Stress and Strain Study Notes for Mechanical

Engineering
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Stress and Strain is the first topic in Strength of Materials which consist
of various types of stresses, strains and different properties of materials
which are important while working on them.
Stress: When a material in subjected to an external force, a resisting
force is set up to the component. The internal resistance force per unit
area acting on a material is called the stress at a point. It is a scalar
quantity having unit.

Types of Stresses

 Normal stress
 Shear Stress

 Bulk Stress
Strain: It is the deformation produced in the material due to simple
stress. It usually represents the displacement between particles in the
body relative to a reference length.

F is expressed in Newton (N) and A, original area, in square meters (m 2),

the stress σ will be expresses in N/ m 2. This unit is called Pascal (Pa).
• As Pascal is a small quantity, in practice, multiples of this unit is used.

Types of Strains

 Normal Strain
 Since strain is m/m it is dimensionless.

 Shear strain
 

Note 1: The angle is radians, not degrees. The volume of the solid is not
changed by shear strain.

Note: the angle is radians, not degrees

 Bulk Strain
True Stress and True Strain

 The true stress is defined as the ratio of the load to the cross
section area at any instant.

Where σ and ε is the engineering stress and engineering strain

respectively.

 The true strain is defined as

 The volume of the specimen is assumed to be constant during

plastic deformation.

Stress-Strain Relationship

 The stress-strain diagram is shown in the figure. In brittle materials,

there is no appreciable change in the rate of strain. There is no
yield point and no necking takes place.
  In figure (a), the specimen is loaded only upto point A, is gradually
removed the curve follows the same path AO and strain completely
disappears. Such a behaviour is known as the elastic behaviour.
 In figure (b), the specimen is loaded upto point B beyond the elastic
limit E. When the specimen is gradually loaded the curve follows
path BC, resulting in a residual strain OC or permanent strain.

Comparison of engineering stress and the true stress-strain curves

shown below:
The true stress-strain curve is also known as the flow curve.
 True stress-strain curve gives a true indication of deformation
characteristics because it is based on the instantaneous dimension
of the specimen.
 In engineering stress-strain curve, stress drops down after necking
since it is based on the original area.
 In true stress-strain curve, the stress however increases after
necking since the cross sectional area of the specimen decreases
rapidly after necking.
  The flow curve of many metals in the region of uniform plastic
deformation can be expressed by the simple power law.

σ T = K(ε T) n
Where K is the strength coefficient

 n is the strain hardening exponent

 n = 0 perfectly plastic solid
 n = 1 elastic solid For most metals, 0.1< n < 0.5

Properties of Materials

Some properties of materials which judge the strength of materials are

given below:

 Elasticity: Elasticity is the property by virtue of which a material is

deformed under the load and is enabled to return to its original
dimension when the load is removed.
 Plasticity: Plasticity is the converse of elasticity. A material in the
plastic state is permanently deformed by the application of load and
it has no tendency to recover. The characteristic of the material by
which it undergoes inelastic strains beyond those at the elastic limit
is known as plasticity.
 Ductility: Ductility is the characteristic which permits a material to
be drawn out longitudinally to a reduced section, under the action
of a tensile force (large deformation).
 Brittleness: Brittleness implies the lack of ductility. A material is
said to be brittle when it cannot be drawn out by tension to the
smaller section.
  Malleability: Malleability is a property of a material which permits
the material to be extended in all directions without rapture. A
malleable material possesses a high degree of plasticity, but not
necessarily great strength.
 Toughness: Toughness is the property of a material which enables
it to absorb energy without fracture
 Hardness:Hardness is the ability of a material to resist indentation
or surface abrasion. Brinell hardness test is used to check
hardness.

Brinell Hardness Number (BHN)

where, P = Standard load, D = Diameter of steel ball

d = Diameter of the indent.

 Strength: The strength of a material enables it to resist fracture

under load.

Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

 The stress-strain diagram is shown in the figure. The curve starts

from an origin. Showing thereby that there is no initial stress of
strain in the specimen.
 The stress-strain curve diagram for a ductile material like mild steel
is shown in the figure below.
 * Upto point A, Hooke's Law is obeyed and stress is proportional to
strain. Point A is called limit of proportionality.
 Point B is called the elastic limit point.
 At point B the cross-sectional area of the material starts decreasing
and the stress decreases to a lower value to point D, called the
lower yield point.
 The apparent stress decreases but the actual or true stress goes
on increasing until the specimen breaks at point C, called the point
of fracture.
 From point E ownward, the strain hardening phenomena become
predominant and the strength of the material increases thereby
 requiring more stress for deformation, until point F is reached. Point
F is called the ultimate point.

Elastic Constants Study Notes for Mechanical

Engineering
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Elastic Constants: Stress produces a strain, but how much strain is produced
depends on the solid itself. The solid is then characterised by anelastic modulus
that relates strain to stress. >

Different types of stresses and their corresponding strains within elastic limit are
related which are referred to as elastic constants. The three types of elastic
constants (moduli) are:

 Modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus (E),

 Bulk modulus (K) and
 Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus (M, C or G).

 Young’s modulus

 Rigidity modulus
 Bulk modulus
  Poisson’s Ratio (µ): is defined as ratio of lateral strain to axial or
longitudinal strain

Poisson Ratio=-(Transverse Strain/Axial Strain)

(Under unidirectional stress in x-direction)

 Young’s modulus or Modulus of elasticity (E) = (PL /Aδ)= σ/∈

 Modulus of rigidity or Shear modulus of elasticity (G) =τ/γ= PL /Aδ
 Bulk Modulus or Volume modulus of elasticity (K) = -(Δ p/p)/(Δv/v)
=(Δp)/(ΔR/R )

Relationship between the elastic constants E, G, K, µ:

where K = Bulk Modulus, μ= Poisson’s Ratio, E= Young’s modulus, G=

Modulus of rigidity

Hooke's Law (Linear elasticity)

Hooke's Law stated that within elastic limit, the linear relationship between simple
stress and strain for a bar is expressed by equations.

Where, E = Young's modulus of elasticity

P = Applied load across a cross-sectional area

Δl = Change in length
l = Original length
Free expansion of 1 due to temperature rise

Free expansion of 2 due to temperature rise

Expansion of 1 due to temperature stress (tensile)

Compression of 2 due to temperature stress (compression)

 Poisson's Ratio Study Notes for Mechanical
Engineering
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Poisson's Ratio is the ratio of stress & strain which is used widely in
Strength of Materials.
Poisson's Ratio:

 The three stresses and strains do not operate independently.

 Stresses produce strains in lateral directions as the solid tries to retain its
original volume.
 When an axial force is applied along the longitudinal axis of a bar, the
length of a bar will increase but at the same time its lateral dimension
(width) will be decreased so, it is called as Poisson' ratio.
  Value of Poisson's ratio is same in tension and compression

Under uniaxial loading

 0≤ μ ≤ 0.5
 μ = 0 for cork
 μ = 0.5 For perfectly plastic body (Rubber)
 μ = 0.25 to 0.42 for elastic metals
 μ = 0.1 to 0.2 for concrete
 μ = 0.286 mild steel
 μ is greater for ductile metals than for brittle metals.

Volumetric Strain (e v): It is defined as the ratio of change in volume to

the initial volume.

Volumetric Strain Due to Single Direct Stress: The ratio of change in volume to
original volume is called volumetric strain.
ev = e1 + e2 + e3
Volumetric strain:

For the circular bar of diameter d:

Volumetric Strain due to Three Mutually Perpendicular Stress System: When

a body is subjected to identical pressure in three mutually perpendicular direction,
then the body undergoes uniform changes in three directions without undergoing
distortion of shape.
or

Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity (G)

 At principal planes, shear stress is always zero.

 Planes of maximum shear stress also contain normal stress.

Relationship of E, G, K and μ :
Modulus of rigidity:

Bulk modulus:
Analysis of Stress and Strain:

Stress on Inclined Section PQ due to Uniaxial Stress

Consider a rectangular cross-section and we have to calculate the stress on an
inclined section as shown in figure.
Normal stress :

Stress on an inclined section

Tangential stress

Resultant stress

Stress Induced by State Simple Shear

Induced stress is divided into two components which are given as
Normal stress:
Tangential stress:
Stress Induced by Axial Stress and Simple Shear
Normal stress

Tangential stress

Principal Stresses and Principal Planes

The plane carrying the maximum normal stress is called the major principal plane
and normal stress is called major principal stress. The plane carrying the
minimum normal stress is known as minor principal stress.

Major principal stress :

Minor principal stress :

Across maximum normal stresses acting in plane shear stresses are zero.

Computation of Principal Stress from Principal Strain

The three stresses normal to shear principal planes are called principal stress,
while a plane at which shear strain is zero is called principal strain.
For two dimensional stress system, σ 3 = 0

Maximum Shear Stress

The maximum shear stress or maximum principal stress is equal of one half the
difference between the largest and smallest principal stresses and acts on the
plane that bisects the angle between the directions of the largest and smallest
principal stress, i.e., the plane of the maximum shear stress is oriented 45 ° from
the principal stress planes.
Principal Strain
For two dimensional strain system,

Where, ε x = Strain in x-direction

ε y = Strain in y-direction
γ xy = Shearing strain relative to OX and OY

Maximum Shear Strain:

The maximum shear strain also contains normal strain which is given as

45° Strain Rosette or Rectangular Strain Rosette

Rectangular strains Rosette are inclined 45° to each other
 Principal strains:

Mohr's Circle For Plane Stress and Plane Strain Study

Notes for Mechanical Engineering
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Mohr’s circle is the locus of points representing magnitude of normal and shear
stress at various plane in a given stress element.Graphically, variation of normal
stress and shear stress are studied with the help of Mohr's circle.
are Principal Stress then normal and shear stress on lane which is
inclined at angle ‘θ’ from major principal plane, then
Normal stress:

Shear stress:

General State of Stress at an Element:

If are normal stress on vertical and horizontal plane respectively
and this plane is accompanied by shear stress then normal stress and
shear stress on plane, which is inclined at an angle θ from plane of
then,

Let be two normal stresses(both tensile) and be shear stress

then,

 Maximum and Minimum Principal Stresses are:

 Radius of Mohr’s circle:

Strength of Materials

Observations from Mohr's Circle

The following are the observations of Mohr's circle as

* At point M on circle σ n is maximum and shear stress is zero.

∴ Maximum principal stress ≡ coordinate of M

* At point N on circle σ n is minimum and shear stress τ is zero.
 ∴ minimum principal stress ≡ coordinate of N

* At point P on Circle τ is maximum.

Maximum shear stress ≡ ordinate of P(i.e. radius of circle)

Also, normal stress on plane of maximum shear stress

Where, σ n ≡ Average stress

* Mohr's circle becomes zero at a point if radius of circle has the following
consideration.

Radius of circle

* If σ x = σ y, then radius of Mohr's circle is zero and τ xy = 0

Thin Cylinders Study Notes for Mechanical Engineering
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Types of Pressure Vessels Pressure vessels are mainly of two type:

 Thin shells

If the thickness of the wall of the shell is less than 1/10 to 1/15 of its
diameter, then shell is called thin shells.
  Thick shells

If the thickness of the wall of the shell is greater than 1/10 to 1/15 of its
diameter, then shell is called shells.

where Nature of stress in thin cylindrical shell subjected to internal

pressure

1. Hoop stress/circumferential stress will be tensile in nature.

2. Longitudinal stress/axial stress will be tensile in nature
3. Radial stress will be compressive in nature.

Stresses in Thin Cylindrical Shell:

  Circumferential Stress /Hoop Stress

Where, p = Intensity of internal pressure

d = Diameter of the shell
t = Thickness of shell
η = Efficiency of joint

 Longitudinal Stress

 Hoop Strain
  Longitudinal Strain

 Ratio of Hoop Strain to Longitudinal Strain

 Volumetric Strain of cylinder

Stresses in Thin Spherical Shell:

 Hoop stress/longitudinal stress

 Hoop stress/longitudinal strain

 Volumetric strain of sphere

Lame’s Theory
 Lame’s theory is based on the following assumptions

Assumptions

1. Homogeneous material.
2. Plane section of cylinder, perpendicular to longitudinal axis remains under

plane and pressure. Hoop stress at any section Radial

pressure

Subjected to Internal Pressure (p)

 At

 At

Subjected to External Pressure (p)

 At

 At

Note: Radial and hoop stresses vary hyperbolically.

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams Study
Notes for Mechanical Engineering
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Beam is one of the most important structural components.Beams are

usually long, straight, prismatic members and always subjected forces
perpendicular to the axis of the beam
  A Shear Force Diagram (SFD) indicates how a force applied perpendicular
to the axis (i.e., parallel to cross-section) of a beam is transmitted along the
length of that beam.
 A Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) will show how the applied loads to a
beam create a moment variation along the length of the beam.

Types of Supports (a) Roller Support – resists vertical forces only

(b) Hinge support or pin connection – resists horizontal and vertical
forces
 Hinge and roller supports are called as simple supports
(c) Fixed support or built-in end
  The distance between two supports is known as “span”.

Types of beams : Beams are classified based on the type of supports:

(1) Simply supported beam: A beam with two simple supports

(2) Cantilever beam: Beam fixed at one end and free at other

(3) Overhanging beam

(4) Continuous beam: More than two supports

Shear Force
Shear force has a tendency to slide the surface, it acts parallel to
surface.
Only for distributed load not for point load.
Bending Moment
Any moment produced by forces acting on the beam must be balance by
an equal opposite moment produced by internal forces acting in beam at
the section. This moment is called bending moment.

Only for distributed and concentrated load not for couple.

 The necessary internal forces to keep the segment of the beam in

equilibrium are

Differential equations of equilibrium

Sign Conventions :

So the differential equations would be:

From equation ,we can write

From equation ,we can write

 Statically Determinate Beam
A beam is said to be statically determinate if all its reaction components can be
calculated by applying three conditions of static equilibrium i.e.,

Statically Indeterminate Beam

When the number of unknown reaction components exceeds the static conditions
of equilibrium, the beam is said to be statically indeterminate.

Bending ,Shear and Combined Stresses Study Notes

for Mechanical Engineering
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Bending stress and shear stress distribution are classified in the following groups
Bending Moment in Beam:
Transverse loads or lateral loads: Forces or moments having their
vectors perpendicular to the axis of the bar.

Classification of structural members

 Axially loaded bars: Supports forces having their vectors directed

along the axis of the bar.
 Bar in tension: Supports torques having their moment vectors
directed along the axis.
 Beams
o Subjected to lateral loads.
o Beams undergo bending (flexure) because of lateral loads.

When beam is subjected to a bending moment or bent there are induced

longitudinal or bending stress in cross-section.
Bending Stress in beam:
  I is Moment of Inertia about Neutral Axis
 Note that a positive bending moment M causes negative (compressive)
stress above the neutral axis and positive ( tensile) stress below the neutral
axis

Equation of Pure Bending:

Assumptions:

1. The material of the beam is homogeneous and isotropic.

2. The value of Young's Modulus of Elasticity is same in tension and
compression.
 3. The transverse sections which were plane before bending, remain
plane after bending also.
4. The beam is initially straight and all longitudinal filaments bend into
circular arcs with a common centre of curvature.
5. The radius of curvature is large as compared to the dimensions of
the cross-section.
6. Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract, independently
of the layer, above or below it.

Modulus of Section

 Elastic section modulus is defined as Z(S) = I / y, where I is the

second moment of area (or Izz moment of inertia) and y is the
distance from the neutral axis to any given fibre.
 Section modulus is a geometric property for a given cross-section
used in the design of beams or flexural members.

 Rectangular section:

o Modulus of the section :

 Circular section :

o Modulus of section :
Beams of uniform strength

 The beam is said to be in uniform strength if the maximum bending

stress is constant across the varying section along its length.
 Generally, beams are having the uniform cross-section throughout
their length. When a beam is loaded, there is a variation in bending
moment from section to section along the length. The stress in
extreme outer fibre (top and bottom) also varies from section to
section along their length. The extreme fibres can be loaded to the
maximum capacity of permissible stress (say p max), but they are
loaded to less capacity. Hence, in beams of uniform cross section,
there is a considerable waste of materials
 When a beam is suitably designed such that the extreme fibres are
loaded to the maximum permissible stress pmax by varying the cross
section it will be known as a beam of uniform strength.

Shearing Stress

 Shearing stress on a layer JK of beam at distance y from neutral axis.

Where,

 V = Shearing force

 First moment of area

Shear stress in Rectangular Beam

 Suppose, we have to determine the shear stress at the longitudinal layer

having y distance from neutral axis.
Circular Beam

 Centre of gravity of semi-circle lies at distance from centre or base line. As

it is symmetrical above neutral axis, hence at neutral axis shear stress will
be maximum.
 

Shears Stress in Hollow Circular Cross-Section

 In hollow circular cross-section, if we have to calculate τ at neutral axis by

the formula

Shear Stress in Triangular Section

 In a triangular cross-section, if we have to calculate τ at neutral axis, then

in formula
Shear Stress in I-section
Combined Stresses

Under combination of

 Direct Stress

where P = axial thrust, A = area of cross-section

 Bending Stress

where M = bending moment, y- distance of fibre from neutral axis, I =

moment of inertia.
  Shear stresses

where T = torque, r = radius of shaft, J = polar moment of inertia.

Combined Stress is:

 Principle Stress

 Maximum shear stress

Deflection of Beams Study Notes for Mechanical

Engineering
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The deformation of a beam is usually expressed in terms of its deflection

from its original unloaded position. The deflection is measured from the
original neutral surface of the beam to the neutral surface of the
deformed beam. The configuration assumed by the deformed neutral
surface is known as the elastic curve of the beam.
Slope of a Beam: Slope of a beam is the angle between deflected beam
to the actual beam at the same point.
Deflection of Beam: Deflection is defined as the vertical displacement of
a point on a loaded beam. There are many methods to find out the slope
and deflection at a section in a loaded beam.

 The maximum deflection occurs where the slope is zero. The

position of the maximum deflection is found out by equating the
slope equation zero. Then the value of x is substituted in the
deflection equation to calculate the maximum deflection

Methods of Determining Beam Deflections

Numerous methods are available for the determination of beam
deflections. These methods include:

Double Integration Method

 This is most suitable when concentrated or udl over entire length is acting
on the beam.A double integration method is a powerful tool in solving
deflection and slope of a beam at any point because we will be able to get
the equation of the elastic curve.
 The double integration method is a powerful tool in solving deflection and
slope of a beam at any point because we will be able to get the equation of
the elastic curve.
 In calculus, the radius of curvature of a curve y = f(x) is given by

 In the derivation of flexure formula, the radius of curvature of a

beam is

ρ=EI/M

 Deflection of beams is so small, such that the slope of the elastic

curve dy/dx is very small, and squaring this expression the value
becomes practically negligible, hence
  If EI is constant, the equation may be written as:

EIy′′=M
where x and y are the coordinates shown in the figure of the elastic curve
of the beam under load,

 y is the deflection of the beam at any distance x.

 E is the modulus of elasticity of the beam,
 I represent the moment of inertia about the neutral axis, and
 M represents the bending moment at a distance x from the end of
the beam.

The product EI is called the flexural rigidity of the beam.

Integrating one time

The first integration y'(dy/dx) yields the Slope of the Elastic Curve

Second Integration

The second integration y gives the Deflection of the Beam at any

distance x.

 The resulting solution must contain two constants of integration

since EI y" = M is of second order.
  These two constants must be evaluated from known conditions
concerning the slope deflection at certain points of the beam.
 For instance, in the case of a simply supported beam with rigid
supports, at x = 0 and x = L, the deflection y = 0, and in locating the
point of maximum deflection, we simply set the slope of the elastic
curve y' to zero

Area Moment Method

 Another method of determining the slopes and deflections in beams

is the area-moment method, which involves the area of the moment
diagram.The moment-area method is a
 The moment-area method is a semi graphical procedure that
utilizes the properties of the area under the bending moment
diagram. It is the quickest way to compute the deflection at a
specific location if the bending moment diagram has a simple
shape.
Theorems of Area-Moment Method
  Theorem 1

o The change in slope between the tangents drawn to the

elastic curve at any two points A and B is equal to the product
of 1/EI multiplied by the area of the moment diagram between
these two points

θ AB=(1/EI)(AreaAB)

 Theorem 2

o The deviation of any point B relative to the tangent drawn to

the elastic curve at any other point A, in a direction
perpendicular to the original position of the beam, is equal to
the product of 1/EI multiplied by the moment of an area about
B of that part of the moment diagram between points A and B.

tB/A=(1/EI)(AreaAB)⋅X¯B
and
t A/B=(1/EI)(AreaAB)⋅X¯A

Method of Superposition: The method of superposition, in which the

applied loading is represented as a series of simple loads for which
deflection formulas are available. Then the desired deflection is
computed by adding the contributions of the component loads(principle of
superposition).

 Mostly direct formula is used in questions, hence it is advised to

look for the beam deflection formula which are directly asked from
this topic rather than going for long derivations.

Deflection for Common Loadings:

1. Concentrated load at the free end of cantilever beam
  Maximum Moment, M=−PL
 Slope at end, θ=PL 2/2EI
 Maximum deflection, δ=PL3 /3EI
 Deflection Equation ( y is positive downward), EIy=(Px 2)(3L−x)/6

2 .Concentrated load at any point on the span of cantilever beam

  Maximum Moment . M= -Pa
 Slope at end, θ=Pa 2 /2EI
 Maximum deflection, δ=Pa 3 (3L−a)/6EI
 Deflection Equation ( y is positive downward),
o EIy=Px 2 (3a−x)/6 for 0<x<a
o EIy=Pa 2 (3x−a)/6 for a<x<L

3. Uniformly distributed load over the entire length of cantilever

beam
  Maximum Moment, M=−w oL2/2
 Slope at end, θ=w oL3/6EI
 Maximum deflection, δ=w oL4/8EI
 Deflection Equation (y is positive
downward), EIy=w ox2(6L2−4Lx+x 2)/120L

4. Triangular load, full at the fixed end and zero at the free end
  Maximum Moment, M=−w o L2/6M
 Slope at end, θ=w oL3/24EI
 Maximum deflection, δ=w o L4/30EI
 Deflection Equation ( y is positive
downward), EIy=w ox 2(10L3 −10L2x+5Lx 2−x 3)/120L

5. Moment load at the free end of cantilever beam

  Maximum Moment, M=−M
 Slope at end, θ=ML/EI
 Maximum deflection, δ=ML2/2EI
 Deflection Equation ( y is positive downward), EIy=Mx 2/2

6. Concentrated load at the midspan of simple beam

  Maximum Moment, M=PL/4
 Slope at end, θL=θR=PL 2/16EI
 Maximum deflection, δ=PL3 /48EI
 Deflection Equation ( y is positive
downward), EIy=Px{(3/4)L 2 −x 2 )}/12 for 0<x<12L

7. Uniformly distributed load over the entire span of simple beam

  Maximum Moment, M=w o L2/8
 Slope at end, θL=θR=w o L3/24EI
 Maximum deflection, δ=5w o L4/384EI
 Deflection Equation ( y is positive downward), EIy=w o x(L3 −2Lx 2+x 3 )/24

9.Triangle load with zero at one support and full at the other support
of simple beam
  Maximum Moment, M=w o L2/9√3
 Slope at end,
o θL=7w o L 3 /360EI
o θR=8w o L 3 /360EI
 Maximum deflection, δ=2.5w o L4/384EI at x=0.519L
 Deflection Equation ( y is positive
downward), EIy=w ox(7L4 −10L2x+3x)/360L

10. Triangular load with zero at each support and full at the
midspan of simple beam
  Maximum Moment, M=w o L2/12
 Slope at end, θL=θR=5w o L3/192EI
 Maximum deflection, δ=w 0L4/120EI
 Deflection Equation ( y is positive
downward), EIy=w ox(25L4 −40L2x 2 +16x 4 )/960L for 0<x<L/2

Beam Deflection Formula

 Cantilever Beams:
 Simply supported Beams:
 Torsion Study Notes for Mechanical Engineering
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Torsion means twisting a structural Member when it is loaded

by couplethat Produces rotation about longitudinal axis.

 If be the intensity of shear stress, on any layer at a

distance r from the centre of shaft, then
Sign Convention

 Sign convention of torque can be explained by right hand thumb

rule.
 A positive torque is that in which there is tightening effect of
nut on the bolt. From either side of the cross-section. If torque is
 applied in the direction of right hand fingers than right hand thumbs
direction represents movement of the nut.

TMD = Torsion moment diagram

T = Torque

 Rate of twist :
  Total angle of twist :

Where, T = Torque,

 J = Polar moment of inertia

 G = Modulus of rigidity,
 θ = Angle of twist
 L = Length of shaft,
 GJ = Torsional rigidity

 Torsional stiffness;

 Torsional flexibility

 Axial stiffness;

 Axial flexibility

Moment of Inertia About polar Axis:

 For solid circular shaft,:

 For hollow circular shaft:

Power Transmitted in the Shaft

 Power transmitted by shaft:

Where, N = Rotation per minute.

Compound Shaft
An improved type of compound coupling for connecting in series and
parallel are given below
 1. Series connection: Series connection of compound shaft as
shown in figure. Due to series connection the torque on shaft 1 will
be equal to shaft 2 and the total angular deformation will be equal
to the sum of deformation of 1 st shaft and 2 nd shaft.

Therefore,
Where,
θ1 = Angular deformation of 1 st shaft
θ2 = Angular deformation of 2 nd shaft

1. Parallel connection: Parallel connection of compound shaft as

shown in figure. Due to parallel connection of compound shaft the
total torque will be equal to the sum of torque of shaft 1 and torque
of shaft 2 and the deflection will be same in both the shafts.
Therefore,

Strain energy (U) stored in shaft due to torsion:

 G = Shear modulus
 T = Torque
 J = Moment of inertia about polar axis

Effect of Pure Bending on Shaft

The effect of pure bending on shaft can be defined by the relation for the
shaft,

Where, σ = Principal stress

  D = Diameter of shaft
 M = Bending moment

Effect of Pure Torsion on Shaft

 It can be calculated by the formula, which are given below

 Where, τ = Torsion
 D = Diameter of shaft
Combined effect of Moment & Torque

 The equivalent bending moment may be defined as the bending

moment which will produce the same direct stress as produced by
the bending moment and torque acting separately.
 Similarly, the equivalent torque , may be defined as the torque
which will produce the same maximum shear stress as produced by
the bending moment and torque acting separately.

For a circular shaft of diameter, d = 2r

Principal stress

Maximum Shear Stress

 If P = 0
Power transmitted by a shaft

 Torque =

Where power is measured in watts and n is the speed in rpm

Shear Stress Distribution:

 Solid Circulation Section:

 Hollow Circulation Section

 Composite Circular Section

  Thin Tubular section: In view of small thickness shear stress is
assumed to be uniform

Euler's Theory of Columns Study Notes for Mechanical

Engineering
 134 upvotes
 23 comments

Columns and Struts:

 A structural member subjected to an axial compressive force is

called strut. As per definition strut may be horizontal, inclined or
even vertical.
 The vertical strut is called a column.

Euler’s Column Theory

This theory has the following assumptions.

 Perfectly straight column and the axial load applied.

 Uniform cross-section of the column throughout its length.
  Perfectly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic material.
 The length of the column is large as compared to its cross-sectional
dimensions.
 The shortening of the column due to direct compression is
neglected.
 The failure of the column occurs due to buckling alone.

Limitation of Euler’s Formula

 There is always crookedness in the column and the load may not
be exactly axial.
 This formula does not take into account the axial stress and the
buckling load is given by this formula may be much more than the
actual buckling load.

Euler’s Buckling (or crippling load)

 The maximum load at which the column tends to have lateral

displacement or tends to buckle is known as buckling or crippling
load. Load columns can be analysed with the Euler’s column
formulas can be given as
where, E = Modulus of elasticity, l = Effective Length of column, and I =
Moment of inertia of column section.

1. For both end hinged:

n=1

2. For one end fixed and other free:

 3. For both end fixed:

n=2,

4. For one end fixed and other hinged:

Effective Length for different End conditions

Modes of failure of Columns

Slenderness Ratio ( λ)

 Slenderness ratio of a compression member is defined as the ratio

of its effective length to least radius of gyration.

Buckling Stress:

Rankine’s Formula for Columns

  It is an empirical formula, takes into both crushing PCS and Euler
critical load (PR).

 P R = Crippling load by Rankine’s formula

 P cs = σ cs A = Ultimate crushing load for column

 Crippling load obtained by Euler’s formula

Where, A = Cross-section is of the column, K = Least radius of gyration,

and A = Rankine’s constant.

The shape of Kern in eccentric loading

 To prevent any kind of stress reversal, the force applied should be

within an area near the cross section called as CORE or KERN.
 The shape of Kern for rectangular and l-section is Rhombus and for
the square section, the shape is square for circular section shape is
circular.
 Energy Methods Study Notes for Mechanical
Engineering
 67 upvotes
 8 comments

Strain Energy: The work done by the load in straining the body is stored within
the strained material in the form of strain energy.

Strain energy,

Put

Or
Proof Resilience: The maximum strain energy that can be stored in a material is
known as proof resilience.

Where,

Strain energy of prismatic bar with varying sections:

 Strain energy of non-prismatic bar with varying axial force:

A x = Cross-section of differential section.

Strain Energy in Torsion:

For solid shaft, volume of shaft

For hollow shaft, volume of shaft

Castigliano’s First Theorem: It the strain energy of an elastic structure
can be expressed as a function of generalized displacement, then the
partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to generalized
displacement gives the generalized force

[Where M is function of W (load)]

Deflection:

Slope:

Theories of Failure: Theories of failure are defined as following groups.

Maximum Principal Stress Theory (Rankine theory):

 According to this theory, permanent set takes place under a state of

complex stress, when the value of maximum principal stress is equal to
that of yield point stress as found in a simple tensile test.
  For design, critical maximum principal stress (σ 1 ) must not exceed the
working stress ( ) for the material.

Note: For bittle material, it gives satisfactory result. Yield criteria for 3D stress
system,

Where, σ y = Yield stress point in simple tension, and σ y = Yield stress point in
simple compression.

Maximum Principal Strain Theory (St. Venant’s theory):

According to this theory, a ductile material begins to yield when the
maximum principal strain at which yielding occurs in simple tension.
For 3D stress system,

If e y = Yield point strain tensile

Yield point strain compressive

According to theory, e 1 = e y

Yield criteria:

And

For 2D system,

Note: This theory can estimate the elastic strength of ductile material.
Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest & Tresca’s theory): According
to this theory, failure of specimen subjected to any combination of loads
when the maximum shearing stress at any point reaches the failure value
equal to that developed at the yielding in an axial tensile or compressive
test of the same material.
For 3D system:

Yielding criteria,

In case of 2D: σ 1 – σ 3 = σ y

Yielding criteria, σ 1 - σ 2 = σ y
This theory gives well estimation for ductile material.
Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Haigh’s theory):
  According to this theory, a body under complex stress fails when
the total strain energy on the body is equal to the strain energy at
elastic limit in simple tension. For 3D stress system yield criteria,

For 2D stress system,

 This theory does not apply to brittle material for which elastic limit stress
in tension and in compression are different.
Maximum shear strain energy/Distortion energy theory/Mises-Henky
theory

 It states that inelastic action at any point in a body, under any

combination of stress begins, when the strain energy of distortion
per unit volume absorbed at the point is equal to the strain energy
of distortion absorbed per unit volume at any point an a bar
stressed to the elastic limit under the state of uniaxial stress as
occurs in a simple tension/compression test.

Thermal Stresses Study notes for Mechanical

Engineering
 80 upvotes
 8 comments

Thermal stress is created by thermal expansion or contraction. Thermal

stress can be destructive, such as when expanding gasoline ruptures a
tank
Thermal Stress: Temperature changes cause the body to expand or contract.
The amount δT, is given by

where α is the coefficient of thermal expansion in m/m°C, L is the length in meter,

T i and T f are the initial and final temperatures, respectively in °C.

 The stress caused by internal forces created to resist thermal

deformations.If temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, no
load or stress will be induced in the structure.
  In some cases where temperature deformation is not permitted, an intern al
stress is created. The internal stress created is termed as thermal stress.

For a homogeneous rod mounted between unyielding supports as shown, the

thermal stress is computed as:

Deformation due to temperature changes;

Deformation due to equivalent axial stress

where σ is the thermal stress in MPa, E is the modulus of elasticity of the rod in
MPa. If the wall yields a distance of x as shown, the following calculations will be
made:

where σ represents the thermal stress.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (α) and Elastic Modulus (E) :
 If the temperature rises above the normal, the rod will be in compression, and if
the temperature drops below the normal, the rod is in tension.

Strain Gages and Rosettes Study Notes for Mechanical

Engineering
 53 upvotes
 8 comments
Measurement of Strain
Strain measurement can be performed in two ways namely,

 Direct (electrical-type gauges based on Resistive, Capacitive,

Inductive or Photoelectric principles)
 Indirect (optical methods, such as Photoelasticity, the Moiré
technique, or Holographic interferometry)

The majority of strain gauges are foil types, available in a wide choice of
shapes and sizes to suit a variety of applications. They consist of a
pattern of resistive foil which is mounted on a backing material. They
operate on the principle that as the foil is subjected to stress, the
resistance of the foil changes in a defined way.
The strain gauge is connected into a Wheatstone Bridge circuit with a
combination of four active gauges (full bridge),two gauges (half bridge) or
less commonly, a single gauge (quarter bridge). In the half and quarter
circuits, the bridge is completed with precision resistors.
The complete Wheatstone Bridge is excited with a stabilised DC supply and with
additional conditioning electronics, can be zeroed at the null point of
measurement. As stress is applied to the bonded strain gauge, a resistive change
takes place and unbalances the Wheatstone Bridge.
This results in a signal output, related to the stress value. As the signal
value is small, (typically a few millivolts) the signal conditioning
electronics provides amplification to increase the signal level to 5 to 10
volts, a suitable level for application to external data collection systems
such as recorders or PC Data Acquistion and Analysis Systems.
Most manufacturers of strain gauges offer extensive ranges of differing patterns
to suit a wide variety of applications in research and industrial proje cts.
They also supply all the necessary accessories including preparation
materials, bonding adhesives, connections tags, cable, etc. The bonding
of strain gauges is a skill and training courses are offered by some
suppliers. There are also companies which offer bonding and calibration
services, either as an in-house or on-site service. Rosette Strain Gage:

 A strain gage only measures strain in one direction, in order to get

principal strains,it is necessary to use a strain rosette
 A strain rosette is a cluster of 3 strain gages oriented at different
angles

A strain gage rosette is, by definition, an arrangement of two or more closely

positioned gage grids, separately oriented to measure the normal strains along
different directions in the underlying surface of the test part.

 Rosettes are designed to perform a very practical and important function in

experimental stress analysis.
 Rosettes are manufactured from different combinations of grid alloy and
backing material to meet varying application requirements.
 They are also offered in a number of gage lengths, noting that the gage
length specified for a rosette refers to the active length of each individual
grid within the rosette.
  To determine the three independent components of plane strain, three
linearly independent strain measures are needed, i.e., three strain gages
positioned in a rosette-like layout.

For example, Consider a strain rosette attached on the surface with an angle a
from the x-axis. The rosette itself contains three strain gages with the intern al
angles b and g, as illustrated on the right.

Suppose that the strain measured from these three strain gages are e a , e b , and e c,
respectively.
The following coordinate transformation equation is used to convert the
longitudinal strain from each strain gage into strain expressed in the x-
ycoordinates,

Applying this equation to each of the three strain gages results in the following
system of equations,

These equations are then used to solve for the three unknowns, e x, e y , and e xy .

Note:

1. The above formulas use the strain measure e xy as opposed to the

engineering shear strain g xy, . To use g xy , the above
equations should be adjusted accordingly
2. The free surface on which the strain rosette is attached is actually
in a state of plane stress, while the formulas used above are
for plane strain. However, the normal direction of the free surface is
indeed a principal axis for strain. Therefore, the strain transform in
the free surface plane can be applied.
Special Cases of Strain Rosette Layouts:
Case 1: 45º strain rosette aligned with the x-y axes, i.e., α = 0º, β = γ = 45º.
Case 2: 60º strain rosette, the middle of which is aligned with the y-axis, i.e., α =
30º, β = γ = 60º.
Uses of Strain Gages:

 Strain gages attached to Wheatstone bridges can be used for

measurement of tension, bending, and torsion.
 In biomedical applications, strain gages can be used for
determining forces in bones
 Slightly modified strain gages can be used for muscle contraction
and blood pressure measurement.

Testing of Materials With Universal Testing Machine

Study notes for Mechanical Engineering
 44 upvotes
 6 comments

The Universal Testing Machine consists of two units.

1) Loading unit
2) Control panel
1.Loading Unit:

 It consists of main hydraulic cylinder with robust base inside.

 The piston which moves up and down.
 The chain driven by electric motor which is fitted on left hand side.
 The screw column maintained in the base can be rotated using
above arrangement of chain.
 Each column passes through the main nut which is fitted in the
lower cross head.
 The lower table connected to main piston through a ball & the ball
seat is joined to ensure axial loading.
 There is a connection between lower table and upper head
assembly that moves up and down with main piston.
 The measurement of this assembly is carried out by number of
bearings which slides over the columns.
 The test specimen each fixed in the job is known as ‘Jack Job’.
  To fix up the specimen tightly, the movement of jack job is achieved
helically by handle.

2.Control Panel:

 It consists of oil tank having a hydraulic oil level sight glass for
checking the oil level.
 The pump is displacement type piston pump having free
plungersthose ensure for continuation of high pressure.
 The pump is fixed to the tank from bottom.
 The suction & delivery valve are fitted to the pump near tank
Electric motor driven the pump is mounted on four studs which is
fitted on the right side of the tank.
 There is an arrangement for loosing or tightening of the valve.
 The four valves on control panel control the oil stroke in the
hydraulic system.

Working principle of Loading System:

 The return valve is close, oil delivered by the pump through the flow
control valves to the cylinder & the piston goes up.
 Pressure starts developing & either the specimen breaks or the
load having maximum value is controlled with the base dynameters
consisting in a cylinder in which the piston reciprocates.
 The switches have upper and lower push at the control panel for
the downward & upward movement of the movable head.
 On & off switch provided on the control panel & the pilot lamp
shows the transmission of main supply.

Methods of Testing:
Tension Test:

 Select the proper job and complete upper and lower check
adjustment,apply some grease to the tapered surface of specimen
or groove.
 Then operate the upper cross head grip operation handle & grip the
upper end of test specimen fully in to the groove.
 Keep the lower left valve in fully close position. Open the right valve
& close it after lower table is slightly lifted.
  Adjust the lower points to zero with the help of adjusting knob. This
is necessary to remove the dead weight of the lower table. Then
lock the jobs in this position by operating job working handle and
open the left control valve.
 The printer on dial gauge at which the specimen breaks slightly
return back & corresponding load is known as breaking load &
maximum load is known as the ultimate load.

Compression Test:

 Fix upper and lower pressure plates to the upper stationary head &
lower table respectively.
 Place the specimen on the lower plate in order to grip and adjust
zero by lifting the lower table.
 Then perform the test in the same manner as described in tension
test.

Flexural or Bending Test:

 Keep the bending table on the lower table in such a way that the
central position of the bending table is fixed in the central location
value of the lower table.
 The bending supports are adjusted to required distance.
 Stuffers at the back of the bending table at different positions.
 Then place the specimen on bending table & apply the load by
bending attachment at the upper stationary head and perform the
test in the same manner as described in tension test.

Brinell Hardness Test:

 Place the specimen on the lower table & lift it up slightly.

 Adjust the zero fixed value at the bottom side of the lower cross
head and increase the load slowly till ultimate load value is
obtained.
 Then release the load slowly with left control valve.
 Get the impression of a suitable value of five to ten millimeter on
the specimen & measure the diameter of the impression correctly
by microscope & calculate Brinell hardness.

Shear Test:
  Place the shear test attachment on the lower table, this attachment
consists of cutter.
 The specimen is inserted in roles of shear test attachment & lift the
lower table so that the zero is adjusted, then applies the load such
that the specimen breaks in two or three pieces.
 If the specimen breaks in two pieces then it will be in angle shear,
& if it breaks in three pieces then it will be in double shear.

Testing of Hardness and Impact Strength Study notes

for Mechanical Engineering
 89 upvotes
 8 comments

Impact strength

The impact strength is the ability of a material to absorb shock and impact energy
without breaking. The impact strength is calculated as the ratio of impact
absorption to test specimen cross-section.
  Impact strength is the resistance of a material to fracture under dynamic
load.
 It is a complex characteristic which takes into account both the toughness
and strength of a material.
 In S.I. units the impact strength is expressed in Mega Newton per
m 2 (MN/m 2 ).
 It is defined as the specific work required to fracture a test specimen with a
stress concentration in the mid when broken by a single blow of striker in
pendulum type impact testing machine.
 Impact strength is the ability of the material to absorb energy during plastic
deformation.
 Brittleness of a material is an inverse function of its impact strength.
 Coarse grain structures and precipitation of brittle layers at the grain
boundaries do not appreciably change the mechanical properties in static
tension, but substantially reduce the impact strength.
 Impact strength is affected by the rate of loading, temperature and
presence of stress raisers in the materials.
 It is also affected by variation in heat treatment, alloy content, sulphur and
phosphorus content of the material.
 Impact strength is determined by using the notch-bar impact tests on a
pendulum type impact testing machine.
 This further helps to study the effect of stress concentration and high
velocity load application.

Factors Affecting Impact Strength:

 If the dimensions of the specimen are increased, the impact strength also
increases.
 When the sharpness of the notch increase, the impact strength required
causing failure decreases.
 The temperature of the specimen under test gives an indication about the
type of fractures like ductile, brittle or ductile to brittle transition.
  The angle of the notch also improves impact-strength after certain values.
 The velocity of impact also affects impact strength to some extent.

Hardness:

 Hardness is the resistance of material to permanent deformation of the

surface. It is the property of a metal, which gives it the ability to resist being
permanently deformed (bent, broken or shape change), when a load is
applied.
 The hardness of a surface of the material is, a direct result of inter atomic
forces acting on the surface of the material.
 Hardness is not a fundamental property of a material, but a combined effect
of compressive, elastic and plastic properties relative to the mode of
penetration, shape of penetration etc.

The main usefulness of hardness is, it has a constant relationship to the tensile
strength of a given material and so can be used as a practical non -destructive
test.
Hardness measurement can be in Macro, Micro & Nano-scale according to the
forces applied and displacements obtained.

 Macro-hardness measurement: Measurement of the Macro-hardness of

materials is a quick and simple method of obtaining mechanical property
data. The Macro-hardness measurement will be highly variable and will not
identify individual surface features. It is here that micro -hardness
measurements are appropriate.
 Micro hardness measurement: Micro hardness is the hardness of a
material as determined by forcing an indenter into the surface of the
material under load, usually the indentations are so small that they must be
measured with a microscope. Micro hardness measurements are capable of
determines the hardness of different micro constituent with in a structure.
 Nano hardness Measurement: Nano hardness tests measure hardness by
using indenter, on the order of nano scale. These tests are based one new
 technology that allows precise measurement and control of the indenting
forces and precise measurement of the indentation depth.

Hardness Measurement Methods:

 Methods of hardness testing depends on following factors:

 The direct thrust of some form of penetrator into the metal surface,
 The ploughing of the surface as a stylus is drawn across it under a
controlled load.

Measurements of hardness are the easiest to make and are widely used
forindustrial design and in research. As compared to other mechanical tests,
where the bulk of the material is involved in testing, all hardness tests are made
on the surface or close to it. The following are the hardness test methods:

 Rockwell hardness test

 Brinell hardness
 Vickers
 Knoop hardness
 Shore