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2π
The fundamental frequency of x(t) is ω 0 =
1 T
radians per sec or Hz.
T
1
i.e. f0 = and ω0 = 2πf 0
T
In general, the signal is also continuous a second
2 3
harmonic at Hz, a third harmonic at Hz etc.
T T
n = 0, 1, 2,...
Example :
Consider the square wave x(t). The period T of the
square wave is 2 seconds. Calculate the Fourier
coefficients.
x(t)
0 1 2 t
-1
T=2
2 T 2 2
An = ∫ x(t ) cos(nπ t )dt = ∫ x(t ) cos(nπ t )dt
T 0 2 0
1 2
= ∫ x(t ) cos(nπ t )dt − ∫ x(t ) cos(nπ t )dt = 0
0 1
2 T 2 2
Bn = ∫ x(t ) sin( nπ t )dt = ∫ x(t ) sin(nπ t )dt
T 0 2 0
1 2 2
= ∫ 1 sin(nπ t )dt − ∫ 1 sin(nπ t )dt = (1 − cos(nπ ))
0 1 nπ
For even values of n the ‘B’ coefficients are also zero.
A0 ∞
x(t ) = + ∑ An cos(nω 0t ) + Bn sin( nω 0t )
2 n =1
∞
⎛ 2 ⎞
= ∑⎜ (1 − cos(nπ )) ⎟ sin nω 0t
n =1 ⎝ nπ ⎠
4 4 4
x(t ) = sin πt + 0 + sin(3πt ) + 0 + sin(5πt ) + ...
π 3π 5π
2nd 4th 5th
fundamental harmonic harmonic
harmonic
2 T 2 2
An = ∫ x(t ) cos( nπ t ) dt = ∫ x(t ) cos(nπ t )dt
T 0 2 0
1 2
= ∫ x(t ) cos(nπ t ) dt − ∫ x(t ) cos(nπ t )dt = 0
0 1
2 T 2 2
Bn = ∫ x(t) sin(nπt)dt = ∫ x(t) sin(nπt)dt
T 0 20
1 2 2k
= ∫ k0 sin(nπt)dt − ∫ k0 sin(nπt)dt = 0 (1− cos(nπ )
0 1 nπ
4 2k0
n =5 = (1− cos(5π ) ⇒ k0 = 1
5π 5π
By making use of the general relations:
1 jnω0t
cos(nω0t ) = e
2
[
+ e − jnω0t ]
sin(nω0t ) =
2j
e −e [
1 jnω0t − jnω0t
]
We can rewrite A0 ∞
x (t ) = + ∑ An cos( nω 0 t ) + Bn sin( nω 0 t )
2 n =1
much more concisely as 2π
∞
where ω =
T
x(t ) = ∑ n
α e jnω t 0
An − jBn A0
n = −∞
and α n = , n > 0, α 0 =
T 2 2
2
1
∫
− jnω 0 t
αn = x (t ) e dt In general the coefficients αn will
T
−
T
2
therefore have a complex value.
Example :
x(t)
τ
1
T
2
τ τ t
−
2 2 T
nω0τ
sin
τ τ
αn = 2 ⇒ α0 =
T nω0τ T
2
Although the Fourier coefficients (αn) are complex, in
this particular example they are real.
αn
This is only specified
at particular
frequencies and each
0123 n frequency has an
amplitude.
We have αn = α-n
∞ ∞
x(t ) = ∑ n
α e
n = −∞
jnω t
=0
α 0 + ∑ n
α e jnω t
+
n =1
α 0
−n e − jnω t
0
∞
e jnω0t + e − jnω0t
= α 0 + ∑ 2α n
n =1 2
∞
x(t ) = α 0 + ∑ 2α n cos(nω 0t )
n =1
sin nω20τ
Where α n = Tτ nω 0τ
2
2.2 Fourier Transform (FT) [8]
Although the Fourier series is a powerful concept, it
suffers from one disadvantage, i.e. it is only
applicable to periodic signals.
∫
− jωt
X (ω ) = x (t ) e dt
−∞
∞
1
∫
jωt
x(t ) = X (ω ) e dω
2π −∞
Example:
Evaluate the Fourier transform of a rectangular pulse
shown below: x(t)
A
τ τ t
−
2 2
τ
∞ 2
∫ ∫
− jωt − jω t
X (ω ) = x (t ) e dt = x (t ) e dt
−∞ τ
−
2
A ⎡ − jωτ jωτ
⎤
=− ⎢e
2
−e ⎥
2
jω ⎣ ⎦
sin ωτ2
X (ω ) = Aτ ωτ
Sinc function
2
X(ω)
Aτ
2π 2π 4π ω
−
τ τ τ
δ(t)
1
∞
X (ω ) = ∫ δ (t )e − jωt dt = 1
−∞
X(ω) t
ω
Example:
Find the FT of x(t) = e-atu(t), a > 0
∞
X (ω ) = ∫ e − at u (t )e − jωt dt
−∞
1
=
a + jω
1
| X (ω ) |=
a2 + ω 2
Example :
Find the inverse Fourier transform of the rectangular
spectrum shown below:
X(ω)
1
-ωc ωc ω
⎧1 − ω c ≤ ω ≤ ω c
X (ω ) = ⎨
⎩0 | ω |> ω
2.3 Inverse FT:
ωc ωc
1 1
∫−ω X (ω )e dω; x(t ) = 2π ∫
jωt jωt
x(t ) = 1 ⋅ e dω
2π c −ωc
1 ω c sin ω c t
x(t ) = sin(ω c t ) =
πt π ωct
ωc x(t)
π
ω c sin ω c t
x(t ) =
π ω ct
− π / ωc π / ωc t
sin ωc t ωc
At t = 0 = 1 and X (0) =
ωc t π
Example :
Find the Fourier Transform of x(t) = δ(t-a)
∞
FT {δ (t − a )} = ∫ δ (t − a )e − jωt dt = e − jωa
−∞
FT-1{e-jωa }= δ (t – a)
FT-1{e-jωa }= δ (t – a)
From the inverse fourier transform,
∞
1
∫ e d ω = δ (t − a )
− jω a jω t
e
2π −∞
∫
jω ( t − a )
e dω = 2πδ (t − a)
−∞
∞
if a = 0 ⇒ ∫ e jωt dω = 2πδ (t )
−∞
∫ dt = 2πδ (ω )
j ωt
e
−∞
Example:
∞ ∞
{ }
FT e jω1t = ∫ e jω1t e − jωt dt = ∫ e j (ω1 −ω )t dt = 2πδ (ω1 − ω )
−∞ −∞
{ }
FT e jω1t = 2πδ (ω − ω1 ) δ(ω-ω1) = δ(ω1 - ω)
jω1t
The amplitude spectrum of e is show below:
FT{ejω1t}
2π
ω1 ω
Example :
⎧ e jω1t + e − jω1t ⎫ 1
FT {cos ω1t} = FT ⎨ ⎬ = FT e{ }
jω1t
+
1
FT e{− jω1t
}
⎩ 2 ⎭ 2 2
= πδ (ω − ω1 ) + πδ (ω + ω1 )
FT{cosω1t}
π π
-ω1 ω1
Summary :
x(t) X(ω)
FT Aτ
A
τ τ t 2π 2π ω
− −
2 2 τ τ
A rectangular time-domain pulse is transformed to a ‘sinc’
function in frequency.
x(t)
IFT
Aωc/π X(ω)
A
π -ωc ωc ω
ωc
A ‘sinc’ function in time is transformed to a rectangular
function in frequency.
Example :
Using the equation for the FT, evaluate the
frequency-domain representation for the
following signals.
∫ ∫ e dt
− jωt − 3 t − j ωt
X (ω ) = x (t ) e dt = e
−∞ 1
∞ − ( jω + 3 )
e
X (ω ) = ∫ e −t ( jω +3) dt =
1
jω + 3
|X(ω)|
e −3
| X (ω ) |=
ω2 + 9
∠X (ω ) = −ω − tan −1 (ω3 )
0.005 ω
-10 10
(b) x(t)=e-|t|
x(t)
∞
et e-t
∫ x(t )e
− jω t
X (ω ) = dt
−∞ t
∞
|X(ω)|
0
= ∫ e t e − jωt dt + ∫ e −t e − jωt dt
−∞ 2
0
0 ∞
=∫ e (1− jω ) t
dt + ∫ e −(1+ jω )t dt
−∞ 0
ω=0 ω
2
X (ω ) = 2
ω +1 ∠X(ω)
2
| X (ω ) |= 2 ω
ω +1 ω=0
∠X (ω ) = 0
(c) x(t) = t e-2tu(t)
0.25 |X(ω)|
∞
X (ω ) = ∫ te − 2t e − jωt dt
0
∞
= ∫ te − ( 2 + jω ) t dω ω=0 ω
0
1
=
( 2 + jω ) 2
∠X(ω)
1 4
X (ω ) =
(4 − ω 2 ) 2 + (4ω ) 2 0
⎛ 4ω ⎞ -4 ω
∠X (ω ) = − tan ⎜ −1
2 ⎟
ω=0
⎝ 4 −ω ⎠
Example :
Determine the time-domain signals corresponding to
the following FTs.
(1) X(ω) = e-2ωu(ω)
(2) X(ω) = e-|ω|
(3) X(ω) as shown in below:
∠X(ω)
|X(ω)|
1 4
2
-2 2 ω
-2 ω
− j 2ω -4
X (ω ) = e
∠X (ω ) = −2ω
(i) X(ω) = e-2ωu(ω)
1 ∞ 1 ∞
∫ ∫
− 2ω j ωt
x(t ) = e e dω = e ( jt − 2 )ω dω
2π 0 2π 0
1
x(t ) =
2π (2 − jt )
1 ⎛ 0 ω jω t ∞
⎞
⎜ ∫−∞ ∫
−ω jωt
x(t ) = e e d ω + e e d ω ⎟
2π ⎝ 0 ⎠
2
= 2
t +1
(iii)
1 2 − j 2ω jωt 1 2
∫ ∫
jω ( t − 2 )
x(t ) = e e dω = e dω
2π − 2 2π −2
2 sin(2(t − 2)
=
π π (t − 2)
2.4 Properties [8]
2.4.1 Frequency-shift property
e x(t ) ←⎯→ X (ω − k )
jkt FT
⎧e j10t | t |≤ π
y (t ) = ⎨
⎩ 0 otherwise
We express y(t) as the product of a complex sinusoid
ej10t and a rectangular pulse
⎧1 | t |≤ π
x(t ) = ⎨
⎩0 otherwise
Using the previous example, we obtain
2
x(t ) ←⎯→ X (ω ) =
FT
sin ωπ
ω
-T T t 2T t
Fig 1(a) Fig 1(b)
First we note y(t) = x(t-T), so the time-shift property
implies that
Y(ω) = e-jωTX(ω)
2
X (ω ) = sin ωT ,τ = T
ω
− j ωT 2
Thus we have Y (ω ) = e × sin ωT
ω
2.4.3 Scaling property
1 ⎛ω ⎞
If y(t) = x(at), then Y (ω ) = X⎜ ⎟
|a| ⎝ a⎠
Example:
Let x(t) be the rectangular pulse
x(t)
⎧1 | t |≤ 1 1
x(t ) = ⎨
⎩0 | t |> 1
-1 1 t
T=1
Use the FT of x(t) and the scaling property to find the
FT of the scale rectangular pulse y(t)
1
⎧1 | t |≤ 2
y (t ) = ⎨
⎩0 | t |> 2 -2 2 t
2
When T = 1, X (ω ) = sin(ω )
ω
Note that y (t ) = x( 2t )
y (t ) = x( 2t ) ⇒ Y (ω ) = 1
a
X (ωa ) = 2 X (2ω )
= 2 ⋅ 22ω sin(2ω ) = ω2 sin(2ω )
2.4.4 Differentiation in Time
d
x(t ) ←⎯→ jωX (ω )
FT
dt
Example:
1
x(t ) = e u (t ) ⇒ X (ω ) =
− at
jω + a
jω
dt
(
d − at
)
e u (t ) ←⎯→ jωX (ω ) =
FT
jω + a
Lets verify this result by differentiating and
Finding the FT directly:
dt
(
d − at
)
e u (t ) = − ae u (t ) + e δ (t )
− at − at
= − ae u (t ) + δ (t )
− at
FT
−a jω
= + 1 =
jω + a a + jω
2.4.5 Differentiation in Frequency
d
− jtx (t ) ←⎯→
FT
X (ω )
dω
⎧1 | t |≤ 1 2 sin ω y(t)
FT
x(t ) = ⎨ ←⎯
⎯→ X (ω) = 2
⎩0 otherwise ω
x(t)
1 -2 2 t
[6 marks]
-1 1 t
y (t ) = x (t ) * x (t )
x (t ) * x (t ) ⎯⎯→
FT
X (ω ). X (ω )
∴ Y (ω ) = X (ω ). X (ω )
4
= 2 sin 2 ω
ω