a tubing head. The casing head (lowermost) is threaded onto
the surface casing. This can also be a flanged or studded connection. A “casing head” is a mechani-
cal assembly used for hanging a casing string (Fig. 1.4). Depending on casing programs in well
drilling, several casing heads can be installed during well construction. The casing head has a bowl
that supports the casing hanger. This casing hanger is threaded onto the top of the production cas-
ing (or uses friction grips to hold the casing). As in the case of the production tubing, the produc-
tion casing is landed in tension so that the casing hanger actually supports the production casing
 Wellhead

Surface casing
Intermediate casing
Cement
Production casing
Annulus

Wellbore Tubing

Bottom-hole choke

Packer
Casing perforation
Reservoir
Oil reservoir

FIGURE 1.2
A sketch of a typical flowing oil well.

Tubing pressure gauge

Wing Valve
Flow fitting
Choke

Tubing head

Master valve
Casing valve

Tubing

Casing pressure gauge

Production casing

Uppermost casing head Intermediate casing

Lowermost casing head Surface casing

FIGURE 1.3
A sketch of a wellhead.
6 CHAPTER 1 WELL COMPONENTS

Casing hanger Bowl

Production
casing

Casing
head

Surface
casing

FIGURE 1.4
A sketch of a casing head.

(down to the freeze point). In a similar manner, the intermediate casing(s) are supported by their
respective casing hangers (and bowls). All of these casing head arrangements are supported by the
surface casing, which is in compression and cemented to the surface. A well completed with three
casing strings has two casing heads. The uppermost casing head supports the production casing.
The lowermost casing head sits on the surface casing (threaded to the top of the surface casing).
Most flowing wells are produced through a string of tubing run inside the production casing
string. At the surface, the tubing is supported by the tubing head (i.e., the tubing head is used for
hanging tubing string on the production casing head (Fig. 1.5)). The tubing head supports the tub-
ing string at the surface (this tubing is landed on the tubing head so that it is in tension all the way
down to the packer).
The equipment at the top of the producing wellhead is called a “Christmas tree” (Fig. 1.6) and
it is used to control flow. The Christmas tree is installed above the tubing head. An “adaptor” is a
piece of equipment used to join the two. The Christmas tree may have one flow outlet (a tee) or
two flow outlets (a cross). The master valve is installed below the tee or cross. To replace a master
valve, the tubing must be plugged. A Christmas tree consists of a main valve, wing valves, and a
needle valve. These valves are used for closing the well when needed. At the top of the tee struc-
ture (on the top of the Christmas tree), there is a pressure gauge that indicates the pressure in the
tubing. The wing valves and their gauges allow access (for pressure measurements and gas or liquid
flow) to the annulus spaces (Fig. 1.7).
“Surface choke” is a piece of equipment used to control the flow rate (Fig. 1.8). In most flowing
wells, the oil production rate is altered by adjusting the choke size. The choke causes back-pressure
in the line. The back-pressure (caused by the chokes or other restrictions in the flowline) increases
the bottom-hole flowing pressure. Increasing the bottom-hole flowing pressure decreases the
 1.3 WELLHEAD 7

Hanger Bowl

Seal
Tubing head

Tubing

FIGURE 1.5
A sketch of a tubing head.

Gauge valve

Top connection

Swabbing valve

Flow fitting

Choke Wing valve Wing valve Choke

Master valve

Tubing head adapter

FIGURE 1.6
A sketch of a “Christmas tree.”
8 CHAPTER 1 WELL COMPONENTS

Handwheel

Packing

Gate

Port

FIGURE 1.7
A sketch of a surface valve.

Wellhead choke

FIGURE 1.8
A sketch of a wellhead choke.
 1.4 FLOWLINE 9

pressure drop from the reservoir to the wellbore (pressure drawdown). Thus, increasing the back-
pressure in the wellbore decreases the flow rate from the reservoir. In some wells, chokes are
installed in the lower section of tubing strings. This choke arrangement reduces wellhead pressure
and enhances oil production rate as a result of gas expansion in the tubing string. For gas wells, use
of down-hole chokes minimizes the gas hydrate problem in the well stream. A major disadvantage
of using down-hole chokes is that replacing a choke is costly.
Certain procedures must be followed to open or close a well. Before opening, check all the
surface equipment such as safety valves, fittings, and so on. The burner of a line heater must
be lit before the well is opened. This is necessary because the pressure drop across a choke
cools the fluid and may cause gas hydrates or paraffin to deposit out. A gas burner keeps the
involved fluid (usually water) hot. Fluid from the well is carried through a coil of piping. The
choke is installed in the heater. Well fluid is heated both before and after it flows through
the choke. The upstream heating helps melt any solids that may be present in the producing
fluid. The downstream heating prevents hydrates and paraffins from forming at the choke (Guo
and Ghalambor, 2012).
Surface vessels should be open and clear before the well is allowed to flow. All valves that are
in the master valve and other downstream valves are closed. Then follow the following procedure
to open a well:
1. The operator barely opens the master valve (just a crack), and escaping fluid makes a hissing
sound. When the fluid no longer hisses through the valve, the pressure has been equalized, and
then the master valve is opened wide.
2. If there are no oil leaks, the operator cracks the next downstream valve that is closed. Usually,
this will be either the second (backup) master valve or a wing valve. Again, when the hissing
sound stops, the valve is opened wide.
3. The operator opens the other downstream valves the same way.
4. To read the tubing pressure gauge, the operator must open the needle valve at the top of the
Christmas tree. After reading and recording the pressure, the operator may close the valve again
to protect the gauge.
The procedure for “shutting-in” a well is the opposite of the procedure for opening a well.
In shutting-in the well, the master valve is closed last. Valves are closed rather rapidly to avoid
wearing of the valve (to prevent erosion). At least two valves must be closed.

1.4 FLOWLINE
A flowline is a segment of steel pipe conveying the produced fluids from a wellhead, through a
production manifold as necessary, to a fluid separator of a surface facility. Fig. 1.9 shows applica-
tions of flowlines in offshore operations. It indicates flowlines transporting oil and/or gas from sat-
ellite subsea wells to subsea manifolds, flowlines transporting oil and/or gas from subsea manifolds
to production facility platforms, infield flowlines transporting oil and/or gas from between produc-
tion facility platforms, and export pipelines transporting oil and/or gas from production facility plat-
forms to shore.
10 CHAPTER 1 WELL COMPONENTS

Expansion
tie-in
spoolpiece
Existing
line
Pipeline To shore
crossing

Infield
flowline
Riser
Satellite
subsea
wells
Tie-in
Subsea manifold
Export pipeline

Flowlines
(several can be
bundled)

Flowlines

FIGURE 1.9
Uses of offshore flowlines and pipelines (Guo et al., 2013).

1.5 SAFETY CONTROL SYSTEM

The purpose of safety systems is to protect personnel, the environment, and the facility. The major
objective of the safety system is to prevent the release of hydrocarbons from the process and to
minimize the adverse effects of such releases if they occur. This can be achieved through the
following:
1. Preventing undesirable events
2. Shutting-in the process
3. Recovering released fluids
4. Preventing ignition
 1.6 SUMMARY 11

The modes of safety system operation include:

1. Automatic monitoring by sensors
2. Automatic protective action
3. Emergency shutdown
Protection concepts and safety analysis are based on undesirable events, which include:
1. Overpressure caused by:
a. Increased input flow due to upstream flow-control device failure
b. Decreased output flow due to blockage
c. Heating of closed system
2. Leak caused by:
a. Corrosion
b. Erosion
c. Mechanical failure due to temperature change, overpressure and underpressure, and external
impact force
3. Liquid overflow caused by:
a. Increased input flow due to upstream flow-control device failure
b. Decreased output flow due to blockage in the liquid discharge
4. Gas blow-by caused by:
a. Increased input flow due to upstream flow-control device failure
b. Decreased output flow due to blockage in the gas discharge
5. Underpressure caused by:
a. Outlet flow-control device (e.g., choke) failure
b. Inlet blockage
c. Cooling of closed system
6. Excess temperature caused by:
a. Overfueling of burner
b. External fire
c. Spark emission
Fig. 1.10 presents some symbols used in safety system design. Some API-recommended safety
devices are shown in Figs. 1.11 through 1.15 (API, 1987b).

1.6 SUMMARY
This chapter provided a brief introduction to the components of petroleum production wells.
Working principles, especially flow performances, of the components are described in later
chapters.
12 CHAPTER 1 WELL COMPONENTS

Flow safety Burner safety

Pressure safety valve
valve low

FSV PSV
BSL PSV

Flow safety Flow safety Temperature Temperature

high low safety high safety low

FSH FSL TSH TSL

Temperature
Level safety Level safety Temperature
safety
high low safety element
high & low

TSE
LSH LSL TSHL

Flow safety Level safety Pressure Pressure

high & low high & low safety high safety low

FSHL LSHL PSH PSL

Pressure safety Pressure safety

Surface safety valve
high & low element

PSHL PSE SSV SSV

Underwater safety valve Shut down valve

USV USV SDV SDV

Blow down valve

BDV BDV

FIGURE 1.10
Safety device symbols.
 1.6 SUMMARY 13

TSE

SSV

PSHL FSV
<10’
(3M)

Outlet

MAWP > SITP

Option 1

PSL
TSE

SSV

PSHL FSV
<10’
(3M)

Outlet

MAWP > SITP

Option 2

TSE PSL

PSL
>10’
SSV
(3M)

FSV
PSHL
Outlet

MAWP > SITP

Option 3

FIGURE 1.11
Safety system designs for surface wellhead flowlines.
14 CHAPTER 1 WELL COMPONENTS

PSV
TSE PSL

SSV

PSHL FSV
>10’
(3M)

Outlet

MAWP > SITP MAWP < SITP

Option 4

TSE
PSHL FSV
SSV

Outlet

MAWP > SITP

Option 5

FIGURE 1.11
(Continued).
 USV

PSHL FSV

Option 1 Outlet

MAWP > SITP

PSL SDV
USV

PSHL FSV
Denotes platform limits

Outlet

Option 2

MAWP > SITP

FIGURE 1.12
Safety system designs for underwater wellhead flowlines.

PSV FSV

PSHL
Gas outlet

Gas makeup system

TSE

Inlet

Pressure
vessel
LSH

FSV
LSL
Oil outlet

FIGURE 1.13
Safety system design for pressure vessel.
16 CHAPTER 1 WELL COMPONENTS

PSV

TSE
SDV

From storage
Pump
component

PSHL
FSV

Discharge

FIGURE 1.14
Safety system design for pipeline pumps.

PSV

TSE

Suction Pump

PSHL
FSV

Discharge

FIGURE 1.15
Safety system design for other pumps.
 PROBLEMS 17

REFERENCES
American Petroleum Institute (API), 1987a. API Bulletin 5C2, May 31. Bulletin on Performance Properties of
Casing, Tubing, and Drill Pipe. twentieth ed. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC.
American Petroleum Institute (API), 1987b. API Bulletin 14C, May 31. Recommended Practice for Analysis,
Design, Installation, and Testing of Basic Surface Safety Systems for Offshore Production Platforms. twen-
tieth ed. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC.
Guo, B., Ghalambor, A., 2012. Natural Gas Engineering Handbook. second ed. Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston.
Guo, B., Song, S., Ghalambor, A., Lin, T., 2013. Offshore Pipelines. second ed. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

PROBLEMS
1.1. What is the role of an oil production engineer?
1.2. Is the tubing nominal diameter closer to tubing outside diameter or tubing inside diameter?
1.3. What do the digits in the tubing specification represent?
1.4. What is a wellhead choke used for?
1.5. What are the benefits and disadvantages of using down-hole chokes over wellhead chokes?
1.6. What is the temperature safety element used for?