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Bassuny El-Souhily
Mechanical Vibrations
Dr. B.M. El-Souhily بسيوني السهيلي.د
References:
1- “Mechanical Vibrations” – Singiresu S. Rao – Addison_Wesley publishing
company.
2- “Theory of Vibration with Applications” – William T. Thomson – Prentice
hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
3- “Vibration of Mechanical and Structural systems” – M. L. James, G. M.
Smith, J. C. Wolford, and P. W. Whaley – Harper & Row, publishers, New
York.
4- “A course in Mechanical Vibrations” – Mahmoud Mostafa – Faculty of
Engineering, University of Alexandria.
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
CHAPTER I
Fundamentals of vibration
Vibration:
It's the motion of a body or a system that is repeated after a given interval of time
known as the period.
Frequency:
-The number of cycles of the motion per unit time (c.p.m, r.p.m, cps, Hz, rad/s).
Amplitude:
- The maximum displacement (velocity, acceleration or force) of the body or
some parts of the system from the equilibrium position is the amplitude of the
vibration of that point.
-
Natural Frequency:
If a body is suddenly disturbed in some manner it will vibrate at a definite frequency
known as its natural frequency (ω).
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
II- Most prime movers have vibrational problems due to unbalance in the engines.
The unbalance may be due to faulty design or poor manufacture:
1- Imbalance in diesel engines can cause ground waves sufficiently powerful
to create a nuisance in urban areas.
2- The wheels of some locomotion can rise more than a centimeter off the
track at high speeds due to unbalance.
3- In turbines vibrations cause spectacular mechanical failures.
4- The structures designed to support heavy centrifugal machines, like motors
and turbines, or reciprocating machines, like steam and gas engines and
reciprocating pumps, are subjected to vibration. The structure or machine
component subjected to vibration can fail because of material fatigue
resulting from the cyclic variation of the induced stress.
5- The vibration causes more rapid wear of machine parts such as bearings
and gears and also creates excessive noise.
6- Vibration causes looseness of fasteners, poor surface finish.
III- Whenever the natural frequency of vibration of a machine or structure coincides
with the frequency of the external excitation, there occurs a phenomenon known as
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
resonance, which leads to excessive defection and failure (Tacoma narrows bridge
during wind –induced vibration opened on july\1940,collapsed on nov,7(1940).
IV- The transmission of vibration to human beings results in discomfort and loss of
efficiency.
-the vibration of a system involves the transfer of its potential energy to kinetic
energy and kinetic energy to potential energy, alternately. If the system is damped,
some energy is dissipated in each cycle of vibration and must be replaced by an
external source if a state of steady vibration is to be maintained.
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
2- Degree of freedom:
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
Classification of Vibration
- Free and forced vibration:
Free vibrations: If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its own,
the vibration is known as free vibration no external force acts on the systems (e.g.
simple pendulum).
t
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
Random excitation
- A vibratory system is a dynamic system for which the variables such as the
excitations (input) and responses (outputs) are time-dependent.
The response of a vibrating system generally depends on the initial conditions as
well as the external excitations.
-Most practical vibrating systems are very complex, and it is impossible to consider
all the details for a mathematical analysis.
-The analysis of a vibration system usually involves mathematical modeling,
derivation of the governing equations solution of the equations, and interpretation of
the result.
The purpose of it is to represent all the important features of the system for the
purpose of deriving the mathematical (or analytical) equations governing the
behavior of the system.
The mathematical model is gradually improved to obtain more accurate results.
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
The equations of motion must be solved to find the response of the vibrating system,
using the following techniques.
1-Standard methods of solving differential equations.
2-Laplace transformation methods.
3-Matrix method.
4-Numerical methods.
-The solution gives the displacements, velocities, and accelerations of the various
masses of the system, these results must be interpreted with a clear view of the
purpose of the analysis and possible design implications of the results.
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
Spring Elements
The stiffness "k" of a spring element is a relation between the force “F” and the
deflection “x” where;
dF
k= = the slope of curve
dx
a b c
The relation between the force and the deflection is illustrated in previous figure.
If the stiffness increases with the force, curve (a), the spring is called nonlinear
hard.
If the stiffness decreases with the force, curve (c), the spring is called nonlinear
soft.
If the stiffness is constant, line (b), the spring is called linear spring.
Linear springs are available in a broad range of springs and elastic elements. All
springs are considered approximately linear over a certain range of deformation.
The analysis in this course is concerned only with applications having linear
springs. The following table lists a variety of spring elements.
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
G d4
Coil k
64 n R 3
n = number of coils
R = radius
d = wire diameter
k1 k2 k1 k 2
Series k
k1 k 2
k1
Parallel k = k1 + k2
k2
E, A, L EA
Longitudinal bar k
L
E, I, L 3 EI
Cantilever beam k
L3
a b 3 E I (a b )
Simply supported beam k
a2 b2
24 E I
L a Fixed-hinged beam k
a (3 L 8 a )
2
L a 3 EI
Hinged-hinged k
(L a) a 2
EI
Spiral spring kt
L
GJ
Torsion bar kt
L
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
Damping Elements
1-Viscous damping
When a material is deformed, there is an internal resistance due the sliding action
of the molecules, energy dissipated by the material, due to friction between internal
planes, which slip or slide.
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
SIGNAL ANALYSIS
When a body vibrates, it undergoes an oscillatory motion. In order to study the
nature of the vibrations of bodies we transfer the mechanical motion to an
electrical signal which is easier to deal with. A signal in its broad meaning has
repetitive nature. Generally, a signal is a combination of several signal
components. For example, if we study the electromagnetic signals of radio stations,
T V, or cellular phones, we find that these signals are combinations of discrete
frequencies, each represents one particular station. Sound signals are also examples
of compound signals. We hear different sounds at the same time. Sound results
from the vibration of bodies. Also, hearing the sounds is a result of the vibration of
the ear drum. We can hear different sounds at the same time and distinguish
between them. Each body has its unique vibration characteristics.
So, in general, a compound signal is the sum of many fundamental signals, each
has a single frequency and certain strength. Such fundamental signal is known as
the harmonic signal. In the following sections we shall discuss the different types
of signals. For compound signals, we shall be able to analyze them to extract the
constituents of the harmonic signals. This is known as signal analysis.
Harmonic Motion
x = A sin θ (1)
y = A cos θ (2)
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
x = A sin ωt
ωt
t
2
A
ωt x = A cos ωt
t
2
Where, “A” is known as the amplitude and “θ = ωt”. Both curves make a complete
cycle when the vectors rotate an angle equals to “2"This corresponds to one
complete cycle of the harmonic curve. The time of one cycle is called the period
"" such that
ω = 2
2
The circular frequency "f" is the number of cycles per second. Its unit is Hz
(Hertz). Its value is given by
1
f=
2
The relation between the circular frequency and the angular frequency is
ω = 2 f
Important conclusion For the sake of graphical representation, a sine function can
be considered as a vector that makes an angle with the horizontal axis. Likewise, a
cosine function can be considered as a vector that makes an angle with the vertical
axis as shown.
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
φ α
ωt A1
A1 x
“φ” is a phase angle between the two signals. Using the vector representation, “A1
sin ωt” is represented by a vector of length “A1” that makes an angle “ωt” with the
x-axis. Similarly, “A2 sin (ωt + φ)” is represented by a vector of length “A2” that
makes an angle “ωt + φ” with the x-axis. The resultant vector is a vector of length
“C” which makes an angle “ωt + α” with the x-axis, and is represented by
x = C sin (ω t + α) (3)
C2 = A 12 + A 22 + 2 A1 A2 cos φ (4)
A2 sin
tan α= (5)
A1 A2 cos
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
Periodic motion
1- The resultant motion is not simple harmonic motion but periodic motion,
2- The amplitude various between (a+b) when the vectors are in phase and
minimum value (b-a) when they are 180o off phase,
3- The period of the compound periodic motion is the time interval required for
one component vector to rotate a complete revolution relative to the other
[i.e. 2π/(ω1 – ω2 )],
4- The angular velocity of the resultant is (ω1 + ω2 )/2,
5- The interval between successive peaks is . 2π/[(ω1 + ω2 ) /2]
Beats:
Beating is an interesting phenomenon that occurs when a system with very little
damping is subjected to an excitation source that has a frequency very close to its
natural frequency,
(or, when two harmonic motions, with frequencies close to one another, are
added).
Case 1:
When A1 = A2 = A and ω2 is very close to ω1
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
C
y
A
ω2 t = (ω2 – ω1)t/2
A
ω1 t
x
The resultant vector bisects the angle between the two vectors. Then
= ½ (ω2 - ω1)t
(ω 2 ω 1 ) t
2
Therefore,
x = 2 A [cos ½ (ω2 - ω1)t sin ½ (ω2 + ω1)t]
1- The amplitude of this motion slowly fluctuated between 0 and 2A according
to the term 2 A cos ½ (ω2 - ω1)t,
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
Case 2:
When A1 ≠A2 and ω2 is very close to ω1
(ω 2 ω 1 ) t
2
Consider the case when the frequencies of the components have definite relations
such that
The resultant is a periodic signal with a periodic frequency equal to “ω1 “, “ω1” is
2
called the fundamental frequency. The period is equal to ” ”. If the number of
1
components is infinite, the function is still periodic. The shape of the function
depends on the amplitude of the components. In general, the terms in Eq. (7) may
include sine and cosine functions. This type of functions is represented by Fourier
series. It is written in the form
x(t) = (a
n 0
n cos n t b n sin n t ) (8)
x(t)
t
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
The summation of signals with frequencies which are multiple of the first
frequency results in a periodic signal. Here we want to do the reverse. We have a
periodic function “x(t)” with a period “” and need to obtain its frequency
components. In the case of periodic functions Fourier analysis is used. In general,
“x(t)” is put in the form of Eq. (8) which can be written in the form:
x (t) = ½ ao + (a
n 1
n cos n 1 t b n sin n 1 t ) (9)
Where,
2
ω1 =
ωn = n ω1
Multiply both sides of Eq. (10) by “cos ωnt” and integrate over the period “”. For
the right hand side it is known that:
0 if m n
0
cos n t cos m t d t
/ 2 if m n
(11)
0 if m n
0
cos n t sinm t d t
0 if m n
(12)
Similarly, multiplying both sides of Eq. (10) by “sin ωnt” and integrate over the
period “”.
0 if m n
0
sin n t sin m t d t
/ 2 if m n
(13)
0 if m n
0
sinn t cos m t d t
0 if m n
(14)
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
2
0
an = x ( t ) cos n t d t n = 0, 1, 2, … (15)
2
0
bn = x ( t ) sin n t d t n = 1, 2, … (16)
After obtaining the coefficients “an” and “bn”, Eq. (9) can be written in the form
x (t) = ½ ao + c
n 1
n sin ( n 1 t n ) (17)
Where “cn” is the amplitude of the component with frequency “ωn” and “n” is a
phase angle. Their values are given by
cn = a n2 bn2
an
n = tan-1
bn
Example 1
Determine the Fourier series for the half sine wave signal shown in Figure.
x (t)
t
Solution
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
4 t 2 n t
an =
0
sin
cos
dt
8 (cos n) 2
=
( 4 n 2 1)
8
= n = 0, 1, 2 …
( 4 n 2 1)
4 t 2 n t
bn =
0
sin
sin
dt
4 sin 2 n
=
( 4 n 2 1)
=0 for all values of “n”.
cn
The frequency spectrum is a plot of the amplitudes with the frequencies. They give
a true picture for the whole signal. The spectrum of the signal of Example 1 is
shown in the above figure.
8
Cn =
( 4 n 1)
2
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
Example 2
Determine the Fourier series for the rectangular pulses shown in figure. Plot the
frequency spectrum.
Solution
x = A for 0 ≤ t ≤
x = 0 for ≤t≤T
x (t)
T t
Fig. 1-10
2 2 n
ω1 = , ωn =
T T
2A
T 0
bn = sin n t d t
2A
= (1 cos n )
n T
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
cn = a n2 b n2
2A n
cn = sin
n T
2 A n 2n t
x (t) = n sin sin ( n )
n0 T T
cn T
2A
n
1
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
x(t)
Random signal contains components with discrete frequencies. There are several
methods to analyze such signals. The most common method is Fourier transform.
If a random signal is represented by “x(t)” its Fourier transform pair is given by
X(ω) =
x (t ) e i t d t
(18)
x(t) =
X ( ) e i t d
The absolute value of “X(ω)” is the amplitude of the component which has a
frequency “ω”.
Example 3
Find the Fourier transform for the rectangular signal shown in Figure.
x(t)
Solution
A
The random function “x(t)” is given by
x (t) = A 0≤t≤
t
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
x (t) = 0 t>
Ai
= (cos ω - i sin ω - 1)
A
2 2 cos
sin
2A 2
sin A
2
2
2
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
Impact Hammers
Impact hammers are used to excite small structures and machines with an impulse,
the width of the impulse, and the frequency range over which the amplitudes are
essentially constant, depends upon the hardness of the hammer striker tip and upon
the material and stiffness of the system to which the hammer is applied.
Measuring Parameters
A vibration signal is measured by means of several parameters, namely
Peak value: It represents the severity of the signal. It is equal to the amplitude
"A".
Peak-to- peak value: The distance from the top of the signal to its bottom is
the peak-to-peak value. It is equal to “2 A”.
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
2A
= 0.637 A
Root mean square value (rms): The square of the displacement is associated
with the amount of energy. The root mean square value is a measure for the
energy. It is obtained from the average of the squared harmonic signal.
xrms = A
1
sin d =
2 A
0.707 A
0 2
x1
= 20 log10
x2
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
Octave: An octave is a frequency band width from “f1” to “f2” such that
f2
2 . Thus the band width from 2 Hz to 4 Hz is an octave. Also, the band
f1
width from “100 Hz” to “200 Hz” is an octave, and so on. So, the octave is
not a fixed band width but depends on the frequency range being considered.
Modulation
Modulation is the variation of one parameter of a signal by the action of another
signal. A common type of modulation is amplitude modulation, where the
amplitude of one signal (called the "carrier") is caused to fluctuate in response to a
modulating signal. This is the way AM radio transmission works; a high-frequency
wave called the carrier is caused to fluctuate in level in accordance with the voice
or music signal being transmitted. The radio receiver picks up the modulated
carrier and performs a demodulation to extract the audio signal. Frequency
modulation is another type where the frequency of the carrier is varied rather than
the amplitude. Modulation of a carrier causes new components to appear in the
spectrum and they are called sidebands. The frequencies of the sidebands are equal
to the carrier frequency plus and minus the modulating frequency.
In rotating machinery there are many fault mechanisms which can cause amplitude
and frequency modulation, and vibration analysis exposes the sidebands.
Demodulation can be performed to detect the modulation frequencies directly.
Amplitude Demodulation
Amplitude modulation is defined as the multiplication of one time-domain signal
by another time-domain signal. The signals may or may not be complex in nature,
i.e., either or both signals may contain harmonics components. It is impossible to
have amplitude modulation unless at least two different signals are involved. The
signals may be electrical in nature, or they can be vibration signals. Modulation is
inherently a non-linear process, and always gives rise to frequency components
that did not exist in either of the two original signals
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
Modulation effects are the bane of the audio engineer, for they produce
"intermodulation distortion", which is annoying to the music listener. There are
many forms of modulation, including frequency and amplitude modulation, and the
subject is quite complex.
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
Beats
If two sounds, vibrations, or electrical signals have nearly the same frequency and
they are linearly added together, their combined amplitude will fluctuate up and
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
down at a rate equal to the difference frequency between them. This phenomenon
is called “beating”, and is very commonly seen in practice. For instance, a
musician tunes his instrument by listening for beats between two tones that are
nearly the same pitch.
This waveform looks like amplitude modulation, but is actually just two sine wave
signals added together to form beats. Because the signals are slightly different in
frequency, their relative phase varies from zero to 360 degrees, and this means the
combined amplitude varies due to reinforcement and partial cancellation. The
spectrum shows the frequency and amplitude of each component, and there are no
sidebands present. In this example, the amplitudes of the two beating signals are
different, causing incomplete cancellation at the null points between the maxima.
Beating is a linear process -- no additional frequency components are created.
Electric motors often produce sound and vibration signatures that resemble
beating, where the beat rate is at twice the slip frequency. This is not actually
beating, but is in fact amplitude modulation of the vibration signature at twice the
slip frequency. Probably it has been called beating because it sounds somewhat
like the beats present in the sound of an out of tune musical instrument.
The following example of beats shows the combined waveform when the two
beating signals are the same amplitude. At first glance, this looks like 100%
amplitude modulation, but close inspection of the minimum amplitude area shows
that the phase is reversed at that point.
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
'
This looks like 100% amplitude modulation!
This example of beats is like the previous one, but the levels of the two signals are
the same, and they cancel completely at the nulls. This complete cancellation is
quite rare in actual signals encountered in rotating equipment.
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
frequency components that are combined -- there are no new frequencies such as
sidebands present. It is easy to confuse beats with amplitude modulation, but a
spectrum analysis will show the difference. In general, beats are benign, and do not
imply faults in machines. For example, the sound of two similar machines running
side by side at slightly different speeds will often produce audible beats. This is
simply the sounds made by the machines combining in air to produce the
amplitude fluctuations.
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
Figure 1
7. An automobile moving over a rough road (Figure. 2) can be modeled
considering (a) weight of the car body, passengers, seats, front wheels, and rear
wheels; (b) elasticity of tires (suspension), main springs, and seats; and (c)
damping of the seats, shock absorbers, and tires. Develop three mathematical
models of the system using a gradual refinement in the modeling process.
Figure 2
8. Determine the equivalent spring constant of the systems shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
Figure 4
10. The static equilibrium position of a massless rigid bar, hinged at point O and
connected with Springs k1 and k2 is shown in Figure 5. Assuming that the
displacement (x) resulting from the application of a force F at point A is small,
find the equivalent spring constant of the system, ke that relates the applied force
F to the displacement x as
F = kex.
Figure 5
11. Figure 6 shows a U-tube manometer open at both ends and containing a
column of liquid mercury of length l and specific weight ɣ Considering a small
displacement x of the manometer meniscus from its equilibrium position (or
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Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I Dr. Bassuny El-Souhily
datum), determine the equivalent spring constant associated with the restoring
force.
Figure 6
12. Find a single equivalent damping constant for the following cases:
a. When three dampers are parallel.
b. When three dampers are in series.
c. When three dampers are connected to a rigid bar (Figure 7.) and the equivalent
damper is at site c1.
Figure 7
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