Leadership versus

Management: How
They Are Different,
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and Why
SHAMAS-UR-REHMAN TOOR AND

GEORGE OFORI

ABSTRACT: “Leadership” is different from “management”; many just know it intuitively

but have not been able to understand this difference clearly. These are two entirely differ-
ent functions based on their underlying philosophies, functions, and outcomes. Similarly,
leaders and managers are not the same people. They apply different conceptualizations
and approaches to work, exercise different ways of problem solving, undertake different
functions in the organizations, and exhibit different behaviors owing to their different
intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. Although discretely different, the terms “manager”
and “leader” are often confused and used interchangeably. This paper attempts to ad-
dress this issue at various levels, including etymological, development, conceptual distinc-
tions, definitional complexities, functional divergence, and behavioral differences. It is
argued that in order to be competitive, future organizations need to develop as many
leaders as possible, but that these leaders should also have sufficient management knowl-
edge and capabilities. Organizations also need effective managers who possess adequate
leadership skills for better problem solving and overall functioning in the teams.

T
heliteratureonleadershipdatesbackto
several centuries. Ancient approaches
to leadership comprise the writings of
early philosophers and thinkers who
put together their thoughts on leaders,
leadership, and the need for leadership
development. Philosophers such as Aristotle 共Nichomachean
Ethics and Politics兲, Plato 共The Republic兲, Confucius, Sun Tzu
共The Art of War兲, Niccolo Machiavelli 共The Prince兲, Pareto 共The
Treatise on General Sociology兲, and many others contributed to
the development of the theoretical base of leadership. By con-
trast, the literature on management is relatively new and dates
backtothebeginningofthetwentiethcentury.
Despite the different timing of their evolution and the dif-
ferent contexts in which these concepts developed, leadership
and management are widely used interchangeably. Although
many scholars have attempted to provide a distinction; there is
a common confusion that leadership is similar to management
and leaders are similar to managers 共Kotter 1990, 2006;
Zaleznik 1977, 1998; Bennis and Nanus 1985兲. Cogliser and
Brigham 共2004兲 highlighted the growing interest of scholars
in differentiating leadership from other related phenomena

Leadership and Management in Engineering 䊏

61 APRIL 2008

Leadership Manage. Eng., 2008, 8(2): 61-71

 such as entrepreneurship and management. Some scholars
argue that leadership and management are two opposing
styles of employee supervision that are both popular, and are
still being used in the business world 共Kumle and Kelly
2000兲. Others believe that they are two sides of the same coin
共Bryman 1992兲 and complementary systems of action, each
with its own function and characteristic activities 共Gokenbach
2003兲. Mangham and Pye 共1991, p. 13兲 go even further, say-
ing, “It results in nothing more than a vague feeling that man-
agingissomethingrathermundane,lookingafterthenutsand
bolts of the enterprise and leading is something special and
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precious undertaken by the really important people in the
enterprise.” However, the majority of literary arguments sup-
port the fact that leadership and management are completely
different from each other whilst leaders are distinct from man-
agers 共Zaleznik 1977; Kumle and Kelly 1999; Kotter 2006;
Perloff 2004兲. Mowson 共2001兲 believes that leaders may not
excel at management and, what is more often the case, manag-
ers do not necessarily make great leaders. In practice, many
managers perform the leadership role, and many leaders do
manage. Therefore, the debate continues and the misunder-
standingoverthetwotermspersists.
Interchangeably referring to the terms “leadership” and
“management” can engender functional complications and
long-term confusions over the roles of leaders and managers.
Kotter 共2006兲 argues that blurring the difference between
leadership and management will also cause difficulties in mea-
suring, testing, assessing, hiring, developing, and promoting
them.Arguably,theboundarybetweenwholeexistingknowl-
edge domains on leadership and management is rather confus-
ing, and will be further baffling if the difference between lead-
ership and management, or leaders and managers, is not
articulated. This will not only have an unfavorable impact on
furthering the research on both bodies of knowledge, but also
in providing an understanding of the work that has already
been done. For example, researchers argue that this confusion
of terms hinders efforts to attain accuracy and precision in
research on leadership and management 共Kotter 2006; Gor-
don and Yukl 2004; Zaccaro and Horn 2003兲. On a practical
level, this misunderstanding might hinder programs to
develop managers and leaders 共Zaleznik 1998兲, which sug-
gests that organizations may face difficulties in their efforts to
developtherighttalentfortherightjobs.
If a natural leader emerges in a group being overseen by a
manager, a conflict of views is likely to develop. Similarly, in
the presence of a natural leader, the manager may feel uncom-
fortable and feel that the manager’s authority is challenged.
Organizations should appreciate the talents of their personnel,
and place each of them in the right positions to help reduce the
chance of such conflicts. Finally, if there is no clear understand-
ing of leadership and management, organizations cannot
derive benefits from complimenting with the attributes of the
twofunctions.
APRIL 2008 䊏
62
Leadership Manage. Eng., 2008, 8(2): 61-71
“Most of what we call management consists of making it
difficultforpeopletogettheirjobsdone.”
—PeterDrucker
PURPOSE
This paper attempts to elucidate the differences between
leadership and management, and to distinguish between
leaders and managers. The discussion is undertaken under
the broad topics of etymological development, definitional
complexities, conceptual distinctions, behavioral differences,
and functional divergence between the terms “leadership”
and “management.” The paper also discusses the intersec-
tions of the roles of leaders and managers. These two terms
become clearer and easier to understand when discussed in
isolation from each other. The fundamental questions consid-
ered in this paper are:
1. How do leaders differ from managers?
2. How does leadership differ from management? and
3. How can leadership and management be construc-
tively combined to achieve better results in
organizations?
ETYMOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
The history of the word “leadership” goes back several cen-
turies. The best etymology of the word “leadership” has been
described by Grace 共2003兲, who notes that the word evolved
in the English language over the last millennium. The ori-
gins of the words “lead,” “leader,” and “leadership” have their
roots in pre-Anglo-Saxon culture. Leadership comes from the
word “lead,” the roots of which are in “loedan” 共or “lithan”兲,
which means “to travel.” Although the word “lead” 共which
means “to cause to go along with oneself” or “bring or take a
person or an animal to a place”兲 appeared in the Oxford En-
glish Dictionary 共OED兲 during 825 CE, its modern definition
共that is: “to guide with reference to action and opinion; to
bring by persuasion or counsel to or into a condition; to
conduct by argument or representation to a conclusion; to
induce to do something”兲 appeared in the text around 1225
CE.
In the early nineteenth century, the word “leading” was
explained by the concepts of influence and exercising of do-
minion. In the editions during that era, “leadership” was
defined as “the state or condition of a leader.” In the twenti-
eth century, leadership was defined as “the ability to lead”
and later on it was used as a synonym for “manager.” Here, it
is important to note that the suffix “ship” broadly indicates
the state or condition, the qualities of a class of human be-
ings, or rank or office. After more than a thousand years of its
first use, the OED defines “leadership” as: “the dignity, office,
or position of a leader, especially of a political party; ability to
lead; the position of a group of people leading or influencing
Leadership and Management in Engineering
 others within a given context; the group itself; the action or
influence necessary for the direction or organization of effort
in a group undertaking.”
On the other hand, the word “manage” has two distinct
sources. The first is the Italian word “meneggiare” which
共roughly translated兲 meant handling things—especially
horses. This derivation was more masculine in nature and
carried the connotation of taking charge, especially in the
context of war. By the beginning of the sixteenth century,
this broader sense of “manage” remained the so; however, it
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later got confused with the French word “menager” which
meant careful use, especially in the household. The usage of
“menager” was more gentle and feminine in nature. This
dual character of management has remained so ever since
共Mant 1977兲. Bavington 共2005兲 observes that the term
“management” encompasses three principal meanings:
management-as-control 共with roots in the Latin word
“manus”兲, management-as-caretaking 共with roots in the
French word “ménager”兲, and management-as-coping 共a
modern understanding of management兲. The current defini-
tion of “management” in the OED is: “organization, super-
vision, or direction; the application of skill or care in the
manipulation, use, treatment, or control 共of a thing or per-
son兲, or in the conduct of something.”
This discussion shows that the word “leadership” has
evolved with the underlying meanings of influence, persua-
sion, direction, and the ability to lead in a given context.
These meanings reflect that a leader influences others by his
or her ability, persuasiveness, and vision. “One who guides
others in action or opinion; one who takes the lead in any
business, enterprise, or movement; one who is “followed” by
disciples or adherents; the chief of a sect or party; the fore-
most or most eminent member 共of a profession兲; also, in
wider sense, a person of eminent position and influence; one
who leads a choir or band of dancers, musicians, or singers”
共from OED兲. This understanding of “leader” and “leader-
ship” was in existence over 2500 years ago when Lao
Tzu, a Chinese philosopher and poet, wrote:
A leader is best
When people barely know he exists
Not so good when people obey and acclaim him
Worse when they despise him
But of a good leader, who talks little,
When his work is done, his aim fulfilled,
They will say: we did it ourselves.
On the other hand, “management” is about controlling,
supervising, application of skills, caretaking, and coping
with prevailing circumstances. Therefore, a manager, accord-
ing to OED, is “a person who organizes, directs, or plots
something; a person who regulates or deploys resources; a
Leadership and Management in Engineering 䊏
63
Leadership Manage. Eng., 2008, 8(2): 61-71
person who manages 共a department of兲 a business, organiza-
tion, institution, etc.; a person with an executive or supervi-
sory function within an organization, etc.”
DEFINITIONAL COMPLEXITIES
Goethals et al. 共2004兲, the editors of the Encyclopedia of Lead-
ership, argue that there is no single and universally accepted
definition of leadership. Leadership behavior involves par-
ticular acts in which a leader engages in the course of direct-
ing and coordinating the work to his group members
共Fiedler 1967兲. In their Handbook of Leadership, which is often
referred to as the bible on the subject, Bass and Stogdill
共1990兲 define the leadership as, “the principal dynamic force
that motivates and coordinates the organization in the ac-
complishment of its objectives.” Burns 共1978兲 defines lead-
ership as “the reciprocal process of mobilizing by persons
with certain motives and values, various economic, political
and other resources, in context of competition and conflict,
in order to realize goals independently or mutually held by
both leaders and followers.” According to Bennis 共1989兲,
leadership is the “process 共not a position兲 that involves lead-
ers, followers, and situations.” House 共2004兲, the chief inves-
tigator of the biggest ever study conducted on leadership,
defines it as the “ability of an individual to influence, moti-
vate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness
and success of the organizations of which they are members”
共House 2004兲.
Cogliser and Brigham 共2004兲 observe that the leadership
field has been beset with conceptual or definitional chal-
lenges. Whereas it is an important concept in various con-
texts such as academia, military, politics, business, and soci-
ety, there is no commonly agreed upon definition or set of
descriptions of leadership 共Bass 1990; Kotter 1990, 1995,
1999; Terry 1993; Zaleznik 1998兲. Each author appears
view leadership as having an individual perception and defi-
nition. However, it is clear from the previously mentioned
definitions that at the definitional level, leadership is per-
ceived to encompass certain attitudes of the leader, who in-
spires the followers to achieve certain goals. The leader’s
power is legitimized by the followers 共Bass 1990; Stogdill
1997兲, and the leader influences others by giving them hope,
inspiring their self-efficacy, establishing their desires, and
consistently following a set of personal values 共Zaleznik
1998; George and Sims 2007兲. People follow a leader for a
mix of positive reasons such as hope of success, trust in the
leader, excitement about a project or mission, or the oppor-
tunity to stretch oneself to the limit 共Maccoby 2000兲. How-
ever, at the same time, a number of moderating factors de-
termine the effectiveness of leadership such as situation,
followers’ readiness to change, organizational context and bu-
reaucracy, leader-follower fit 共Fiedler 1967; Gardner et al.
2005兲.
APRIL 2008
 At the definitional level, the literature on “management”
offers straightforward descriptions. For example, Daft 共2003兲
defines management as “the attainment of organizational
goals in an effective and efficient manner through planning,
organizing, leading, and controlling organizational re-
sources.” Levitt 共1976兲 notes that “management consists of
the rational assessment of a situation; the systematic selection
of goals and purposes; the systematic development of strate-
gies to achieve these goals; the marshalling of the required
resources; the rational design, organization, direction, and
control of the activities required to attain the selected pur-
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poses; and finally, the motivating and rewarding of people to
do the work.”
Drucker 共1988兲 notes:
关T兴obesure,thefundamentaltaskofmanagementremains
the same: to make people capable of joint performance by
giving them common goals, common values, the right
structure, and the ongoing training and development they
need to perform, and to respond to change. But the very
meaningoftaskhaschanged,onlybecausetheperformance
of management has converted the workforce from one
composedlargelyofunskilledlaborerstooneofhighlyedu-
catedknowledgeworkers.
Although there are several existing and emerging branches of
management, the definition of “management,” unlike that of
leadership, is more or less agreed upon. Moreover, the func-
tions of management are well categorized and clearly defined
intheliterature.
CONCEPTUAL DISTINCTIONS
From the discussion so far, it is clear that scholars differ in
defining “leadership” but the underlying philosophy remains
mainly undisputed. Conceptual foundations of “leadership”
are very old, and can be traced to ancient literature mostly in
the context of politics, government, religion, and society. It
has been one of the world’s oldest preoccupations, serving as
both a hot topic and an important driver of innovation for
thousands of years 共Bass 1990兲. That is, leadership is a pro-
cess that involves vision, motivation, and actions of the leader
that enables the followers to achieve certain collective goals.
It involves the leader, followers, and the situation. The pur-
pose of leadership is to provide direction and bring about
change.
On the other hand, the conceptual foundations of “man-
agement” emerged during the period of relatively rapid eco-
nomic development and industrialization of the nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries 共Daft 2003兲. Such develop-
ments brought up the need for appropriate means of organi-
zation, planning, and scheduling of available resources. The
emergence of large and complex organizations in the early
twentieth century and escalation in the search for better ways
APRIL 2008 䊏
64
Leadership Manage. Eng., 2008, 8(2): 61-71
of resource utilization led to the development of a rational,
scientific approach to the study of management, as efforts
were made to turn organizations into efficient operating ma-
chines 共Kotter 2006兲. In brief, leadership and management
are not only different at the definitional level, but also, their
conceptual foundations have been developed from different
needs and contexts. In these regards, it can be observed that
leadership involves power by influence and management in-
volves power by position. Leadership is about coping with
change while management is about coping with complexity
共Kotter 1990兲.
Stogdill 共1997兲 argues that leadership cannot emerge un-
less the members of a group assume different responsibilities.
On the other hand, management is appointed and follows
the traditional hierarchy.
Zaieznik 共1977兲 argues that leaders and managers differ
in their conception of chaos and order, in their motivation
共which results from their individual personal history兲, and in
how they think and act. Managers are process oriented, sta-
bility and control seekers, problem solvers, and systematic in
nature. On the other hand, leaders tolerate chaos, are em-
powering and are problem examiners, and mostly rebels
against routine.
Maccoby 共2000兲 notes that leaders are change agents
whereas managers are principally administrators. Leaders
have broad perspectives enabling them to peer into the fu-
ture to determine needs and what changes need to be made
to ensure and facilitate growth and survival, but managers
are guided by a drive to handle routine in order to produce
efficiently 共Perloff 2004兲. According to Bennis 共1989兲, be-
coming a leader is synonymous with becoming yourself;
however, becoming a manager is becoming what a company
wants you to become. Leaders produce the potential for dra-
matic change, chaos, and even failure; but managers produce
standards, consistency, predictability, and order 共Kotter
1990兲. Leaders are more about soul 共or heart兲 rather than
mind, while managers have more of mind rather than soul
共Capowski 1994兲.
BEHAVIORAL DIFFERENCES
Zaleznik 共1977兲 maintains that the managerial culture em-
phasizes rationality and control. Nurtured under this culture,
managers tend to be problem solvers by instinct, and their
energies are spent on finding solutions to the problems relat-
ing to organizational goals, resources, structures, and people
共Zaleznik 1977; Covey et al. 1994兲. This is why, opposite to
leaders, managers are more scientific in nature, structured
and deliberate in their approach, authoritative and stabilizing
in their behavior, and persistent and tough minded in their
routine. A leadership culture, on the other hand, is open,
communicative, frank, and participative. Therefore, it en-
courages the development and application of new ideas to
approach problems.
Leadership and Management in Engineering
 Taking the problems as opportunities, leaders seek fresh
options and persuade their followers to innovatively grapple
with the problems. Leaders are more rebellious in nature
while managers prefer to conform to the organizational
norms, rules, and hierarchy 共Kumle and Kelly 1999兲. There-
fore, most leaders challenge the status quo whereas managers
prefer to accept the status quo 共Bennis 1989兲.
George 共2003兲 notes that good leaders understand their
purpose, lead with heart, follow their personal set of values,
establish and retain connected relationships, and demonstrate
the highest sense of self-discipline in the lives. Leaders’ be-
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haviors demonstrate their deep concerns for the development
of their followers, the well being of their organizations, and
the welfare of society. Whereas leaders remain original and
authentic in their behavior, managers copy 共Shamir and
Eilam 2005; Bennis 1989兲. Zaleznik 共1977兲 argues that
leaders’ relationships are mostly intensive and one-to-one.
On the other hand, managers establish networks and widely
distributed attachments. According to Stogdill 共1997兲, lead-
ers are differentiated from others in terms of the influence
they exert upon the goal-setting and goal-achievement ac-
tivities of the organization 共Stogdill 1997兲. They stand out
differently, question assumptions, are usually suspicious of
traditions, and are champions of innovation 共Bennis 1989兲.
Leaders’ behaviors are directed by their inner values and are
inspired by their future vision. On the other hand, managers’
behaviors are mostly directed by others, and they are moti-
vated by the targets they want to attain.
FUNCTIONAL/OPERATIONAL DIVERGENCE
“People ask the difference between a leader and a boss. . . .
The leader works in the open, and the boss in covert. The
leader leads, and the boss drives.”
—Theodore Roosevelt
Maccoby 共2000兲 argues that leadership is a relationship
共selecting talent, motivating, coaching, and building trust兲
between the leader and the led that can energize an organi-
zation. On the other hand, management is a function 共plan-
ning, budgeting, evaluating, and facilitating兲 that must be
exercised in any business. Similarly, Weathersby 共1999兲
notes that leadership involves motivating people to contrib-
ute to the vision and encouraging them to align their self-
interest with that of the organization. However, manage-
ment is about allocation of scarce resources toward the
attainment of an organization’s objective共s兲, the setting of
priorities, the design of work, and finally, the achievement of
results. According to Kumle and Kelly 共1999兲, in manage-
rial culture, roles are rigidly defined within the organization.
Management controls the processes through the power of a
small group—usually those members who take the orders
directly from the top—instead of total team input 共Kumle
Leadership and Management in Engineering 䊏
65
Leadership Manage. Eng., 2008, 8(2): 61-71
and Kelly 1999兲. On the other hand, leadership culture em-
powers the employees by trust and gives them the freedom
to fulfill their job responsibilities. Where leadership reframes
the present employees of an organization through training
and not rehiring, the emphasis of management is on rehiring
resources, and not on reframing employees with more train-
ing 共Kumle and Kelly 1999兲.
In order to achieve better results, management strives to
realize organizational efficiency along with effectiveness
within the parameters of the organization’s mission. How-
ever, leadership takes a different approach. Perloff 共2004兲 ar-
gues that leadership creates and sells its visions to those who
need to implement them, and evaluates whether these have
been successful, along with determining what the next steps
are. He uses an analogy of “trains” to describe the difference
between leaders and managers. In his view, managers make
the trains run on time, but it is leaders who decide the des-
tination as well as what freight and passengers the trains
carry. Put simply, managers are more like tacticians, whereas
leaders are strategists. Covey et al. 共1994兲 make the same
point in a different way: management works within the es-
tablished paradigm while leadership creates new paradigms.
Management operates within the established system whereas
leadership improves the existing systems and establishes
more and better systems.
Leaders provide vision and inspiration, and support the
people to do things, whereas managers provide the resources
and expect results. Zaleznik 共1977兲 suggests that leaders de-
velop fresh approaches to long-standing problems and open
issues to new options; managers act to limit choices. Whilst
leaders inspire the purpose, managers are concerned about
systems, controls, procedures, policies, and structure 共Bennis
1989兲. The main role of the leaders is to set a new direction
for a group. However, managers control, guarantee disci-
pline, and introduce order according to established principles
共Schumpeter 1934兲. Leadership is about knowing where the
organization needs to go, whereas management is concerned
with how to get there. At a further functional level, Maccoby
共2000兲 notes that leaders recognize and select the talent, nur-
ture the talent by motivating them, coach the talent, and
retain the talent by building trust; managers are task masters
of planning, budgeting, evaluating, and facilitating. Table 1
presents, in the form of short summaries, the views of various
authors on the difference between leaders and managers.
HOW LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
OVERLAP
“Management is efficiency in climbing the ladder of success;
leadership determines whether the ladder is leaning against
the right wall.”
—Stephen R. Covey
APRIL 2008
 Table 1. Difference between Leaders and Managers
Leaders Managers Source
Leadersarechangeagents Managersareprincipallyadministrators.
Leadersgetorganizationsandpeopleto Managerswritebusinessplans,setbudgets, Maccoby
change. andmonitorprogress. 共2000兲
Leadersselecttalent,motivate,coach,and Managersplan,budget,evaluate,and
buildtrust. facilitate.
Leadersaremoreaboutsoul共orheart兲rather Managersaremoreaboutmind.
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thanmind
Leadersarevisionary,passionate,creative, Managersarerational,consulting,persistent, Capowski
flexible,inspiring,innovative,courageous, problemsolving,tough-minded,analytical, 共1994兲
imaginative,experimental,andinitiatorsof structured,deliberate,authoritative,and
change.Theydrawtheirpowerfromtheir stabilizing.Theydrawtheirpowerfromtheir
personaltraitsandattributes.Theymakeuse positionandauthority
oftheirreferentpowertoinfluencethe
followers.
Leadershavegoodintuitionandinsight. Managershavegoodanalyticalability.
Allleadersaregoodmanagers. Allmanagersmaynothaveleadership Daft
qualities. 共2003兲
Leadersaremobilizedbytheirpersonal Managersaremobilizedbyauthorityand
powerandendorsementofthegroup. positionpower.
Leaderssetadirection,communicateitto Managersestablishsystems,createrulesand Robbins
everyonewhowilllisten共andprobably operatingprocedures,andputintoplace 共2002兲
manywhowon’t兲,andkeeppeoplepsyched incentiveprogramsandthelike.
whentimesgettough.
Leadersdecidewhatfreightandpassengers Managersmakethetrainrunontime. Perloff
thetraincarriesandwhereitisheaded. 共2004兲
Leadershavebroadperspectivesenabling Managersareguidedbythemyopicdriveto
themtopeerintothefuturetodetermine handleroutineinordertoproduce
needsandwhatchangesneedtobemadefor efficiently.
growthandsurvival.
Leadersarestrategists. Managersaretacticians.
Leadersseektodevelopnewgoalsandalign Managershaveanarrowpurposeandtryto Kotter
organizations. maintainorder,stabilizework,andorganize 共2006兲
resources.
Leadersproducethepotentialfordramatic Managersproducestandards,consistency, Kotter
change,chaos,andevenfailure. predictability,andorder. 共1990兲
Leadersareinspiringvisionariesconcerned Managersareplannerswhohaveconcerns Zaleznik
aboutsubstance. abouttheprocess. 共1977兲
Leadersleaveagreatdealtochance. Managersareeagertosolvetheproblems.
Leadersadoptapersonalandactiveattitude Managershaveimpersonal,ifnotpassive,
towardgoals. attitudestowardgoals.

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66 Leadership and Management in Engineering

Leadership Manage. Eng., 2008, 8(2): 61-71

 Table 1. „Continued兲.
Difference between Leaders and Managers
Leaders Managers Source
Leadersdevelopfreshapproachestolong- Managersacttolimitthechoices.
standingproblemsandopenissuestonew
options.
Leadersworkfromhigh-riskpositionsand Managersworktoreducetherisk.
areoftentemperamentallydisposedtoseek
outrisk.
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Leadersareconcernedwithideasandrelate Managersrelatetopeopleaccordingtothe
topeopleinmoreintuitiveandempathetic roletheyplayinasequenceofeventsorina
ways. decision-makingprocess.
Leadersestablishandbreakoffintensive Managersrelyonmoderateandwidely
one-to-onerelationships. distributedattachments.
Leadersarevisionaries,collaborators, Managersarecaptains,analysts,conductors, Zimmerman
salespeople,andnegotiators. andcontrollers. 共2002兲
Leadersinnovate. Managersadminister. Bennis
Leadersareoriginal. Managerscopy. 共1989兲
Leadersdevelop. Managersmaintain.
Leadersareconcernedwithtrustandpeople. Managersareconcernedwithsystems,
controls,procedures,policies,andstructure.
Leadersinspirestrust. Managersrelyoncontrol.
Leadershavealongrangeperspective. Managershaveashortrangeview.
Leadersask“what”and“why.” Managersask“how”and“when.”
Leaders’eyesareonthehorizon. Managershaveeyesalwaysonthebottom
line.
Leaderschallenge. Managersacceptthestatusquo.
Leadersaretheirownpeople. Managersaretheclassicgoodsoldiers.
Leadersdotherightthings. Managersdothingsright.
Leadersconquersthecontext. Managerssurrenderstothecontext.
Leadersproducesvisions,concepts,plans, Managersadoptsthetruthfromothersand
andprograms. implementsitwithoutprobingthefacts.
Leadersareconcernedwitheffectiveness. Managersareconcernedwithefficiency.
Leadersoptfor“pull”ratherthan“push.” Managersoptfor“push”ratherthan“pull.”
Leadersprovidevisionandinfluence. Managersprovideresources.
Becomingaleaderissynonymouswith Becomingamanagerisbecomingwhat
becomingyourself. companywantsyoutobecome.

Leadership and management are interrelated, and may 1998; Bateman and Snell 1999; Yukl 1999; Perloff 2004;
sometime perform a similar function and achieve the same Hay and Hodgkinson 2006兲. In view of some, there is a
goals; however, they are different and distinct skills 共Kotter sense that leadership is an aspect of managing that is overtly
1990; Bass 1990; Conger and Kanungo 1992; Zaleznik concerned with thinking about the long-term future of the

Leadership and Management in Engineering 䊏

67 APRIL 2008

Leadership Manage. Eng., 2008, 8(2): 61-71

 organization and fostering support for particular ideas 共Hay
and Hodgkinson 2006兲. In this view, today’s businesses need
excellent leaders and brilliant managers, visionary leadership
and high-quality management. Overemphasis on either one
is neither healthy nor desirable for any kind of organization.
Capowski 共1994兲 makes essentially the same point and notes
that the debate on the difference between leadership and
management has been missing an important point. The
point is that being a manager is not bad and being a leader
is not better, although Hay and Hodgkinson 共2006兲 observe
the tendency of literature to see leadership as separate from
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management but also superior. The current authors, how-
ever, argue that using labels such as “leader” and “manager”
does not necessarily make a difference as to how organiza-
tions run. An effective executive needs a combination of both
qualities: “what is needed is better management and better
leadership 共Hay and Hodgkinson 2006, p. 13兲. To Ca-
powski 共1994兲, vision without structure is likely to result in
chaos, while structure without vision will result in compla-
cency and perhaps catastrophe.
Ideally, a business organization should look for a small
number of good leaders and many capable managers to run
it. Bass 共1990兲 argues that sometimes leaders manage and
sometimes managers lead 共Bass 1990兲. Occasionally, these
two functions are blended and complementary 共Kotter
2006兲. Yukl 共2002兲 argues that rather than seeking to estab-
lish distinctions between managers and leaders, the two can
be explained using the same processes and models. Some
authors even use the terms “managerial leadership” and
“leader-manager” 共see Yukl 1989; Gardner 1990兲. Gardner
共1990兲 suggests that a leader-manager is one who is futuris-
tic, inspiring, and visionary. In contrast to an archetypal
manager, the leader-manager empowers the employees, and
values their contributions by encouraging them and by ap-
plying participatory management.
The leader-manager inspires the followers by developing
trust, attracting and nurturing talent, and by continuous
coaching and teaching 共Maccoby 2000兲. Yukl 共2005兲 shares
the same perspective, maintaining that both leaders and
managers employ a mix of leadership and management be-
haviors. This mixing of behaviors suggests they must com-
bine the necessary skills to direct day-to-day affairs effectively
共a role traditionally associated with management兲, while at
the same time anticipating and managing change 共the main
role in leadership兲. Kotter 共1982兲 seems to adhere to this
same perspective and notes that fundamental components of
the managerial process include planning, organizing,
directing/leading, and controlling. This implies that leading
is indispensable for an effective manager. Other authors argue
that the strategic leaders utilize planning—particularly stra-
tegic planning—as their primary focus 共Boal and Hooijberg
2000; Cogliser and Brigham 2004兲. Mangham and Pye
共1991兲 argue that leading is not a specialized phenomenon
APRIL 2008
Leadership Manage. Eng., 2008, 8(2): 61-71
and an entirely distinct activity, but simply an aspect, per-
haps a highly salient aspect, of managing.
Some researchers argue that to run today’s business orga-
nizations effectively and to ensure that they grow in a sus-
tainable manner, some combination of management and
leadership, efficient functions, and connected relationships
are necessary 共Maccoby 2000; Valikangas and Okumura
1997兲. It is logically incomprehensible that every manager
in an organization insists on having his or her distinct vision,
as there should be people at the operational and functional
level, executing the plans and implementing the strategies.
Bryman 共1992兲 also maintains that many visions can be
achieved only through the actions of many managers and not
simply through the exhortations of individual leaders 共Grint
1997兲. While leaders are vital in determining the future
vision and destination of an organization, managers in the
front line of the organization are critical in sustaining quality,
service, innovation, and financial performance. Similarly, Sar-
ros 共1992兲 notes that organizations need people who are
good at leading as well as managing if they want to become
internationally competitive, and better places in which to
work.
This distinction shows that leadership and management
are distinct and leaders differ from managers. However, in
order to exploit the full potential of their human and other
resources, organizations will need to develop leadership skills
in their managers 共Priestland and Hanig 2005兲 and manage-
ment skills in their leaders 共Weathersby 1999兲. There is in-
creasingly a need for more leadership at all levels of the or-
ganization and to fulfill that need, managers have to become
better in leadership.
THE WAY FORWARD
Although Kotter 共2006兲 notes that the debate on differenti-
ating leadership from management is likely to continue in
academic circles, corporations will continue to ask for leaders
but need managers, and consultants will continue to supply
leadership development and assessment. He argues that
people get opportunities to show leadership although their
principal job may be management. However, the current
authors take a different stance. It is argued that too much
emphasis on management and too little focus on leadership
is not useful for organizations. An overly managerial environ-
ment hinders innovation. It routinizes operations and closes
the door to new ideas and fresh approaches. In today’s
knowledge-based economies, competitive industries, and
turbulent operating environments where it is necessary to
unleash the talents of a highly educated workforce, conven-
tional managers can only slow down progress. Therefore, it is
important that organizations develop as many leaders as pos-
sible while ensuring that these leaders also know manage-
ment aspects. The organizations need to develop their man-
agers into leaders in order to stretch the performance of their
䊏
68 Leadership and Management in Engineering
 human resources. Toor et al. 共2007兲 also argue that this de-
bate does not aim to prove that leaders are better than man-
agers or that leadership qualities are the only solution to
modern business challenges.
Some authors have argued in the literature that the terms
“leaders,” “managers,” and “entrepreneurs” “can be seen as
enactments of archetypes, embodying the different fears and
hopes of those who create organizations by their daily perfor-
mance” 共Czarniawska-Joerges and Wolff 1991, p. 529兲.
Czarniawska-Joerges and Wolff 共1991, p. 529兲 state: “Lead-
ership is seen as symbolic performance, expressing the hope
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of control over destiny; management as the activity of intro-
ducing order by coordinating flows of things and people
toward collective action, and entrepreneurship as the making
of entire new worlds.” This view shows that either of the
roles, on its own, does not necessarily guarantee success.
Czarniawska-Joerges and Wolff 共1991兲 suggest that organi-
zations operate in historical, economic and political circum-
stances and are influenced by various sociopolitical and eco-
nomic forces, shaping of fashions, and occupational and
organizational cultures.
It is necessary to continue the efforts to identify the dif-
ferences between leaders and managers, and between leader-
ship and management. There are several research implica-
tions here. In most studies, when researchers examine
leadership, their subjects mostly belong to the management
ranks. In organizational studies, researchers treat managers as
synonymous with leaders. Bryman 共2004兲 also argues that
research on leadership tends to focus on the role and leader-
ship practices of formally designated leaders who in most
cases are managers. Parry 共in press兲 also shares the perspective
that the person in the senior management position is often
considered a leader. He argues that the leader is someone
who has a certain influence on followers. And that it is the
nature of this leadership impact leadership researchers need
to investigate. In this regard, research on informal leadership
has much to offer. Although some studies have been con-
ducted on informal leadership 共Rusaw 1996; Pescosolido
2002兲, more work needs to be done on how leaders are se-
lected as subjects in research studies. Also, research endeavors
should be made to distinguish leadership from management.
This would provide useful inputs into leadership develop-
ment initiatives where there should be a clear determination
of whether the outcome should be the creation of leaders or
managers. Finally, studies can focus on how effective leaders
and managers strike a good balance between leadership and
management to maximize their influence on others.
CONCLUSIONS
Much has been written on the difference between “leader-
ship” and “management” and between “leaders” and “man-
agers.” There are striking parallels between “leadership” and
“management” as well as “leaders” and “managers.” How-
Leadership and Management in Engineering 䊏
69
Leadership Manage. Eng., 2008, 8(2): 61-71
ever, it is clear that today’s organizations need both leaders
and managers. They need leaders with managerial capabili-
ties and managers with leadership qualities. Therefore, it is
important that organizations adopt strategies to systemati-
cally develop their professionals into managers who are effec-
tive leaders as well. These managers, in given circumstances,
can then perform a leadership role. For this purpose, leader-
ship development should be made a part of organizational
strategy because it is a source of competitive advantage.
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Shamas-ur-Rehman Toor is a Ph.D. candidate in the
Department of Building in the School of Design and
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Leadership and Management in Engineering 䊏
71
Leadership Manage. Eng., 2008, 8(2): 61-71
Environment at National University of Singapore. He
canbereachedviae-mailatshamas@nus.edu.sg.George
Ofori is professor and head of the Department of Build-
ingintheSchoolofDesignandEnvironmentatNational
University of Singapore. He can be reached via e-mail at
bdgofori@nus.edu.sg. LME
APRIL 2008