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Part B: Transform Methods

Chapter 2: Fourier Representation


of Signal
2.1 Fourier Series
2.2 Fourier Transform
2.3 Inverse Fourier Transform
2.4 Properties
2.4.1 Frequency Shift
2.4.2 Time Shift
2.4.3 Scaling
2.4.4 Differentiation in Time
2.4.5 Differentiation in Frequency
2.5 Problem Sheet B2
Transform Methods

„ The study of signals and systems using


sinusoidal representation is termed Fourier
Analysis.

„ The Fourier Series (FS) applies to


continuous-time periodic signals

„ If the signal is continuous time and non-


periodic, the representation is termed the
Fourier Transform (FT)
2.1 Fourier series
„ Any periodic signal x(t) [assuming finite power] with
a period of T seconds can be represented as a
summation of sine waves and cosine weaves. This
representation is known as the trigonometric Fourier
series:
A0 ∞
x(t ) = + ∑ An cos(nω0t ) + Bn sin( nω0t )
2 n =1


The fundamental frequency of x(t) is ω 0 =
1 T
radians per sec or Hz.
T
1
i.e. f0 = and ω0 = 2πf 0
T
„ In general, the signal is also continuous a second

2 3
harmonic at Hz, a third harmonic at Hz etc.
T T

„ The Fourier coefficients An and Bn can be calculated


directly from the signal using the following two
equations: T
2 2
An = ∫ T x(t ) cos(nω0t )dt
T −2
n = 0, 1, 2,...
T
2
Bn = ∫ x(t ) sin( nω0t )dt
2
T
T −
2

n = 0, 1, 2,...
Example :
„ Consider the square wave x(t). The period T of the
square wave is 2 seconds. Calculate the Fourier
coefficients.

x(t)

0 1 2 t

-1
T=2
2 T 2 2
An = ∫ x(t ) cos(nπ t )dt = ∫ x(t ) cos(nπ t )dt
T 0 2 0
1 2
= ∫ x(t ) cos(nπ t )dt − ∫ x(t ) cos(nπ t )dt = 0
0 1

„ For this particular waveform all the ‘An’ coefficients


are zero and hence there will be no cosine wave
terms in the summation of equation x(t).

The ‘B’ coefficients are

2 T 2 2
Bn = ∫ x(t ) sin( nπ t )dt = ∫ x(t ) sin(nπ t )dt
T 0 2 0
1 2 2
= ∫ 1 sin(nπ t )dt − ∫ 1 sin(nπ t )dt = (1 − cos(nπ ))
0 1 nπ
„ For even values of n the ‘B’ coefficients are also zero.

A0 ∞
x(t ) = + ∑ An cos(nω 0t ) + Bn sin( nω 0t )
2 n =1

⎛ 2 ⎞
= ∑⎜ (1 − cos(nπ )) ⎟ sin nω 0t
n =1 ⎝ nπ ⎠

4 4 4
x(t ) = sin πt + 0 + sin(3πt ) + 0 + sin(5πt ) + ...
π 3π 5π
2nd 4th 5th
fundamental harmonic harmonic
harmonic

As more harmonics are added the summation gets closer


and closer (converges) to x(t).
Question 14
Consider the square wave x(t) shown in Fig. 13. By calculating the Fourier series
4
coefficients, find the value of k0 if the 5th harmonic component of x(t) is equal to

x(t)
k0 Figure 13
-2 -1 0 1 2 t
- k0
[6 marks]

2 T 2 2
An = ∫ x(t ) cos( nπ t ) dt = ∫ x(t ) cos(nπ t )dt
T 0 2 0
1 2
= ∫ x(t ) cos(nπ t ) dt − ∫ x(t ) cos(nπ t )dt = 0
0 1

2 T 2 2
Bn = ∫ x(t) sin(nπt)dt = ∫ x(t) sin(nπt)dt
T 0 20
1 2 2k
= ∫ k0 sin(nπt)dt − ∫ k0 sin(nπt)dt = 0 (1− cos(nπ )
0 1 nπ
4 2k0
n =5 = (1− cos(5π ) ⇒ k0 = 1
5π 5π
„ By making use of the general relations:
1 jnω0t
cos(nω0t ) = e
2
[
+ e − jnω0t ]
sin(nω0t ) =
2j
e −e [
1 jnω0t − jnω0t
]
We can rewrite A0 ∞
x (t ) = + ∑ An cos( nω 0 t ) + Bn sin( nω 0 t )
2 n =1
much more concisely as 2π

where ω =
T
x(t ) = ∑ n
α e jnω t 0

An − jBn A0
n = −∞
and α n = , n > 0, α 0 =
T 2 2
2
1

− jnω 0 t
αn = x (t ) e dt In general the coefficients αn will
T

T
2
therefore have a complex value.
Example :
x(t)
τ
1
T
2

τ τ t

2 2 T

Evaluate the complex Fourier series.


T T
2 2
1 1
∫ x (t ) e dt = ∫ 1 ⋅ e − jnω0t dt
− jnω0t
αn =
T T T T
− −
2 2

nω0τ
sin
τ τ
αn = 2 ⇒ α0 =
T nω0τ T
2
„ Although the Fourier coefficients (αn) are complex, in
this particular example they are real.
αn
This is only specified
at particular
frequencies and each
0123 n frequency has an
amplitude.
We have αn = α-n
∞ ∞
x(t ) = ∑ n
α e
n = −∞
jnω t
=0
α 0 + ∑ n
α e jnω t
+
n =1
α 0
−n e − jnω t
0


e jnω0t + e − jnω0t
= α 0 + ∑ 2α n
n =1 2


x(t ) = α 0 + ∑ 2α n cos(nω 0t )
n =1

sin nω20τ
Where α n = Tτ nω 0τ
2
2.2 Fourier Transform (FT) [8]
„ Although the Fourier series is a powerful concept, it
suffers from one disadvantage, i.e. it is only
applicable to periodic signals.

„ Most signals of practical importance are not periodic.

„ The Fourier Transform pair is given by



− jωt
X (ω ) = x (t ) e dt
−∞

1

jωt
x(t ) = X (ω ) e dω
2π −∞
Example:
„ Evaluate the Fourier transform of a rectangular pulse
shown below: x(t)
A

τ τ t

2 2
τ
∞ 2

∫ ∫
− jωt − jω t
X (ω ) = x (t ) e dt = x (t ) e dt
−∞ τ

2

A ⎡ − jωτ jωτ

=− ⎢e
2
−e ⎥
2
jω ⎣ ⎦
sin ωτ2
X (ω ) = Aτ ωτ
Sinc function
2

X(ω)

2π 2π 4π ω

τ τ τ

Note: The Fourier transform is a continuous function of


frequency and |X(ω)| represents the distribution of
amplitude with frequency
Example:
„ Find the Fourier Transform of x(t) = δ(t).

δ(t)

1

X (ω ) = ∫ δ (t )e − jωt dt = 1
−∞

X(ω) t

ω
Example:
„ Find the FT of x(t) = e-atu(t), a > 0


X (ω ) = ∫ e − at u (t )e − jωt dt
−∞

1
=
a + jω

1
| X (ω ) |=
a2 + ω 2
Example :
„ Find the inverse Fourier transform of the rectangular
spectrum shown below:
X(ω)
1

-ωc ωc ω

⎧1 − ω c ≤ ω ≤ ω c
X (ω ) = ⎨
⎩0 | ω |> ω
2.3 Inverse FT:
ωc ωc
1 1
∫−ω X (ω )e dω; x(t ) = 2π ∫
jωt jωt
x(t ) = 1 ⋅ e dω
2π c −ωc

1 ω c sin ω c t
x(t ) = sin(ω c t ) =
πt π ωct
ωc x(t)
π
ω c sin ω c t
x(t ) =
π ω ct
− π / ωc π / ωc t

sin ωc t ωc
At t = 0 = 1 and X (0) =
ωc t π
Example :
„ Find the Fourier Transform of x(t) = δ(t-a)


FT {δ (t − a )} = ∫ δ (t − a )e − jωt dt = e − jωa
−∞

„ The amplitude spectrum of the impulse function is

| FT{δ (t-a)} | = | e-jωa | = 1

Since FT{δ(t-a)} = e-jωa

FT-1{e-jωa }= δ (t – a)
FT-1{e-jωa }= δ (t – a)
From the inverse fourier transform,

1
∫ e d ω = δ (t − a )
− jω a jω t
e
2π −∞


jω ( t − a )
e dω = 2πδ (t − a)
−∞

if a = 0 ⇒ ∫ e jωt dω = 2πδ (t )
−∞

Interchanging variables, we also have


∫ dt = 2πδ (ω )
j ωt
e
−∞
Example:
∞ ∞
{ }
FT e jω1t = ∫ e jω1t e − jωt dt = ∫ e j (ω1 −ω )t dt = 2πδ (ω1 − ω )
−∞ −∞

{ }
FT e jω1t = 2πδ (ω − ω1 ) δ(ω-ω1) = δ(ω1 - ω)

jω1t
The amplitude spectrum of e is show below:

FT{ejω1t}

ω1 ω
Example :
⎧ e jω1t + e − jω1t ⎫ 1
FT {cos ω1t} = FT ⎨ ⎬ = FT e{ }
jω1t
+
1
FT e{− jω1t
}
⎩ 2 ⎭ 2 2
= πδ (ω − ω1 ) + πδ (ω + ω1 )

The amplitude spectrum of cosω1t is show below

FT{cosω1t}

π π

-ω1 ω1
Summary :
x(t) X(ω)

FT Aτ
A

τ τ t 2π 2π ω
− −
2 2 τ τ
A rectangular time-domain pulse is transformed to a ‘sinc’
function in frequency.
x(t)
IFT
Aωc/π X(ω)
A

π -ωc ωc ω
ωc
A ‘sinc’ function in time is transformed to a rectangular
function in frequency.
Example :
„ Using the equation for the FT, evaluate the
frequency-domain representation for the
following signals.

Sketch the magnitude spectra.

(a) x(t) = e-3tu(t-1)

(b) x(t) = e-|t|

(c) x(t) = te-2t u(t)


(a) x(t) = e-3tu(t-1)
∞ ∞

∫ ∫ e dt
− jωt − 3 t − j ωt
X (ω ) = x (t ) e dt = e
−∞ 1
∞ − ( jω + 3 )
e
X (ω ) = ∫ e −t ( jω +3) dt =
1
jω + 3
|X(ω)|
e −3
| X (ω ) |=
ω2 + 9
∠X (ω ) = −ω − tan −1 (ω3 )
0.005 ω
-10 10
(b) x(t)=e-|t|
x(t)


et e-t
∫ x(t )e
− jω t
X (ω ) = dt
−∞ t

|X(ω)|
0
= ∫ e t e − jωt dt + ∫ e −t e − jωt dt
−∞ 2
0
0 ∞
=∫ e (1− jω ) t
dt + ∫ e −(1+ jω )t dt
−∞ 0
ω=0 ω
2
X (ω ) = 2
ω +1 ∠X(ω)
2
| X (ω ) |= 2 ω
ω +1 ω=0
∠X (ω ) = 0
(c) x(t) = t e-2tu(t)
0.25 |X(ω)|

X (ω ) = ∫ te − 2t e − jωt dt
0

= ∫ te − ( 2 + jω ) t dω ω=0 ω
0

1
=
( 2 + jω ) 2
∠X(ω)

1 4
X (ω ) =
(4 − ω 2 ) 2 + (4ω ) 2 0

⎛ 4ω ⎞ -4 ω
∠X (ω ) = − tan ⎜ −1
2 ⎟
ω=0
⎝ 4 −ω ⎠
Example :
„ Determine the time-domain signals corresponding to
the following FTs.
(1) X(ω) = e-2ωu(ω)
(2) X(ω) = e-|ω|
(3) X(ω) as shown in below:
∠X(ω)
|X(ω)|
1 4

2
-2 2 ω
-2 ω

− j 2ω -4
X (ω ) = e
∠X (ω ) = −2ω
(i) X(ω) = e-2ωu(ω)

1 ∞ 1 ∞
∫ ∫
− 2ω j ωt
x(t ) = e e dω = e ( jt − 2 )ω dω
2π 0 2π 0

1
x(t ) =
2π (2 − jt )

(ii) X(ω) = e-|ω|

1 ⎛ 0 ω jω t ∞

⎜ ∫−∞ ∫
−ω jωt
x(t ) = e e d ω + e e d ω ⎟
2π ⎝ 0 ⎠
2
= 2
t +1
(iii)

1 2 − j 2ω jωt 1 2
∫ ∫
jω ( t − 2 )
x(t ) = e e dω = e dω
2π − 2 2π −2

2 sin(2(t − 2)
=
π π (t − 2)
2.4 Properties [8]
2.4.1 Frequency-shift property

e x(t ) ←⎯→ X (ω − k )
jkt FT

Using the frequency-shift property to determine the FT


of the complex sinusoidal pulse.

⎧e j10t | t |≤ π
y (t ) = ⎨
⎩ 0 otherwise
„ We express y(t) as the product of a complex sinusoid
ej10t and a rectangular pulse
⎧1 | t |≤ π
x(t ) = ⎨
⎩0 otherwise
„ Using the previous example, we obtain
2
x(t ) ←⎯→ X (ω ) =
FT
sin ωπ
ω

„ and using the frequency-shift property


e j10t x(t ) ←⎯→
FT
X (ω − 10)

∴ We obtain y(t ) ←⎯→ ω − 10 sin(ω − 10)π


2
FT
2.4.2 Time -shift property of FT
− jω t 0
x (t − t 0 ) ←⎯→ e FT
X (ω )

Example: Using FT of the rectangular pulse x(t)


shown in Figure 1(a) below, determine the FT of the
time-shifted rectangular pulse, y(t), shown in Figure 1(b).
y(t)
x(t)
1 1

-T T t 2T t
Fig 1(a) Fig 1(b)
„ First we note y(t) = x(t-T), so the time-shift property
implies that

Y(ω) = e-jωTX(ω)

2
X (ω ) = sin ωT ,τ = T
ω

− j ωT 2
Thus we have Y (ω ) = e × sin ωT
ω
2.4.3 Scaling property
1 ⎛ω ⎞
„ If y(t) = x(at), then Y (ω ) = X⎜ ⎟
|a| ⎝ a⎠
Example:
Let x(t) be the rectangular pulse
x(t)
⎧1 | t |≤ 1 1
x(t ) = ⎨
⎩0 | t |> 1
-1 1 t
T=1
Use the FT of x(t) and the scaling property to find the
FT of the scale rectangular pulse y(t)
1
⎧1 | t |≤ 2
y (t ) = ⎨
⎩0 | t |> 2 -2 2 t
2
When T = 1, X (ω ) = sin(ω )
ω

Note that y (t ) = x( 2t )

, hence application of the scaling property gives (a = 1 )


2

y (t ) = x( 2t ) ⇒ Y (ω ) = 1
a
X (ωa ) = 2 X (2ω )
= 2 ⋅ 22ω sin(2ω ) = ω2 sin(2ω )
2.4.4 Differentiation in Time
d
x(t ) ←⎯→ jωX (ω )
FT

dt

Example:
1
x(t ) = e u (t ) ⇒ X (ω ) =
− at

jω + a

dt
(
d − at
)
e u (t ) ←⎯→ jωX (ω ) =
FT

jω + a
Lets verify this result by differentiating and
Finding the FT directly:

dt
(
d − at
)
e u (t ) = − ae u (t ) + e δ (t )
− at − at

= − ae u (t ) + δ (t )
− at

FT
−a jω
= + 1 =
jω + a a + jω
2.4.5 Differentiation in Frequency

d
− jtx (t ) ←⎯→
FT
X (ω )

„ (Differentiation in Frequency corresponds to


multiplication in time by jt)
Question 15
Using the FT pair [x(t) and X(ω)] given below and the FT properties(see attached), evaluate the
frequency domain representation Y(ω) for the following signal y(t).

⎧1 | t |≤ 1 2 sin ω y(t)
FT
x(t ) = ⎨ ←⎯
⎯→ X (ω) = 2
⎩0 otherwise ω

x(t)

1 -2 2 t
[6 marks]

-1 1 t

y (t ) = x (t ) * x (t )

x (t ) * x (t ) ⎯⎯→
FT
X (ω ). X (ω )

∴ Y (ω ) = X (ω ). X (ω )
4
= 2 sin 2 ω
ω

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