Water Chemistry

University of LHC Department of Basic Chemistry
College of General Studies Water Chemistry.docx
Water Chemistry
Document Overview
Impurities Found in Water ...............................................................................................................................2
Conductivity and Turbidity ..............................................................................................................................4
Acids and Bases ...............................................................................................................................................6
Free Mineral Acidity, Alkalinity and Carbon Dioxide .....................................................................................7
pH ...................................................................................................................................................................10
Expressing Concentrations .............................................................................................................................13
Analytical Methods ........................................................................................................................................16
Documentation ...............................................................................................................................................18
Saved: 10 May 2018 Page 1 of 18

Printed: 30 Jul 2013 Owner: Tech Center
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Impurities Found in Water

Overview Impurities found in natural water supplies can be classified into three general
categories:
 suspended solids
 dissolved solids
 dissolved gases.
Technically speaking, anything in water that is not H2O is a contaminant or impurity.
Suspended solids Suspended solids are substances that are not soluble in water and are present as
particles. These particles can range in size from extremely small, such that they will
not readily settle, to larger particles that will settle quickly. They usually impart a
visual cloudiness or turbidity to the water.
Suspended solids are common to some degree in most surface water supplies,
especially during periods of heavy rainfall or during spring run-off, when surface dirt
and other debris are washed into rivers and lakes.
Dissolved solids To some extent, water can dissolve virtually every natural substance it contacts. For
this reason, it is often referred to as the “universal solvent”. Dissolved impurities
(dissolved solids) can be classified as inorganic salts/minerals, such as calcium,
sodium, sulfate, etc., or as organic matter, such as lignins and tannins that result from
decaying vegetation. While there are many advantages of the solvency ability of
water, in cooling water and boiler systems, if left untreated the dissolved impurities
can damage critical equipment.
Dissolved gases Certain gases that are present in the air, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, will also
dissolve to some degree in water. Carbon dioxide can also be created by the
decomposition of organic matter.
Common The table on the following page provides a summary of the most common impurities
impurities found in found in natural waters.
fresh water
Continued on next page


Common Impurities Found in Fresh Water

Constituent Chemical Formula Difficulties Caused Means of Treatment
Alkalinity bicarbonate (HCO3-), foam and carryover of solids with steam, lime and lime/soda softening, reverse osmosis,
carbonate (CO32-), embrittlement of boiler steel, acid treatment, demineralization, dealkalization
and hydroxide (OH-), CO2 - based corrosion in condensate lines by ion exchange
all expressed as CaCO3
Aluminum Al3+ usually present as a result of floc carryover from improved clarifier and filter operation
clarifier; can cause deposits in cooling systems
Ammonia NH3 corrosion of copper and zinc alloys; high cation exchange, chlorination, deaeration,
chlorine demand; food for microorganisms biological nitrification
Carbon CO2 corrosion in water lines, particularly steam and aeration, deaeration, neutralization with aklalies
Dioxide condensate lines
Chloride Cl- adds to solids content and increases corrosive demineralization, reverse osmosis
character of water; can crack stainless steel
Dissolved Solids none, often referred to as refers to total amount of dissolved matter, determined lime softening, cation exchange,
total dissolved solids, TDS, by evaporation; high levels can contribute to demineralization, reverse osmosis
measured indirectly by corrosivity of water
conductivity
Fluoride F- cause of mottled enamel in teeth; also used for adsorption with magnesium hydroxide, calcium
control of dental decay; not usually significant phosphate or bone black; alum coagulation
industrially
Free Mineral H2SO4, HCl, etc., corrosion neutralization with alkalies
Acidity expressed as CaCO3
Hardness calcium and magnesium chief source of scale in heat exchange equipment, softening, demineralization, reverse osmosis,
salts, expressed as CaCO3 boilers, pipe lines, etc.; internal boiler water treatment,
Hydrogen H2S cause of “rotten egg” odor; severe corrosion of aeration, chlorination, demineralization
Sulfide yellow (copper bearing) metals
Iron Fe2+ ferrous discolors water on precipitation; source of deposits in aeration, coagulation, filtration, lime softening,
Fe3+ ferric water lines, boilers, heat exchanger tubes, etc. cation exchange, contact filtration
Manganese Mn2+ same as iron; affinity for stainless steel and admiralty same as iron
Nitrate NO3- adds to solids content, but is not usually significant; demineralization, reverse osmosis
useful for control of boiler metal embrittlement; food
for microorganisms
Oxygen O2 corrosion of water lines, heat exchangers, boilers, deaeration, oxygen scavengers, corrosion
return lines, etc. inhibitors
pH hydrogen ion concentration pH varies according to acidic or alkaline solids pH can be increased by alkalies and decreased by
defined as: pH = - log [H+] in water; most natural waters have a pH between 5 acids
and 9
Silica SiO2 scale in boilers and cooling water systems; turbine hot lime/soda softening, demineralization,
blade deposits reverse osmosis
Sodium Na+ adds to solids content of water; when combined with demineralization, reverse osmosis
OH-, causes corrosion in boilers under certain
conditions
Sulfate SO42- adds to solids content of water, but in itself demineralization, reverse osmosis
is not usually significant; can form calcium
sulfate scale
Suspended none, often referred to as refers to the measure of undissolved matter, subsidence, filtration, usually preceded by
Solids total suspended solids, TSS; determined gravimetrically; causes deposits coagulation and settling
measured indirectly by turbidity in heat exchange equipment
Total Solids none refers to the sum of dissolved and suspended solids see “Dissolved Solids” and “Suspended Solids”
Turbidity None - expressed in analysis as imparts unsightly appearance to water; deposits in coagulation, settling, and filtration
NTU or FTU units water lines, process equipment, etc.; interferes with
most process uses


Conductivity and Turbidity

Conductivity The specific conductance or conductivity of a solution is a measure of its ability to
conduct an electrical current. Pure water itself is highly resistant to conducting
electricity. However, since dissolved minerals (charged ions) will conduct a current,
a simple measure of waters conductivity will provide a direct measurement of the
total ionic concentration or impurity level. Conductivity is therefore a very useful
test in many water based industrial systems. However, since most organic
compounds do not dissociate into ions, they will not be detected by a conductivity
measurement.
Conductivity is inversely proportional to electrical resistance. Since a standard unit
of resistance is the ohm, the term “mho” (ohm in reverse) was originally selected as
the basic unit of conductivity. Since the conductivity of most waters is only a
fraction of a mho, most conductivity meters are calibrated to read as micromhos
(mho), or one millionth of a mho. The equivalent to the mho in the SI system of
measurement is the microsiemen/cm, abbreviated as S/cm, or simply S. Both units
are interchangeable.
For a given water, there is usually a good correlation between conductivity and total
dissolved solids. For natural waters, the factor for converting mhos to TDS
normally falls in the range of 0.5 to 0.6. Because this is essentially a constant for
each type of water, it is rarely necessary to actually conduct a gravimetric TDS test.
Freshly distilled or demineralized water will typically have a conductivity of 0.05 to
2.0 S, but this will increase quickly on exposure to air to approximately 2 to 4 S.
This increase is caused mainly by absorption of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Conductivity is also commonly used to monitor and control the strength of acid and
caustic solutions, in which case the meter is normally calibrated to read directly as
percent.
The conductivity of water is also dependent on the sample temperature when the
measurement is taken. For accurate measurements, samples should be cooled to
25° C  3°.
Note: Do not assume that a high conductivity alarm correlates to a high pH. A low
pH (high acid strength) will also cause a high conductivity. In-line or manual
pH measurement is necessary to determine if a high conductivity situation is
the result of a high or low pH.


Conductivity and Turbidity, Continued

Turbidity Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness imparted to water by finely divided
suspended solids. These solids will normally not settle significantly over time.
Turbidity should not be confused with color. A water can be highly colored, yet at
the same time still be clear, and hence not turbid.
In water treatment plants the turbidity test is used as a measure of how well the
treatment process is working in regard to particulate removal following clarification
or filtration. With the speed and simplicity of a turbidity measurement, it is rarely
necessary to conduct a gravimetric suspended solids test.
Turbidity is an expression of the extent to which light will be scattered and absorbed
by particles in a sample. The readout can be expressed as FTU's, NTU’s or JTU’s,
however, these are all equivalent when the measurement is made using a true
turbidity meter (a nephelometer).


Acids and Bases

Acids An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen (H+) ions in an aqueous (water based)
solution. For example, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) completely dissociates or ionizes in
water to form hydrogen ions and sulfate ions, as follows:
2
H 2 SO4  2 H   SO4
The fact that sulfuric acid completely dissociates, forming a high concentration of
hydrogen ions, makes it a strong acid (sometimes referred to as a mineral acid).
The resulting solution is highly acidic. Other strong acids include hydrochloric and
nitric acids.
A weak acid is an acid that does not dissociate/ionize completely. Organic acids are
common weak acids. Typically less than 2% of an organic acid will dissociate to
form hydrogen ions. An example of an organic acid is acetic acid. When mixed with
water, only a small percentage of acetic acid molecules dissociate to produce
hydrogen ions. It is therefore safe to sprinkle an acetic acid solution (as vinegar) on
your french fries!
Bases A base is a substance that reacts with or neutralizes hydrogen ions (acidity) in
solution. In this sense, a base can be considered as the “opposite” of an acid. Most
bases neutralize acids by forming hydroxide (OH-) ions. Hydroxide will neutralize
an acid (H+ ion), forming water, as follows:
H+ +OH - H2O
Strong bases include sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH),
since these will completely dissociate/ionize to hydroxide ions. Weak bases include
soda ash (sodium carbonate or Na2CO3) and neutralizing amines.
Bases are also referred to as alkalies. A water that is basic (contains an excess of
hydroxide ions) is said to be alkaline.
When an acid and a base react with each other, this is said to be a neutralization
reaction. Technically, an acid/base neutralization reaction will form water and a
solution of the corresponding “neutral salt”. As an example, sodium hydroxide will
neutralize sulfuric acid according to the following reaction:
2NaOH  H 2 SO4  2H 2O  Na2 SO4
The “neutral salt” formed is sodium sulfate. This is an important reaction, since it
illustrates one of the predominant neutralization reactions that occur when cation and
anion demineralizer regenerant wastes are combined.


Free Mineral Acidity, Alkalinity and Carbon Dioxide

Free mineral As mentioned in the previous section, strong acids (sulfuric, nitric and hydrochloric
acidity (FMA) acids being the most common) are sometimes referred to as mineral acids. When
these acids exist in water in their “free” state, that is to say in any amount that was
not neutralized by any alkalinity that was present, the water is said to contain “free
mineral acidity” or FMA. The amount of FMA present can be determined by a
simple titration with a standardized base, such as a solution of sodium hydroxide.
Natural waters do not contain mineral acidity. However, mineral acidity is created in
the demineralization process by strong acid cation resins. These resins remove the
naturally occurring cations from the water, replacing them with hydrogen ions. This
process converts any neutral sulfate, chloride and nitrate salts (such as calcium
sulfate, magnesium chloride or sodium nitrate) to their respective mineral acids. As
such, a simple FMA test on the effluent from a strong acid cation unit is often used as
a convenient means to monitor unit performance. In this case, a decreasing level of
FMA would indicate that the capacity of the strong acid is exhausted. There are,
however, limitations in the value of relying solely on FMA testing for this purpose.
Alkalinity Alkalinity is a composite measure of a waters ability to neutralize acid (hydrogen

ions). There are three main species that, alone or in combination, contribute to the
total alkalinity of a water. These are:
Bicarbonate ion HCO3-1
Carbonate ion CO3-2
Hydroxide ion OH-1
In most natural waters, the only species found is bicarbonate. In some higher
pH/more alkaline waters, some carbonate may also be present. However, in most
cases carbonate, and in all cases hydroxide, is only encountered in industrial water
systems after some form of chemical addition (such as soda ash or sodium
hydroxide). The alkalinity species can exist alone or in several combinations.
Specifically, bicarbonate ions can exist with carbonate ions, and carbonate can exist
with hydroxide. Bicarbonate cannot exist with hydroxide since the following
reaction would immediately occur, forming carbonate ions:
1 2
HCO3  OH 1  CO3  H 2 O
In all cases, alkalinity is measured by titrating a measured quantity of water sample
with a standardized acid (i.e. an acid whose exact strength is known). A pH probe, or
pH sensitive color indicators, is used to determine what we call the endpoint of the
titrations. If the sample has a pH above 8.3, two titrations are conducted. The
sample is first titrated down to a pH of 8.3 (red to colorless with phenolthalein) and
the amount of titrant used is recorded. This is known as the “P” Alkalinity. The
titration is then continued down to a pH of 4.3, or to a color change using methyl
orange or methyl purple indicator, and the total amount of titrant used is recorded.
This is the “M” (or total) Alkalinity. If the initial pH of the sample is less than 8.3
(colorless to phenolthalein), then only the “M” Alkalinity titration is conducted, and
the “P” Alkalinity is equal to zero.


Free Mineral Acidity, Alkalinity and Carbon Dioxide, Continued

Alkalinity The "P" alkalinity value represents all the hydroxide and half the carbonate alkalinity
(continued) present in the sample. The "M" alkalinity value, being based on the total volume of
titrant used, represents all of the alkalinity that is present. The alkalinity values are
all calculated as ppm as calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
From the “P and M” alkalinity values obtained, the table below of alkalinity
relationships can be used to determine the amount of each individual species that
exits in the sample.
Alkalinity Present (all expressed as CaCO3)
Titration Results *
Bicarbonate Carbonate Hydroxide
P=0 M 0 0
P=<½M M-2P 2P 0
P=½M 0 2P 0
P=>½M 0 2(M-P) 2P-M
P=M 0 0 P
* P = Phenolphthalein Alkalinity, M = Total Alkalinity
Examples Refer to the chart below for some examples.
Titration Results Alkalinity Present (expressed as ppm as CaCO3)

“P” “M” Bicarbonate Carbonate Hydroxide
0 50 50 0 0
20 50 10 40 0
25 50 0 50 0
30 50 0 40 10
50 50 0 0 50


Free Mineral Acidity, Alkalinity and Carbon Dioxide, Continued

Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide (CO2) is also present in most natural waters, as long as the pH is
below about 8.3. When CO2 dissolves in water, it forms carbonic acid, some of
which then dissociates to hydrogen ions:
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
Since carbonic acid is a weak acid, only a small percentage actually ionizes to
hydrogen ions. As such, on its own, CO2 can only lower the pH to about 4.3.
The carbon dioxide content of a water sample can be determined by titrating with a
standard base (such as sodium hydroxide) up to a pH of 8.3, the phenolthalein
endpoint. It can also be determined based on the alkalinity and pH of the sample,
referring to readily available formulas or graphs.
Relationship The overall relationship between the alkalinity species and carbon dioxide, as a
function of pH, is illustrated by the graph shown below.


pH
Definition pH is one of the most useful tools for monitoring industrial water systems. The pH of
a water has a significant impact on both corrosivity and scaling/deposition
tendencies. Most natural waters have a pH between 6.0 and 8.0. For the most part,
lower pH waters are more corrosive and higher pH waters have a greater tendency to
form scale or deposits when heated.
In general terms, pH is a measurement of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a water.
To be more exact, pH specifically measures hydrogen (H+) ions, and is defined as the
negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration, expressed as:
pH = - log [H+]
An important note on pH vs alkalinity:
 pH and alkalinity will only show a direct correlation when hydroxide ion
(OH-) is the alkalinity species present. If alkalinity in a sample is due to
carbonate or bicarbonate, a correlation between alkalinity is unreliable.


pH, Continued
The pH scale The pH scale runs from 0 to 14. This scale was chosen because pure water
dissociates, to a very small degree, to equal amounts of hydrogen and hydroxide ions
as follows:
H 2 O  H 1  OH 1
The “molar” concentrations of each ion resulting from this dissociation is 1.0 x 10-7
(0.0000001 moles/litre … more on molar concentrations later on). Since the
concentrations are equal, and as such would neutralize each other, pure water is
neither acidic or alkaline. This is considered a neutral water from a pH perspective.
Since mathematically, the - log of 10-7 is 7.0, a neutral pH has a value of 7.0. From
this, a scale of 0 to 14 was established to cover both acidic (pH < 7.0) and alkaline
(pH > 7.0) conditions.
As an example, a sample of water having a pH of 9.0 has a hydrogen ion
concentration of 1.0 x 10-9, whereas a sample having a pH of 3.0 has a hydrogen ion
concentration of 1.0 x 10-3.
The - log function (referred to by the “p” in pH) was selected to allow the very small
concentrations to be expressed as more convenient whole numbers. It also means
that increasing concentrations of hydrogen ion (more acidic) are represented by
decreasing pH values. And because the pH scale is logarithmic, a single (1.0) pH
unit change corresponds to a 10-fold change in acid (hydrogen) concentration. In
other words, a pH of 5.0 is 10 times more acidic than a pH of 6.0, and a pH of 3.0 is
1,000 times more acidic than 6.0.
As pH’s increase above 7.0, we normally refer to the water as becoming more basic
or alkaline, rather than becoming even less “acidic”.
pH is measured using a quality pH meter and electrode or probe. A very important
point is that pH is strongly influenced by temperature. Most pH control limits are
referenced to 250C. Therefore, for critical samples, the sample temperature when
testing manually must be close to 25°C (±3°) in order to obtain a reading that can
accurately be compared to the defined limits. This even applies to bench top pH
meters that claim to have “temperature compensation”. This primarily concerns
potentially hot streams such as boiler water, condensates and feedwater. In-line pH
meters, however, are fully temperature compensated.


pH, Continued
pH scale references The first illustration shown below references pH values to a number of common
products and solutions. The second illustration shows how the three alkalinity
species, carbon dioxide and free mineral acidity relate to the pH scale.
Milk Milk of
Magnesia
Orange Baking
0.4% HCl Juice Soda 0.4% NaOH
ACIDIC 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 BASIC
Coke Ammonia
NEUTRAL
Vinegar
Tomato
Juice
ppm Free Mineral Acidity (FMA) ppm Hydroxide Alkalinity

5000 500 50 5 5 50 500 5000
Carbonate Alkalinity
Bicarbonate Alkalinity
FMA Carbon Dioxide Hydroxide Alkalinity
ACIDIC 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 BASIC
NEUTRAL
“M” Alkalinity “P” Alkalinity

Endpoint Endpoint


Expressing Concentrations
ppm and mg/L Since the relative concentrations of impurities and chemicals in industrial water
systems are generally very low, they are usually expressed in terms of parts per
million (ppm). This is a relative weight measurement, and could be lbs per million
lbs, kgs per million kgs, etc. Where very low concentrations are encountered, such as
in high purity boiler systems, parts per billion (ppb) is often used. One ppm equals
1,000 ppb.
As an alternate to parts per million (ppm), the use of milligrams per litre (mg/L) is
becoming more common. One mg/L is the same as one ppm, as long as the specific
gravity of the solution is 1.0, i.e. as it is for pure water. For most water samples this
is considered to be the case. Similarly, the equivalent to parts per billion (ppb) is
micrograms per litre, or g/L.
Molarity Molarity is a concentration measurement based on the number of “moles” of a

substance per litre of solution. A mole is simply the molecular mass (weight) of the
substance in grams. For example, salt (NaCl) has a molecular mass of 58.5 (23 +
35.5). So a one molar (1M) solution of salt or sodium chloride contains 58.5 grams
for every litre of solution. For interest sake, a mole of any substance contains 6.02 x
1023 molecules, but don’t expect to ever have to use this value! It is, however, an
incredibly large number.
Normality Normality is similar to molarity, except it is based on the equivalent mass (weight)
of a substance per litre of solution. Since the equivalent mass of sodium chloride is
the same as its molecular mass, a one normal (1N) solution also contains 58.5 grams
of NaCl. However in the case of sulfuric acid, since its equivalent mass is one half its
molecular mass, a one normal solution would contain 98/2 = 49 grams of H2SO4.
Normality is frequently used for expressing the strength of reagents used for various
titrations. Examples would include 1N sodium hydroxide or N/50 (0.02N) sulfuric
acid.
ppm as CaCO3 One method that is commonly used to express the concentration of ions in solution is
to convert them from ppm as the specific ion, to the equivalent concentration
expressed as calcium carbonate (CaCO3). This is done simply by multiplying the
concentration in ppm by the ratio of the equivalent mass of CaCO3 to the equivalent
mass of the ion.
Using calcium (Ca+2) as an example, its equivalent mass is 40/2 = 20, and the
equivalent mass of CaCO3 is 100/2 = 50. As such, the “factor” for converting from
ppm calcium as Ca+2 to ppm calcium as CaCO3 is 50/20 = 2.5. So if we had 50 ppm
calcium as Ca in a particular sample, this is the same as 125 ppm calcium as CaCO3.
Converting all the ions in a water analysis to their calcium carbonate equivalents
allows the cations and anions to total in order to determine if the analysis is properly
balanced in terms of the cation/anion ionic charge.
Most water analysis will automatically report hardness (calcium and magnesium),
alkalinities and free mineral acidity as CaCO3. Other species, however, are usually
reported as the individual ions. This is not always the case, however, so it is
important to always check the basis on which an analysis has been expressed.




Expressing Concentrations, Continued

Equivalent mass For reference purposes, the table below shows the molecular and equivalent masses
(weight) table of the common ionic species found in industrial water systems, along with the factors
to convert from ppm as the ionic species to ppm as CaCO3.
Ion Molecular # of Equivalent To CaCO3

Mass Equivalents Mass Equivalent (x)
Cations
Aluminum, Al+3 27.0 3 9.0 5.56
Ammonium, NH4+1 18.0 1 18.0 2.78
Calcium, Ca+2 40.1 2 20.0 2.50
Hydrogen, H+1 1.0 1 1.0 50.0
Magnesium, Mg+2 24.4 2 12.2 4.10
Potassium, K+1 39.1 1 39.1 1.28
Sodium, Na+1 23.0 1 23.0 2.18
Anions
Bicarbonate, HCO3-1 61.0 1 61.0 0.82
Carbonate, CO3-2 60.0 2 30.0 1.67
Chloride, Cl-1 35.5 1 35.5 1.41
Hydroxide, OH-1 17.0 1 17.0 2.94
Nitrate, NO3-1 62.0 1 62.0 0.81
Phosphate, PO4-3 95.0 3 31.7 1.58
Sulfate, SO4-2 96.1 2 48.0 1.04


Analytical Methods
Sample collection In order to ensure that results obtained from analyses are useful, it is necessary to
secure a representative sample from the system to be tested. All sampling locations
and procedures should be well defined. Sample lines, that are not running
continuously, should be well flushed prior to sampling. Hot samples should be
cooled through a suitable cooler to less than 35°C. If necessary, the samples should
be further cooled (in sealed containers) to 25°C  3°C before testing is conducted.
This is particularly important for manual pH measurement and any colorimetric/
photometric testing.
When testing will be done for a species that may be all or partly present as a
particulate (such as iron), special sampling precautions are necessary. Sample lines
should be stainless steel and should be as short as possible. Sample flow rates should
be established so that the velocity in the sample line is at least 4.0 feet per second (1.2
meter per second). Also ensure that the sample line is well flushed and avoid
adjusting sample valves prior to securing the sample.
Many analyses are or can be conducted automatically using continuous in-line
analyzers. The most common in-line analyzers, at least for water treatment
applications, are conductivity, turbidity, residual chlorine, pH, sodium and silica.
These are typically configured to provide a “continuous” trend of the test results,
which is much more valuable as a monitoring tool than periodic manual testing. It is
critical, however, that these analyzers are maintained in peak operating condition at
all times.
Specific ion Certain species can be measured directly using a probe that is specific for that ion.
methods Examples where this is applicable are pH and sodium. This can be done with either a
bench top/portable meter and probe or with an in-line analyzer. Conductivity
measurement also uses a probe, but this is not specific for any single ion.
Colorimetric A colorimetric analysis involves the addition of one or more color developing
methods reagents to the sample. This will then produce a specific color that is proportional to
the amount of the chemical species of interest. The color can them be visually
compared to a set of sealed color standards to obtain a concentration (ppm) reading.
This simple method of visually “reading” the color, however, has largely been
replaced by the use of photometers or spectrophotmeters. Modern photometers are
programmed to provide a reading directly in ppm (or mg/L) of the species being
tested. Testing of this type can be done manually using a bench top photometer, or in
many cases (such as for silica) can be done using an automated in-line analyzer.


Analytical Methods, Continued

Titrimetric A titration is the process of slowly adding a standard solution (the titrant) from a
methods burette to the sample until the reaction between the two is complete, known as the
endpoint. The endpoint is determined by either a color change of an indicator, or
with the aid of a meter (most commonly a pH meter). When the endpoint is based on
a color change, one or more reagents or indicators are first added to the sample.
The concentration of the species being tested is calculated from the volume of titrant
used to reach the endpoint. Digital titrators provide a more reliable means for titrant
addition than traditional burettes. Examples of common titration procedures include
testing for hardness, alkalinity, free mineral acidity and percent acid and caustic.
Titration procedures, however, cannot be easily adapted for fully automated analysis.


Documentation
Updates If changes, corrections, or improvements are made to this document while using it,
forward a marked up copy of the changes to the document owner for approval.
Owner This document is owned by (name, role):

Stefan Korf, Hydrocarbons R&D SME.
Approval This document was originally approved by (name, role, date):

Jack Folkinga, HCP Watertreat Operations Leader, 23 Apr 2003.
Review history This document shall be reviewed every 3 years, to ensure it is valid and current.
The following information documents at least the last 5 reviews to this document,
with all the reviews listed for the last 5 years.
Date Reviewed By Comments
10 Feb 2017 S. Korf Periodic review, no changes
25 July 2013 S. Korf Periodic review, no changes
17 October 2006 S. Korf Reviewed document.
05 May 2003 E. Krywiak Initial issue in UofE.
Revision history The following information documents at least the last 3 changes to this document,
with all the changes listed for the last 6 months.
Date Revised By Changes
04 Jun 2007 J. Felder Changed document classification.
17 October 2006 S. Korf Added 1.2 meter per second on page 15
18 Jan 2006 J. Felder Document owner changed from Jack Folkinga to Stefan
Korf.
17 Jan 2005 J. Felder Changed review from every 2 years to 3 years.
17 Jun 2004 J. Felder Tagging & labeling document.
21 Mar 2003 J. Folkinga Standardized terminology, reviewed for correctness.
G. Dunmore


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University of LHC Department of Basic Chemistry

College of General Studies Water Chemistry.docx

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Impurities Found in Water

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Common Impurities Found in Fresh Water

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Conductivity and Turbidity

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Conductivity and Turbidity, Continued

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Acids and Bases

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Free Mineral Acidity, Alkalinity and Carbon Dioxide

Alkalinity Alkalinity is a composite measure of a waters ability to neutralize acid (hydrogen

Continued on next page

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Free Mineral Acidity, Alkalinity and Carbon Dioxide, Continued

Alkalinity Present (all expressed as CaCO3)

P=>½M 0 2(M-P) 2P-M

* P = Phenolphthalein Alkalinity, M = Total Alkalinity

Examples Refer to the chart below for some examples.

Titration Results Alkalinity Present (expressed as ppm as CaCO3)

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Free Mineral Acidity, Alkalinity and Carbon Dioxide, Continued

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

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ppm Free Mineral Acidity (FMA) ppm Hydroxide Alkalinity

“M” Alkalinity “P” Alkalinity

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Molarity Molarity is a concentration measurement based on the number of “moles” of a

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Continued on next page

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Expressing Concentrations, Continued

Ion Molecular # of Equivalent To CaCO3

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Analytical Methods, Continued

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Owner This document is owned by (name, role):

Approval This document was originally approved by (name, role, date):

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