CK 12 Third Grade Science

CK-12 Third Grade Science
Milton Huling, Ph.D.
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Milton Huling, Ph.D.
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Jean Brainard, Ph.D.
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iii
Contents www.ck12.org
Contents
1 Physical Science 1
1.1 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4 Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Static Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2 Earth Science 23
2.1 Weather Forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2 World Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 Fossils of Plants and Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3 Life Science 43
3.1 Adaptation and Natural Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2 Insect Reproduction and Life Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3 Plant Adaptations to Environmental Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4 Plant Reproduction and Life Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.5 Animal Characteristics and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
iv
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Physical Science
C HAPTER
1 Physical Science
Chapter Outline
1.1 F ORCES
1.2 F RICTION
1.3 G RAVITY
1.4 M AGNETS
1.5 S TATIC E LECTRICITY
1.6 R EFERENCES
1
1.1. Forces www.ck12.org
1.1 Forces
Lesson Objectives
• Define force, and give examples of forces.

• Describe how forces combine and affect motion.
Lesson Vocabulary
• force
• net force
• newton (N)
Introduction
What causes a change in motion? The application of a force. Any time an object changes motion, a force has been
applied. In what ways can this happen?
Force can cause an object at rest to start moving. Forces can cause objects to speed up or slow down. Forces can
cause a moving object to stop. Forces can also cause a change in direction. In short, forces cause changes in motion.
The moving object may change its speed, its direction, or both.
We know that changes in motion require a force. We know that the size of the force determines the change in
motion. How much an object’s motion changes when a force is applied depends on two things. It depends on the
strength of the force. It also depends on the object’s mass.
Think about some simple tasks you may regularly do. You may pick up a baseball. This requires only a very small
force. Next, you toss the baseball to a friend. This takes a little larger force. With an even bigger force, you can
throw it to your other friend far across the field. The larger the force applied, the bigger the change in motion.
Think about these actions if the ball was a bowling ball. What kind of force would it take to pick it up? Would it
be more than the force needed to pick up a baseball? What about if you were to toss the bowling ball? Is it even
possible to throw the bowling ball any distance? This demonstrates how the size of the force depends on the object’s
mass. As you increase the mass of the object, the harder it is to cause a change in its motion.
Defining Force
Force is defined as a push or a pull. Another example of force is an applied force. It occurs when a person or thing
applies force to an object. You can see an example of this in Figure 1.1. The force of the push causes the swing to
move.
Sometimes forces are less obvious. How about friction, magnetism, and gravity? They all can cause a force.
Force as a Vector (Advanced Topic)
Force is a vector. What then is a vector? Think about how you would give directions to a friend. You would not say,
just walk half a mile. The person may walk a half mile in the wrong direction! More information is needed. You
2
FIGURE 1.1
When this girl pushes the swing away
from her, it causes the swing to move in
that direction.
may say, follow this particular road for a half mile. You may say, look for the green house on Sumter St. In both
examples, you provided a direction. You also gave the distance. In other words, you provided a vector. You did not
just give a distance. Both pieces of information are needed to find a location. This is just like describing forces. To
explain forces, both size and direction are needed.
Notice the girl in Figure 1.1. She is pushing the swing away from herself. That’s the direction of the force. She can
give the swing a strong push or a weak push. That’s the size, or strength, of the force.
Arrows are used to show a force. Figure 1.2 shows some examples. The length of each arrow tells you about the
strength of the force. The way the arrow points tells you about the direction of the force. Both are necessary to
explain a force. How could you use an arrow to explain the girl’s push on the swing?
FIGURE 1.2
Forces can vary in both strength and direction.
3
SI Unit of Force
A scientist would measure a force in a unit called a newton (N). The newton was named for scientist Sir Isaac
Newton. He is famous for his law of gravity.
Combining Forces
What if two children push a swing at the same time? Would the swing go higher? Yes, together their force would be
more. It is common for forces to be combined. Most objects on Earth have at least two forces acting on them. Do
you know what one of them is? Of course, that force is gravity.
How many forces do you have on you right now? Gravity pulls you down toward the center of Earth. Your legs exert
a downward force. They hold you up against the pull of gravity.
Consider the example in Figure 1.3. A book is resting on a table. Gravity pulls the book downward. It has a force
of 20 newtons. At the same time, the table pushes the book upward. Its force is also 20 newtons. The table opposes
the pull of gravity. If not, it would fall to the ground. The two forces combine to hold the book in place. In this case,
they keep it from moving.
Combined forces are called net forces. In the case of the book, the forces are balanced. This takes into account all
of the individual forces acting on the object.
FIGURE 1.3
A book resting on a table is acted on by
two opposing forces.
Forces Acting in Opposite Directions
What happens when two forces act in opposite directions? Net force is the difference between the two forces. In
other words, one force is subtracted from the other. Think back to the book example. One force was opposite the
other. The forces were equal in each direction. In this case, the net force is zero. Because the forces on the book are
balanced, the book doesn’t move. It does not fall to the ground. The table is not breaking. The book is not falling to
the ground. Both are evidence that the force are balanced.
Situations like these are common. Can you think of objects sitting on shelves or tables? These are all examples of
balanced forces. Thanks to balanced forces objects stay where you put them.
Woof! Woof! Look at the dogs playing tug-of-war. Both dogs are pulling on the rope. Each pulls in an opposite
4
direction. One is pulling on the rope to the left. He pulls with a force of 10 newtons. The other dog is pulling on the
rope to the right. He pulls with a force of 12 newtons. These forces are not equal. Therefore, they are not balanced.
What does it mean when the forces are not balanced? The net force is greater than zero. The net force on the rope
is 2 newtons to the right. This is the difference between the two forces. In this instance, the rope will move to the
right. Not surprising, the bigger dog is providing the largest force.
FIGURE 1.4
When unbalanced forces are applied to
an object in opposite directions, the
smaller force is subtracted from the larger
force to yield the net force.
Forces Acting in the Same Direction
What if two forces act in the same direction? You can see an example of this in Figure 1.5. One man lifts a piece of
furniture. He moves to the right with a force of 25 newtons. His co-worker helps him lift the piece of furniture. He
also moves to the right with a force of 20 newtons. The forces are in the same direction. Therefore, the forces are
added together. The net force equals the sum of the two forces. It is more than either of the forces by themselves.
FIGURE 1.5
When two forces are applied to an object
in the same direction, the two forces are
added to yield the net force.
You Try It!
5
The boys in the drawing above are about to kick the soccer ball. They are kicking the ball from opposite directions.
What will be the net force on the ball? In which direction will the ball move?
Lesson Summary
• Force is a push or a pull acting on an object. Examples of force include friction and gravity. Force is a vector
because it has both size and direction. The SI unit of force is the newton (N).
• The combined forces acting on an object are called the net force. When forces act in opposite directions, they
are subtracted to give the net force. When they act in the same direction, they are added. This gives us the net
force.
Lesson Review Questions
Recall
1. Define force. Give an example of a force.

2. What is a newton?
3. What is net force?
4. Describe an example of balanced forces and an example of unbalanced forces.
Apply Concepts
5. What is the net force acting on the block in each diagram below?
a.
b.
Think Critically
6. Explain how forces are related to motion.
6
Points to Consider
In the next lesson, "Friction," you will read about the force of friction. You experience this force every time you
walk. It prevents your feet from slipping out from under you.
• How would you define friction?

• What do you think causes this force?
External Resources
By clicking a link below, you will leave the CK-12 site and open an external site in a new tab. This page will remain
open in the original tab.
http://www.harcourtschool.com/activity/newton/
http://www.mansfieldct.org/schools/mms/staff/hand/lawsunbalancedforce.htm
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/newtlaws/U2L2d.cfm
7
1.2. Friction www.ck12.org
1.2 Friction
Lesson Objectives
• Describe friction and how it opposes motion.

• Identify types of friction.
Lesson Vocabulary
• fluid
• friction
Introduction
Did you ever rub your hands together like the child in Figure 1.6? Why did you do that? A common answer would
be to warm your hands. Why does this make your hands warmer? The answer is friction. So what exactly is friction?
FIGURE 1.6
This child is using friction to make their hands warmer.
What Is Friction?
Friction is a force that works against motion. It occurs between two surfaces that are touching. Friction can be good
and bad. How can this be? Think about some common things we do. For example, we put rubber tires on our cars.
The tires cause friction against the road. Without rubber tires, the car would slide around. Think about the bottom of
your bathtub. Do you have tape that has a sandy texture? Maybe you use a rubber mat. Both materials prevent you
from slipping. If you live in a really cold place, you have probably seen icy sidewalks. Perhaps you have put sand
on the frozen surface. The sand increases friction. It helps to keep you from slipping and falling. Is friction always
a good thing?
8
Too much friction can also be harmful. What about the oil in a car? What does it do? The engine oil helps to reduce
friction in car engines. Too much friction can wear out the parts. Can you think of other times when friction is not
beneficial?
Other examples of friction are illustrated in Figure 1.7.
FIGURE 1.7
Sometimes friction is useful. Sometimes it’s not.
Why Friction Occurs
Feel the top of your desk. Does it look and feel smooth? Yes, it feels and looks smooth, but is it really? Even when
surfaces look smooth to the unaided eye, they may not be. Scientists use a microscope to look at things more closely.
Through a microscope, smooth surfaces may appear rough or bumpy. Look at the metal surfaces in Figure 1.8. The
metal foil is so smooth that it is shiny. However, when highly magnified, it is clearly not smooth. It actually looks to
be very bumpy. All those bumps grab the bumps of other surfaces. They grind together. They oppose the motion of
the two surfaces. Now you know what causes friction.
9
FIGURE 1.8
The surface of metal looks very smooth
unless you look at it under a high-powered
microscope.
Factors That Affect Friction
Rough surfaces create more friction than smooth surfaces. That’s why cars have tires. It’s also why we use rubber
mats in areas that might get wet. In your bathtub, you may even use "No-Slip" tape. No-slip is another way of saying
the items has a lot of friction.
In Figure 1.9, the blades of the skates are very smooth. That’s why you can’t slide across ice with shoes. The soles
of your shoes are much rougher than skates. The rougher surface of shoes causes more friction and slows you down.
Heavier objects also have more friction. A heavy object presses down with more force. The surfaces are held
together more tightly. This makes the surfaces harder to slide past each other. Did you ever try to push something
heavy across the floor? Heavy objects are much harder to push than light objects.
FIGURE 1.9
The knife-like blades of speed skates min-
imize friction with the ice.
Friction Produces Heat
You know that friction also causes heat. Think about when you rub your hands together. It is friction that makes
them warm. But why does this happen?
Friction causes the molecules on rubbing surfaces to move faster. Faster moving particles have more heat energy.
Heat from friction can be useful. Can you think of other places where you might find friction?
10
Friction also lets you light a match (see Figure 1.10). Heat from friction can also cause problems. It can cause a car
to overheat. To reduce friction, oil is added to the engine. Oil coats the surfaces of moving parts. This coating of oil
makes them slippery. When things are slippery there is less friction.
Have you ever seen a sign that says, "slippery when wet?" This too has to do with friction. Water, like oil, can reduce
friction. The wet surface may allow your shoes to slide more easily. This situation may cause the potential to fall.
Think about the rubber mats just inside many doorways. Why do you think they are there?
FIGURE 1.10
When you rub the surface of a match
head across the rough striking surface
on the matchbox, the friction produces
enough heat to ignite the match.
Lesson Summary
• Friction is a force that opposes motion. It occurs between two surfaces that are touching. Friction occurs
because no surface is perfectly smooth. Friction is greater when objects have rougher surfaces. It is also
greater when objects are heavier. The increased weight causes surfaces to press together with greater force.
Recall
1. What is friction?
2. List factors that affect friction.
3. How does friction produce heat?
Apply Concepts
4. Explain why are rubber mats are placed near doorways on rainy days.
Think Critically
5. Explain why friction occurs.
11
External Resources
http://www.darvill.clara.net/enforcemot/friction.htm
12
1.3 Gravity
• Define gravity.
• Describe Earth’s gravity.
• Relate gravity and weight.
Lesson Objectives
• Explore the Law of Gravity by demonstrating that gravity is a force that can be overcome.
Lesson Vocabulary
• force
• gravity
How would the universe look without gravity? It would have no planets and no stars. That’s how it looked when it
was young. When the universe was young, there was only gas and dust. From this gas and dust, everything we now
see was made. How were stars and planets created from just gas and dust?
The answer is gravity. The same gravity that holds you down on Earth. The same force that causes your pencil to
roll off your desk. The same force that causes it to fall to the floor. The invisible force of gravity caused dust and
gas particles to be pulled together. This force is what formed all the objects in our solar system. This force formed
the smallest moons. It also formed our Sun. This force caused more than just our solar system to form. It caused all
the other solar systems to form. It caused the formation of all the galaxies of the universe.
Defining Gravity
Gravity is a force, but not like other forces you may know. Gravity is a bit special. You know that a force is a push
or pull. If you push a ball, it starts to roll. If you lift a book, it moves upward. Now, imagine you drop a ball. It
falls to the ground. Can you see the force pulling it down? That is what makes gravity really cool. It is invisible.
Invisible means you cannot see it. But wait, it has even more surprises.
13
1.3. Gravity www.ck12.org
Gravity holds planets in place around the Sun. Gravity keeps the Moon from flying off into space. Gravity exerts
a force on objects that are not even touching. In fact, gravity can act over very large distances. However, the force
does get weaker the farther apart the objects are.
Earth’s Gravity
You are already very familiar with Earth’s gravity. It constantly pulls you toward Earth’s center. What might happen
if there was no gravity?
You know that the Earth is rotating on its axis. This motion causes our day and night cycle. The Earth also orbits
the Sun. All this motion may cause you to fly off the Earth! You can thank gravity for keeping you in place.
Gravity keeps us firmly down on the ground. Gravity also pulls on objects that are in the sky. It also pulls on objects
that are in space. Meteors and skydivers are pulled down by gravity. Gravity also keeps the moon orbiting the Earth.
Without gravity, the moon would float away. It also holds artificial satellites in their orbit. Many of these satellites
help to connect the world. They allow you to pick up a phone a call in many parts of the world. You can also thank
gravity for all your TV channels. Gravity keeps Earth and the other planets moving around the much more massive
Sun.
How Can Gravity Be Overcome?
"What goes up must come down." You have probably heard that statement before. At one time this statement was
true, but no longer. Since the 1960s, we have sent many spacecraft into space. Some are still traveling away from
Earth. So it is possible to overcome gravity.
Do you need a giant rocket to overcome gravity? No, you actually overcome gravity every day. Think about when
you climb a set of stairs. When you do, you are overcoming gravity. What if you jump on a trampoline? You are
overcoming gravity for a few seconds. Everyone can overcome gravity. You just need to apply a force larger than
gravity. Think about that the next time you jump into the air. You are overcoming gravity for a brief second. Enjoy
it while it lasts. Eventually, gravity will win the battle.
Lesson Summary
• Gravity is the attraction between objects. These objects do not need to be touching. They can be some distance
apart.
• Earth’s gravity constantly pulls objects toward the center of the planet. Gravity also keeps moons and satellites
orbiting Earth, and Earth orbiting the sun.
Apply
1. What is the traditional definition of gravity?
2. Identify factors that influence the strength of gravity between two objects.
External Resources
http://www.mmscrusaders.com/newscirocks/tides/tideanim.htm
14
1.4 Magnets
Lesson Objectives
• Identify properties of magnets.

• Explain why some materials are magnetic.
• Explain that magnets can cause change without touching another object.
Lesson Vocabulary
• magnet
Introduction
Take a look at this train in Figure 1.11. It looks very futuristic. What do you notice about it? Did you notice that
the train has no wheels? How can a train have no wheels? It doesn’t need wheels. It actually floats, or levitates, just
above the track. Magnets enable the train to do this. This is not a normal train. This is a maglev train. The word
"maglev" stands for "magnetic levitation." Because it has no wheels, there is no friction. Some magnets hold the
train up. Other magnets are used to move the train forward. This train can go very fast. It can reach speeds up to 480
kilometers (300 miles) per hour! Magnets are pretty cool. What exactly is a magnet? How is it able to exert such
force?
FIGURE 1.11
Magnets cause this maglev train to speed
along its track.
MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/5059
15
1.4. Magnets www.ck12.org
Properties of Magnets
A magnet is an object that can attract other objects. You may have seen a bar magnet. If not, you can see one
in Figure 1.12. Magnets have a north and south pole. Magnets only attract certain types of objects. They can attract
objects that contain iron. Paper clips are made of iron and are attracted to magnets. Magnets do not attract every
type of metal. Magnets only attract iron, nickel, and cobalt. Aluminum or copper are not attracted to magnets. Try
this for yourself.
FIGURE 1.12
The north and south poles of a bar magnet attract paper clips.
Magnetic Poles
All magnets have two magnetic poles. The poles are regions where the magnet is strongest. The poles are called
north and south. They have these names because they always line up with Earth’s north-south axis. The Earth rotates,
or spins, around this imaginary line, or axis. What do you suppose would happen if you cut the bar magnet in Figure
1.12 in half along the line between the north and south poles? Both halves would also have north and south poles.
What if you cut each of them in half again? That’s right! All of those pieces would have north and south poles as
well. Pieces of a magnet always have both north and south poles.
Magnetic Force
Magnets are able to cause a change. They are able to make some other objects move. They do this by creating a
force. This force is called a magnetic force. There are different types of forces. Some forces require objects to
touch. For example, you push a book across a table. You are touching the book as it moves. Think back on the
levitating train. It wasn’t touching the track. How could it move?
Magnets too can produce change. They can produce motion just like you do. Unlike you, magnets do not need to
touch the other object. That’s right, there is a force without making contact. A magnetic force does not require
objects to touch. A magnet can push or pull certain items without ever touching them. That’s how the maglev train
works.
Do you know another type of force that does not require objects to touch? These forces are known as non-contact
forces. Another type of non-contact force you may be familiar with is gravity. Gravity, too, can cause changes in
motion. Gravity holds our Moon in orbit without touching it. So how do these forces play a role in magnets?
What happens when two magnets are next to each other? You know a force will be present. What type of motion do
you think will occur? Will it be a push or a pull? It all depends on how the poles align. North and south poles of two
magnets attract each other. Two north poles or two south poles repel each other.
16
Magnetism and Materials
You probably have magnets on your refrigerator. You can see some in Figure 1.13. You probably know they stick
to a metal door. This might be what holds your homework up. Do magnets stick to all materials? Of course not.
Magnets do not stick to many other surfaces. They do not stick to wooden doors. They do not stick to glass windows.
What else can you find that they do not stick to?
FIGURE 1.13
Refrigerator magnets stick to a refrigerator door because it contains iron.
Why won’t the magnets stick to wooden cabinet doors?
Lesson Summary
• A magnet is an object that attracts certain materials, such as iron.

• All magnets have two magnetic poles, north and south.
• Magnets have a magnetic field. It is this magnetic field that exerts a force on some materials. Opposite
magnetic poles attract each other. Like poles repel each other.
• Magnetism is the ability to be attracted by a magnet. Only some metals are attracted to magnets. These metals
include: iron, cobalt, and nickel. When these materials are magnetized, they become temporary or permanent
magnets. Magnetite is a natural permanent magnet.
Recall
1. What is a magnet?
2. Give examples of objects that are attracted by magnets.
Apply Concepts
3. Explain what type of motion will occur between the two magnets pictured below.
17
1.5. Static Electricity www.ck12.org
1.5 Static Electricity
Lesson Objectives
• Define electric charge and electric force. (Advanced Topic)

• Identify ways that electric charge is transferred.
Lesson Vocabulary
• electric charge
• electric force (Advanced Topic)
• static discharge
• static electricity
Introduction
You approach the door of a friend. What is the first thing you do? Of course, you wipe your feet. You are a thoughtful
visitor. Fortunately, there is a piece of carpet to wipe your shoes. Too bad your caring comes at a price. You now
reach out to touch the brass knocker on the door. Ouch! A spark appears between you and the door. You feel an
electric shock.
Why do you think this happened? Where did the electricity come from?This was a discharge of static electricity. Has
this ever happened to you (see Figure 1.14)? Why do you think you felt a shock? What causes the electric charge to
form? Lightning is created in much the same way. Both are caused by the build-up of electric charges. This is also
the same reason electric current flows through cables and wires.
FIGURE 1.14
Moving electric charges explain why you
get a shock when you touch a doorknob
after walking across a carpet.
What Is Static Electricity?
Static electricity is like a teeter-totter. What happens if a teeter-totter is balanced? Correct! It does not move. What
about when it’s not balanced? Yes, it will now begin to move. Charges move when they are not balanced.
18
Charges can build up by friction. Maybe you rub your feet on a wool mat or carpet. Rubber soled shoes readily
gain charges. The wool carpet easily gives up charges. The two items become unbalanced. One item has a positive
charge. The other has a negative charge. The difference in charge is called static electricity. Just like the teeter-totter,
something is going to move.
Positive charges build up on the mat. Negative charges build up on you. What comes next may be shocking. "Ouch!"
Why do you think the charge moved? Of course, it wants to be balanced. What if charges are not balanced? What
happens on the teeter-totter involves forces. One person forces the teeter-totter to rotate in one direction. The other
person forces it to move in another. When the force is not balanced, one side goes down. Can an electric charge
create a force? Can we find evidence of this force?
Electric Charge and Electric Force
Electric charge is a physical property. It occurs between particles or objects. It causes them to attract or repel
each other. They do not even have to touch. Static charges cause forces without touching. We can find evidence
by rubbing a balloon on our hair. The rubbing creates friction. The friction causes charges to move. Notice if the
balloon is held close to your hair, your hair moves up toward the balloon.
FIGURE 1.15
Electrons are transferred from hair to a
balloon rubbed against the hair. Then
the oppositely charged hair and balloon
attract each other.
Static Electricity and Static Discharge
Think back to when you wiped your feet at the front door. You were being a nice guest. What you experienced was
static discharge. The discharge of static charge is the spark you see. It is also the shock you feel.
How Lightning Occurs
Are there other examples of static discharge? The answer is yes. Lightning is a form of static discharge. It is much
more dramatic than what happens to your hand. You can see how it occurs in the following diagram.
You have probably seen lightning in a rainstorm. What does lighting have to do with static electricity? As it turns
out, everything. During a rainstorm, clouds are pushed along by the wind. Clouds develop regions of different
charges. This happens due to the movement of air molecules, water drops, and ice particles. The negative charges
are mostly at the base of the clouds. The positive charges are mostly at the top. The charges continue to build up.
Suddenly, you see the large discharge. This is what we see as lightning.
19
1.5. Static Electricity www.ck12.org
FIGURE 1.16
Lightning occurs when there is a sudden discharge of static electricity between a cloud and the ground.
In the video below, you can watch an awesome slow-motion lightning strike. Be sure to wait for the real-time
lightning strike at the end of the video. You’ll be amazed when you realize how much has occurred during that
split-second.
MEDIA
Lesson Summary
• Electric charge is a physical property of particles or objects. It causes them to attract or repel each other
without touching. Positive and negative particles attract each other. Particles with the same charge repel each
other. The force of attraction or repulsion between charged particles is called electric force.
• A charged particle can attract or repel other, nearby particles. They do not need to be touching.
• Objects become charged when they transfer electrons. Static discharge occurs when the built-up charges
suddenly flow from the object. An example of static discharge is lightning.
Recall
1. Define electric charge.

2. Describe the forces between charged particles.
3. Outline how lightning occurs.
20
Apply Concepts
4. If you rub a piece of tissue paper on a plastic comb, the paper and comb stick together. Based on lesson
concepts, explain why this happens.
External Resources
http://www.cabrillo.edu/~jmccullough/Physics/Electric_Forces_Fields.html
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/lightning/index.html
21
1.6. References www.ck12.org
1.6 References
1. Flickr:techlah. http://www.flickr.com/photos/techlah/67146616/ .
2. Christopher Auyeung. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0
4. Mathew Cerasoli, modified by CK-12 Foundation. http://www.flickr.com/photos/mcerasoli/6484117955/ .
CC BY 2.0
5. Laura Guerin. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0
6. Image copyright Leah-Anne Thompson, 2013. http://www.shutterstock.com .
7. Pencil: Joy Sheng; Brake pad: Jeremy Burgin; Slide: David Amsler (Flickr:amslerPIX); Scrape: Daniel Oines
(Flickr:dno1967b). Pencil: CK-12 Foundation; Brake pad: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fong
ers_-_brake_pad.jpg; Slide: http://www.flickr.com/photos/amslerpix/8131034392/; Scrape: http://www.flick
r.com/photos/dno1967b/8600409871/ . Pencil: CC BY-NC 3.0; Brake pad, Slide, Scrape: CC BY 2.0
8. Foil: User:MdeVicente/Wikimedia Commons; Magnified surface: Courtesy of NIST. Foil: http://commons
.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aluminio.jpg; Magnified surface: http://www.nist.gov/pml/general/stm/index.cfm .
Public Domain
9. Vincent Baas. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Skate_shorttrack.jpg . CC BY 2.5
10. LASZLO ILYES (Flickr:laszlo-photo). www.flickr.com/photos/laszlo-photo/1752196179/ . CC BY 2.0
11. Max Talbot-Minkin. http://www.flickr.com/photos/maxtm/6823667554/ . CC-BY 2.0
13. Neil Piddock (Flickr: piddy77). http://www.flickr.com/photos/piddysplace/145287597/ . CC BY 2.0
15. Flickr:olga.palma. http://www.flickr.com/photos/marm0ta/6981900768/ . CC BY 2.0
22
www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Earth Science
C HAPTER
2 Earth Science
Chapter Outline
2.1 W EATHER F ORECASTING
2.2 W ORLD C LIMATES
2.3 F OSSILS OF P LANTS AND A NIMALS
2.4 R EFERENCES
23
2.1. Weather Forecasting www.ck12.org
2.1 Weather Forecasting
Lesson Objectives
• State how meteorologists predict the weather.

• Outline how technology and computers are used to forecast the weather.
• Describe what weather maps show.
Lesson Vocabulary
• anemometer
• barometer
• hygrometer
• meteorologist
• rain gauge
• snow gauge
• thermometer
• weather balloon
• weather map
• weather satellite
• weather station
• wind vane
Introduction
Have you ever been caught in the rain? Weather conditions can change quickly. Did you watch the news last night?
The news reported that the weather would be sunny. Why was he wrong? Don’t get to upset. It’s a hard job to
predict the weather.
Predicting the Weather
Weather is very tough to predict. Will it rain tomorrow? Maybe it will be sunny. What about the wind? How cold
will it be? Those are all questions we want to know. Predicting the weather is not an easy task. To do it well requires
collecting a lot of data. The amount of data is often more than a person can deal with. To help with the task of
analyzing data, computers are used. So where does the data come from?
Weather Instruments
You might want to know how cold it is. You may need to know how fast the wind is blowing. Maybe it rained last
night? Do you know how much? Does it feel humid to you? You have heard all these questions before. To answer
these questions, we need data. That data comes from special tools. These tools collect data about the weather. You
can see some of the common tools listed below:
• A thermometer measures temperature.

• An anemometer measures wind speed.
24
• A rain gauge measures the amount of rain.

• A hygrometer measures humidity.
• A wind vane shows wind direction.
• A snow gauge measures the amount of snow.
FIGURE 2.1
The greater the air pressure outside the tube, the higher the mercury
rises inside the tube. Mercury can rise in the tube because there’s no
air pressing down on it.
FIGURE 2.2
Some of the most commonly used
weather instruments. (a) Thermome-
ter: temperature, (b) Anemometer: wind
speed, (c) Rain gauge: amount of rain,
(d) Hygrometer: humidity, (e) Wind vane:
wind direction, (f) Snow gauge: amount of
snow.
Collecting Data
Weather tools are used to collect data from all over the world. There are thousands of weather stations. Many are on
land. Some float out in the oceans. You can see what a weather station looks like in Figure 2.3. Your school may
25
2.1. Weather Forecasting www.ck12.org
have its own weather station.

So far, the weather tools mentioned are on the ground. How can we know about conditions high in the sky? For
this we use weather balloons. These balloons carry our tools high into the air. Radar is another way of looking at
conditions far away or high in the sky. Some data is even collected from outer space. Satellites are used to collect
some weather data.
FIGURE 2.3
Weather stations collect data on land and
sea. Weather balloons, satellites, and
radar collect data in the atmosphere.
Weather stations contain many weather tools. Check out the weather balloon in Figure 2.3. It will rise high into
the sky. It will keep rising until it bursts. All the way up, it gathers data. It sends the data back to Earth.
Weather satellites even orbit Earth. They never stop collecting weather data. They too transmit this data back to
Earth. A radar device sends out radio waves. They travel through the air in all directions. The waves bounce off
water in the air. They bounce back to the radar’s sending receiver. The radar shows where precipitation is falling.
The color can indicate what type of precipitation. It’s raining in the orange-shaded area shown above.
Weather Maps
You may have seen a weather map. A weather map may show the weather for a certain area. It may also show the
actual weather on any given day. For example, it may show tomorrow’s weather. It may also show a prediction of a
few days from now. Some weather maps show many weather conditions. Others show a single condition.
What is the temperature right now at grandma’s house? How hot did it get there today? Did it get cold thee last
night? A weather maps can help us answer those questions. It can tell us the high and low temperatures of a major
26
FIGURE 2.4
This weather map shows air pressure
contours. Which state has the lowest air
pressure shown on the map?
city. It may show areas of rain or snow. It can even show wind directions. A weather map is very important. It helps
us see what is coming. Do you know from which direction your weather comes from?
Lesson Summary
• Weather is very complex. This makes it hard to predict.

• Weather instruments measure weather factors. Weather stations collect data on Earth’s surface. Weather
balloons, satellites, and radar collect data in the atmosphere.
• A weather map shows the weather for a certain area. It can show actual or predicted weather. It may show a
single weather condition or more than one.
Recall
1. Why is weather difficult to predict?
2. List three weather instruments, and state what they measure.
3. What is the role of weather balloons and weather satellites?
4. What does a weather map show?
Apply Concepts
5. In the weather map in Figure 2.4, where is the weather most likely to be clear and dry? How do you know?
Think Critically
6. Explain how radar could be used to track an approaching thunderstorm.
27
2.2. World Climates www.ck12.org
2.2 World Climates
Lesson Objectives
• Identify world climate zones and where they are found.

• Identify world climate types based on precipitation amounts and vegetation.
• Define microclimate and give an example.
Lesson Vocabulary
• continental climate
• desert
• Mediterranean climate
• microclimate
• polar climate
• temperate climate
• tropical climate
• tropical rainforest
Introduction
The world can be divided into three climate zones. The first climate zone is the polar zone. As it sounds, the
polar zone is near earth’s poles. The polar zone has very long and cold winters. Brrr!!!! Near the equator is the
tropical zone. The tropical zone is known for being hot and wet. Between these two zones is the temperate zone.
Temperatures there tend to be mild. It’s not too hot and not too cold.
You might expect places near the equator to be hot and wet. That’s not always the case. Sometimes there are other
factors at work. These factors can affect the local climate type or a region. Oceans and mountain ranges can have
a major impact. They can greatly influence the climate of an area. You can see this in Figure 2.5. Many factors
influence an area’s climate. Only one of those factors is the distance from the equator. You can see where the climate
types are on the map below.
Climate Zones versus Climate Types
Should places at the same distance from the equator have the same climate? You might think they should. Unfor-
tunately, you would not be correct to think this. Climate types vary due to other factors besides distance from the
equator. So what are these factors? How can they have such a large impact on local climates? For one thing, these
factors are big. You may wonder, are they as big as a car. Think bigger. Are they bigger than a house? Think bigger.
Are they bigger than a football stadium? You are still not close. We are talking about mountains and oceans. They
are big features and big factors. Oceans and mountains play a huge role in climates around the world. You can see
this in Figure above . Only one of those factors is latitude, or distance from the equator.
Mountain ranges can cause local climates to vary. For example, mountain ranges can block moisture. This places to
be dry in areas that would otherwise be wet.
Major climate types are based on temperature and precipitation. These two factors determine what types of plants
can grow. The types of plants are very important. Animals and other living things depend on plants. So each climate
28
FIGURE 2.5
Find where you live on the map. What type of climate do you have?
is related to a certain type of living things. Climate types and its living things make up a biome.
Tropical Climates Zones
Tropical climates are found around the equator. These climates have warm temperatures year round. Tropical
climates may be very wet or wet and dry.
• Tropical wet climates occur at or very near the equator. They have high rainfall year round. Tropical
rainforests grow in this type of climate.
• Tropical wet and dry climates also occur near the equator. They receive less rainfall. Most of the rain falls in
a single season. The rest of the year is dry. Few trees can withstand the long dry season. The main plants are
grasses (see Figure 2.6).
Dry climates receive very little rainfall. They also have high rates of evaporation. This makes them even drier.
Deserts can get less than 25 centimeters of rain per year. That’s less than 10 inches per year. How much rain do you
get at your house? These areas may be covered with sand dunes. Plants in these areas are sparse. What plants that
do grow are hardy (see Figure 2.7). With few clouds, deserts have hot days and cool nights.
Temperate Climates Zones
Temperate climates have mild temperatures. They are found on western edges of continents. The US west coast
29
FIGURE 2.6
Africa is famous for its grasslands and
their wildlife.
FIGURE 2.7
Dry climates may be deserts or steppes. Sonoran Desert in Arizona (33◦ north latitude), Utah Steppe (40◦ north
latitude).
has this type of climate. The weather is not too hot and not too cold. These climates vary in how much rain they get.
Continental climates are found in inland areas. They are too far from oceans to feel any of its effects. The summer
are usually hot. The winters are cold.
Polar Climate Zones
Polar climates are found near the North and South Poles. These climates can also be found on high mountains not
30
FIGURE 2.8
How do these climates differ from each other?
FIGURE 2.9
Conifer forests are typical of the subarctic.
near the poles. The summers are very cool. The winters are frigid. Precipitation is very low due to the cold. The
cold air cannot hold as much moisture. You can see examples of polar climates in Figure 2.10.
FIGURE 2.10
Polar climates include polar and alpine tundra. Polar Tundra in Northern Alaska (70◦ N latitude), Alpine Tundra in
the Colorado Rockies (40◦ N latitude).
31
Microclimates
A place might have a different climate than the major climate type around it. This is called a microclimate. Look
at Figure 2.11. The south-facing side of the hill gets a lot of sunlight>It gets much more than the north side of a
hill. This gives the south side a warmer microclimate. A microclimate can also be due to a place being deeper. As
you already know, cold air sinks. Hot air rises. Cold air sinks to the bottom of a valley. It becomes colder than the
nearby areas.
FIGURE 2.11
Hills and other features can create micro-
climates.
Lesson Summary
• Climate types are based on temperature and precipitation. A major climate type and its living things make up
a biome. Climate types include tropical, temperate, continental, and polar climates.
• A microclimate is a local climate that differs from the major climate type around it. For example, the south-
facing side of a hill may have a warmer microclimate.
Recall
1. Define biome.
2. Identify two types of tropical climates.
3. How do steppes differ from deserts?
4. Where are Mediterranean climates found?
5. Describe a marine west coast climate.
6. What is permafrost?
7. What is a microclimate? Give an example.
Apply Concepts
8. Identify the type of climate in the green-shaded areas in the Figure 2.12. Describe this type of climate.
Think Critically
9. Some tropical climates have rainforests. Others have grasslands. What explains the difference?
32
FIGURE 2.12
10. Compare and contrast two types of continental climates.
Points to Consider
Earth’s overall climate is getting warmer.
• Why is Earth’s climate changing?

• How is climate change affecting living things?
33
2.3. Fossils of Plants and Animals www.ck12.org
2.3 Fossils of Plants and Animals
Lesson Objectives
• Explain what fossils are.

• Describe how fossils form.
• State what scientists can learn from fossils.
Lesson Vocabulary
• fossilization
• index fossil
34
FIGURE 2.13
A petrified log in Petrified Forest National Park .
Introduction
How does a fish get inside a rock? Did it grow there? Of course not, it’s a fossil. We know this now, but that was
not always the case. Fossils once inspired myths. Can you imagine finding a fossil of a dinosaur? What if you didn’t
know that dinosaurs were no longer living. That would be scary.
The stories that were inspired by fossil dinosaurs are legendary. What do you think dinosaurs were mistaken for?
All those fables of dragons were inspired by fossil dinosaur bones.
For thousands of years, people have found fossils. The fossils caused curiosity about Earth’s past. How did these
organisms live? What type of world did they live in? Fossils can tell us much about Earth’s history.
Two thousand years ago, fossils were found in China. At the time, they were thought to be dragon bones. We now
know better. They are actually fossils. So how are bones and fossils different?
35
What Are Fossils?
Fossils are preserved remains of organisms. They are preserved in two ways. They can be the actual remains of
organisms. They can also be a trace of one. These organisms lived in Earth’s past.
Most fossils that are found are hard parts of organisms. These hard parts include teeth, bones, and shells. Examples
of these kinds of fossils are pictured in Figure 2.14.
Traces of animals can be preserved in a few ways. One way might be a footprint. Another trace left by an ancient
organism is a burrow they once dug. Another trace is the waste they leave behind. Examples of trace fossils are also
shown in Figure 2.14.
FIGURE 2.14
A variety of fossil types are pictured here.
Preserved Remains: (A) teeth of a cow,
(B) nearly complete dinosaur skeleton
embedded in rock, (C) sea shell pre-
served in a rock. Preserved Traces: (D)
dinosaur tracks in mud, (E) fossil animal
burrow in rock, (F) fossil feces from a
meat-eating dinosaur in Canada.
How Fossils Form
The process by which fossils form is called fossilization. Most fossils form in sedimentary rocks.
Fossils in Sedimentary Rock
Most fossils form when an organism dies. Their bodies get buried with sediment. Layers of sediment slowly build
up. The sediment is buried with even more sediment. Over time, the sediment turns into sedimentary rock. The
remains of the plant or animal also turns to rock. The remains are replaced by minerals. They literally turn to stone.
This process is shown in Figure 2.15.
Other Ways Fossils Form
Fossils may form in other ways. Fossils can be preserved almost completely. In this process, the organism doesn’t
change much. As seen below, tree sap may cover an organism. With time, the sap hardens. It turns to into amber.
The original organism is preserved. This is very exciting for scientists. They are able to study the DNA of the
organism that no longer lives on Earth. Some animals have been found frozen in ice. Others have been found in tar
pits after falling in.
Molds and casts are another way organisms can be fossilized. Have you ever walked in soft mud and left footprints?
Once in a while, these traces of organisms can be preserved. In this case, nothing is left of the organism. A mold
is an imprint of an organism that is preserved in rock. The organism’s remains break down completely. There is
nothing left of the original plant and animal. What is left is a mold, or impression, of the original organism. This
mold is then filled with other rock. The fossil that forms in the mold is called a cast. Molds and casts usually form
in sedimentary rock.
36
FIGURE 2.15
Fossilization. This flowchart shows how
most fossils form.
You can read about them in Figure 2.16.
Why Fossilization is Rare
Conditions must be just right. That’s why fossils are rare. Why don’t many more dead plants and animals turn into
fossils?
Many times, dead animals get eaten by other animals. When this happens nothing can be preserved. Insects may
break down the remains. Others dead plants and animals may get broken down by the elements.
Fossils mostly come from the hard parts of animals. Just because a part is hard is still no guarantee is will become a
fossil. Fossils are even less likely to come from soft organisms. Fossils of bacteria to jellyfish are very rare.
Learning from Fossils
Many plants and animal species have lived on Earth. Most are no longer alive. Only a tiny number of species still
live on Earth. If not for fossils, we would know little about species that did not survive. Fossils provide evidence.
37
FIGURE 2.16
Ways Fossils Form. (A) Complete Preser-
vation. This spider looks the same as it
did the day it died millions of years ago!
(B) Molds and Casts. A mold is a hole left
in rock after an organism’s remains break.
A cast forms from the minerals that fill
that hole and solidify. (C) Compression.
A dark stain is left on a rock that was
compressed. These ferns were fossilized
by compression.
They give us clues to past life on Earth. They tell us that life on Earth has changed over time. Fossils in younger rock
s look like animals and plants that are living today. Fossils in older rocks are less like living organisms.
Fossils can also tell us about how plants and animals lived in the past. Was it land or marine? Was the water shallow
or deep? Fossils can even provide clues to ancient climates. They can tell us if it was warm or cold. Maybe it was
cold or hot? Some places that are now cold were once warm. Some places that are now hot and dry were once wet
and cool. Fossils provide a window into the past.
Fossil Clues
Fossils give clues about major geological events. Fossils can also give clues about past climates.
• Fossils of ocean animals on the top of a mountain? Ocean animals have been found on the Earth’s tallest
mountain. It’s hard to believe, but it is true. These fossils were found at the top of Mt. Everest. Mt. Everest is
the highest mountain on Earth. These fossils showed that this entire area was once at the bottom of a sea. It
can only mean that Mt. Everest was uplifted. In fact, the entire Himalaya mountain range was raised. It was
forced up from the collision of two continents. An example is shown in the Figure 2.17.
• Fossils of plants are found in Antarctica. Now, Antarctica is almost completely covered with ice. Plants do not
grow in Antarctica. According to fossils, they once did. This means that Antarctica was once much warmer
than it is now. These fossils tell us about Antarctica’s past climate.
Lesson Summary
• Fossils are preserved remains or traces of organisms. They lived in Earth’s past. Most fossils form in
sedimentary rock. Fossils can also be preserved in other ways. It’s rare for any given organism to become a
fossil.
38
FIGURE 2.17
What can we learn from fossil clues like
this fish fossil found in the Wyoming
desert?
• Fossils are the best form of evidence about the history of life on Earth. Fossils also give us clues about Earth’s
past. They can tell us about major geological events and past climates.
Recall
1. What are fossils?
2. Give examples of trace fossils.
3. Why are most preserved remains teeth, bones, or shells?
4. Describe how fossils form in sedimentary rock.
5. Why is fossilization rare?
Apply Concepts
6. Create an original diagram to explain the concept of index fossil. Your diagram should include sedimentary
rock layers and fossils.
Think Critically
7. Compare and contrast the frog fossil in Figure 2.16 and the fossil dinosaur tracks in Figure 2.14. Infer what
you might learn from each type of fossil.
8. Earth’s climate became much cooler at different times in the past. Predict what fossil evidence you might find
for this type of climate change.
Points to Consider
Fossils can help scientists estimate the ages of rocks. Some types of evidence show only that one rock is older or
younger than another. Other types of evidence reveal a rock’s actual age in years.
• What evidence might show that one rock is older or younger than another?
• What evidence might reveal how long ago rocks formed?
39
Fossils provide evidence about life on Earth. They tell us that life on Earth has changed over time. Fossils in younger
rocks look like animals and plants that are living today. Fossils in older rocks are less like living organisms.
40
2.4 References
1. Hana Zavadska. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0

2. Rain: Flickr:wsssst; Snow: KaCey97007; Thermometer/Hygrometer: Karl-Ludwig G. Poggemann (Flickr:quapan);
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Shutterstock.com; (C) CC BY 2.0
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16. Courtesy of the National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/imr/photosmultimedia/photogallery.htm?id=F17B

1C64-155D-451F-6765341D9B8E553F . Public Domain
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www.ck12.org Chapter 3. Life Science
C HAPTER
3 Life Science
Chapter Outline
3.1 A DAPTATION AND N ATURAL S ELECTION
3.2 I NSECT R EPRODUCTION AND L IFE C YCLES
3.3 P LANT A DAPTATIONS TO E NVIRONMENTAL C HANGES
3.4 P LANT R EPRODUCTION AND L IFE C YCLES
3.5 A NIMAL C HARACTERISTICS AND C LASSIFICATION
3.6 R EFERENCES
43
3.1. Adaptation and Natural Selection www.ck12.org
3.1 Adaptation and Natural Selection
Lesson Objectives
• Describe how characteristics of plants and animals are inherited. Some characteristics can be affected by the
environment.
Lesson Vocabulary
• adaptation
• mutation
• variation
Why would a living thing match its background? Wouldn’t it be better to stand out?
Some livings things are hard to see. They are able to blend into their background. This is a special trait that helps
them survive. They are less likely to be eaten.
Adaptation is a change in a plant or animal traits. These special traits help them survive. Why is it important to
adapt special traits? Special traits can help a species survive.
The longer they survive, the more offspring they can have. More offspring means a species has a better chance of
survival.
Special traits can be passed from parent to offspring.
44
Variations
Every living thing is unique. All living things have adapted traits. These traits are what makes them unique. There
are also variations in the traits. Not all organisms of the same species have the same trait. For example, people can
have different hair color. Hair can be blonde, brown, black, or even red. Hair color is a trait. Yours is inherited from
your parents.
Mutations
Sometimes traits can vary from parent to offspring. These changes are due to mutations. Mutations are a random
change. Mutations are natural. Some mutations are harmful. In this case, the organism may not live to reproduce.
The trait will not be passed onto offspring. Others variations in traits have no effect on survival. Can some mutations
be good for a living thing?
Other mutations can have great benefits. Imagine being the first moth that can blend into its background. It would
have a better chance of survival. A living thing that survives is likely to have offspring. If it does, it may pass
the new trait on to its offspring. That’s good news for the offspring. The offspring may be more likely to survive.
Mutations are one way living things adapt to new conditions.
Adaptations
Some traits help a living thing survive. These traits are called adaptations. Some adaptations are better than others.
Look at the cactus in Figure 3.1. Its leaves look like needles. Their shape helps the plant live in dry climates. The
needle-like leaves help it to not lose water. Why is that important for a cactus? Cactus live in deserts. Deserts receive
very little rainfall.
Other plants are better suited for locations that are wet and shady. These are opposite conditions to the desert. Palm
trees grow in the rainforest. Rainforests have a lot of rainfall. The palm tree has very large leaves. They do not have
to worry about losing water through their leaves. As a result, palm leaves are very wide.
Plants that live in sunny locations do not need large leaves. If they lived in shady conditions they would need leaves
that work extra hard. They need to gather as much sunlight as possible. They gather sunlight in order to make food.
In contrast, the cactus leaves get plenty of sunlight. Its leaves can be much smaller. Deserts receive a lot of sunlight.
The cactus does not need really large leaves to collect sunlight.
Many adaptations protect living things from harm. The cactus shown below has a large barrel-like body. This trait
helps it store water. It may need to go a long time between rainfalls.
Other adaptations help a living thing. They may help it move or gather food. Reindeer have sponge-like hooves.
This helps them walk on snowy ground without slipping and falling. Fish at the bottom of the ocean are tiny. This
allows them to use very little energy. This is helpful because there is not much food around.
Living things have special features that help them avoid being eaten. Some plants contain poison, or just taste bad.
These traits keep animals from eating them. Often their brightly colored flowers serve as a warning. The same is
true of some frogs. Some frogs can be poisonous.
Have you ever heard of the deer mouse? It is one of Nebraska’s oldest settlers. It was there long before people.
In fact, it lived in Nebraska before the last ice age. What does this have to do with adaptation? As it turns out,
everything. The last ice age event changed the environment. In order to survive, the deer mouse adapted.
What color is a mouse? In Nebraska, most mice are brown. In one particular area, they are not the typical brown.
Instead, the mice have a lighter color. Why do you think a lighter would be a benefit?
During the last ice age, glaciers carried in light colored sand. The sand was deposited on top of the darker soil of the
45
3.1. Adaptation and Natural Selection www.ck12.org
FIGURE 3.1
Cacti have thick, water-retaining bodies
that help them conserve water.
FIGURE 3.2
Poison dart frogs have toxins in their skin.
Their bright colors warn potential preda-
tors not to take a bite!
area. This region is now called the Sand Hills area of Nebraska. In this area, the brown mice did not blend in. Their
brown color caused them to stand out. As a result, they became easy prey.
Predators could more easily spot the dark mice on this new light colored background. Natural selection favored the
46
light mice. The light colored mice were able to live longer. As a result they had more offspring. Over time, the
population became light colored. Today, the mice in the Sand Hills are light in color. This change is due to a change
in their environment.
FIGURE 3.3
Glaciers carried lighter colored material
over the area. The Deer mouse adapted
to the environment by developing a lighter
color. They are now able to blend in.
Lesson Summary
• Different members of a population may have different inherited traits.

• Some of these differences are due to mutations.
• Some traits allow an individual living thing to be better adapted to its environment. That individual will be
more likely to survive and to reproduce.
1. How do adaptations develop?

2. What does it mean to say that a living thing is well adapted to its environment?
3. What is a mutation?
47
3.2. Insect Reproduction and Life Cycles www.ck12.org
3.2 Insect Reproduction and Life Cycles
Lesson Objectives
• Compare and contrast the major stages in the life cycles, such as those that undergo incomplete and complete
metamorphosis.
Lesson Vocabulary
• incomplete metamorphosis
• life cycle
• metamorphosis
• nymph
What is this?
What are these objects? They look like tiny beads. Did someone’s bracelet break? No, they are actually insect eggs.
To be specific, they are butterfly eggs. A butterfly is an insect. An insect is a special kind of bug.
Some baby insects look like their parents. Others do not. Most insects hatch from eggs. The female adult butterfly
lays her eggs on plants. The plant helps protect her young. With time, the baby insect will hatch from the egg.
The plant will supply food for the young insect. The plant will also help it get water. The plant’s leaves contain
water. When the young insect eats the plant, it will get water. What comes out of a butterfly egg? Yes, this is a trick
question. Butterflies will not come out of the eggs. Instead, butterfly larva come out of the eggs!
What is a butterfly larva? We call butterfly larva a caterpillar. Over time, the caterpillar will mature. During its life,
it will go through another change. In the next change, these young insects will form a pupa. This pupa is called
48
a chrysalis. You may have seen chrysalis hanging from trees. What happens in the pupa stage is amazing! The
caterpillar changes into a butterfly.
An insect’s life cycle is not always like ours. It’s not even like a plant. When animals are born, they are small version
of adults. Plants, too, are small versions of larger plants. Insects can look different than adults. In fact, they look like
different creatures. These insects will go through a transformation. This transformation is called a metamorphosis.
Why is it important for insects to have this ability? This ability gives insects the ability to adapt to their habitat.
Insect Reproduction and Life Cycle
An insect’s life cycle is not like yours. When they are young they look a certain way. During their lives, some insects
go through a change. For most insects, they go through four stages. The first stage is the egg stage. In the second
stage, they hatch as insect larva. The larva then matures. Next is the pupa chrysalis stage. After this final stage, the
insect will look like its parents. This change is called a complete metamorphosis.
Three Types of Metamorphosis
An insect can have one of three types of change in its life (Table 3.1). A metamorphosis describes how insects
change. Some insects do not go through a change. Instead, the young look like small versions of adults. The only
change between young and mature is size. Other types of insects go through a change in physical appearance. There
are two types of this type of change. Some insects change only slightly during their change. This type is called
incomplete metamorphosis. Other types of insects go through a major change. They don’t look at all like the adult
when they are born. This type of change is called complete metamorphosis.
TABLE 3.1: Types of Metamorphosis

Type of Metamorphosis Characteristics Examples
None Silverfish, firebrats, springtails
• Only difference between

adult and larvae (young or
non-adult insects) is size.
• Occurs in the most primitive
insects.
• Newborn insect looks like a
tiny version of the adult.
Incomplete Dragonflies, grasshoppers, mantids,

cockroaches, termites
• Three stages: egg, nymph,
and adult.
• Young, called nymphs, usu-
ally similar to adult.
• Growth occurs during the
nymph stage.
• Wings then appear as buds on
nymphs or early forms.
• When last molt is completed,
wings expand to full adult
size.
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3.2. Insect Reproduction and Life Cycles www.ck12.org
TABLE 3.1: (continued)

Type of Metamorphosis Characteristics Examples
Complete Butterflies, moths, flies, ants, bees,
beetles
• Most insects undergo this
type.
• Stages of the life cycle in-
clude: egg, larva, pupa, and
adult. Each stage looks dif-
ferent from the others.
• Immature and adult stages
have different forms. They
have different behaviors.
They live in different
habitats.
• Immature form is called lar-
vae. It remains similar in
form but increases in size.
• Larvae usually have chew-
ing mouthparts even if adult
mouthparts are sucking ones.
• At last larval stage of de-
velopment, insect forms into
pupa (Figure 3.4). It does not
eat or move.
• During pupa stage, wing de-
velopment begins. After-
wards, adult emerges.
FIGURE 3.4
The chrysalis (pupal stage) of a monarch butterfly.
Lesson Summary
• Insects can reproduce rapidly.
50
• Metamorphosis describes how insects transform from an immature form into an adult. It can be part of the
insect life cycle.
1. Define Metamorphosis.
2. What is the difference between complete and incomplete metamorphosis?
3. What are the four stages of complete metamorphosis?
4. Describe the differences between the immature and adult forms of most insects.
External Resources
http://www.natgeotv.com/ca/great-migrations/videos/growing-up-butterfly
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3.3. Plant Adaptations to Environmental Changes www.ck12.org
3.3 Plant Adaptations to Environmental

Changes
Lesson Objectives
• Explain how plants responds to changes in their environment.

• Identify special adaptations in plants.
Introduction
Plants can detect and respond to changes. Unlike animals, plants can’t move away from danger. Think about the tree
in your yard, can it move? Plants are typically held in place by soil.
FIGURE 3.5
These tree roots grip the ground like a
hand.
Plant Responses
We know plants cannot move around. How can they respond to changes in their environment? A plant’s primary
way of responding is to change how it is growing. One way is to turn or bend in a certain way.
Plant Tropisms
Plants can’t move from place to place. They can turn and bend. Plants do this for a couple of reasons. They turn and
bend because of gravity. They also turn and bend because of light.
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MEDIA
• A plant can sense gravity. It responds to any changes it senses. Plant roots always grow downward. You can
feel gravity every time you jump into the air. A plant can feel it too. A plant has special cells in the tips of its
roots. These cells detect small changes in gravity. If you turn a plant on its side, what will happen? Correct!
The plants roots will start to grow downward.
• A plant can also respond to changes in light. Plant stems and leaves grow toward light. The house plant in
Figure 3.6 shows this effect. This plant receives light mainly from the left. Over time, it grew in that direction.
FIGURE 3.6
Example of phototropism
Daily and Seasonal Responses of Plants
Plants also detect the daily cycle of light and darkness. Do you know how plants respond to these changes? Some
plants open their leaves during the day. It is during these hours the plant can collect sunlight. At night, the plant
closes its leaves to prevent water loss.
Many plants respond to the change in the length of the day. As days grow shorter, some plants respond by going
dormant. Dormant is when a plant suspends its growth. It does this in order to survive. Shorter days signal the
coming of winter. Winter in most areas means extreme cold. It is also very dry in the winter months.
As winter approaches, some plants respond by their leaves changing color. After the change in color, they fall off
(see Figure below ). This dormancy period helps trees. It allows them to survive the cold and dry winter. Plants
only want to grow when conditions are right.
.
53
FIGURE 3.7
The leaves of many trees turn brilliant
colors of red and yellow when days grow
shorter in the fall.
Plant Responses to Disease
When you get sick, your body springs to action. Your body starts to fight the illness. That’s why you want to eat
right and get plenty of sleep. You need a strong immune system to fight off illness.
Plants don’t have an immune system. That does not mean they do not get sick. Plants are affected by disease just like
us. Typically, their first line of defense is the death of part of the plant. This prevents the infection from spreading.
Many plants also produce special chemicals to fight disease. For example, willow trees produce a chemical to kill
the bacteria. The same compound is used in many acne products. You can see a picture of a willow tree in Figure
3.8.
FIGURE 3.8
This willow tree produces a compound
that fights bacteria.
Plants may be smarter than we think. No, they cannot talk to each other. They may be able to send messages, though.
54
They can produce chemicals that warn other plants. Imagine, a plant sends a warning to another plant to get ready.
The nearby plant can then prepare for the threat to their health. Plants are rooted in place. That does not mean they
are helpless.
Plants with Special Adaptations
Plants live just about everywhere on Earth. They have evolved special traits to help them survive in different places.
These traits, or adaptations, allow them to survive in diverse conditions. Some plants can even survive in really
extreme places.
Aquatic Plants
Do all plants live on the land? Some plants do live in the water. To do this, they have evolved special traits.
Plants that live in water are called aquatic plants. Living in water has certain benefits. There is certainly plenty of
water! The plant does not need special traits to absorb, transport, or conserve water. They do not need a large root
system. They do not need a strong stem to hold up the plant. The plant uses the water for support. Don’t think water
plants have it easy, though. They also face challenges.
Living in water isn’t that easy. They do need some special traits to survive. It is tough for the plant to reproduce.
Pollination by wind or animals can’t happen under water. Sunlight cannot reach very far beneath the water’s surface.
Some aquatic plants have floating flowers and leaves. An example is the water lily, shown in Figure 3.9. The water
lily has bowl-shaped flowers. It has broad, flat leaves that float. Some plants live in moving water, such as streams
or rivers. Cattails shown in Figure 3.9 have narrow, strap-like leaves. The narrow leaves reduce their resistance to
moving water.
FIGURE 3.9
Water lilies and cattails have different
adaptations for life in the water.
Xerophytes
Some plants do not get enough water. They live in places that are very dry. How can they get and keep water? Plants
that are adapted to these dry places are called xerophytes. Their traits help them survive. They need to have a large
water intake. They also need to be able to conserve water. They also need to be able to store water between rains.
The saguaro cactus in Figure 3.10 has adapted in all three ways. This cactus has a huge root system. It allows the
cactus to gather a lot of water during the rare rainfalls. The saguaro doesn’t have any leaves. Leaves are where water
can be lost. Not in this plant! It also has a large, barrel-shaped stem. It is here the plant can store a lot of water.
Thorns protect the stem from thirsty animals. The animals might try to eat parts of the plant to get at the water inside
the plant.
55
FIGURE 3.10
A saguaro cactus is adapted for extreme
dryness.
Epiphytes
Plants called epiphytes grow on other plants. They obtain moisture from the air. Most epiphytes are ferns or orchids.
They live in places that are very humid. Host trees provide support for the plants. They cling to trees high above the
forest floor. This allows epiphytes to get air and sunlight. This lets the plants get out of the shadows on the forest
floor. These plants, like all plants, need sunlight to survive. Being elevated may also reduce the risk of being eaten
by animals.
Carnivorous Plants
Carnivorous plants are plants that get some or most of their nutrients by eating other organisms. They trap and
digest insects or other small animals. However, they still need sunlight in order to make food. Carnivorous plants
have adapted to grow where the soil is poor in nutrients. They can be found growing on rocky outcrops. Venus fly
traps are well-known carnivorous plants.
Lesson Summary
• A plant’s main response to stimuli is to change how it is growing. For example, plant roots grow toward
Earth’s gravity. Stems and leaves bend toward sunlight.
• Plants also respond to daily and seasonal changes, and to disease.
• Some plants have evolved special adaptations to extreme environments. Such plants include aquatic plants,
xerophytes, epiphytes, and carnivorous plants.
56
FIGURE 3.11
Venus fly traps are carnivorous plants.
Recall
1. What are two reasons a plant responds by moving or bending?
2. How do plants respond to daily and seasonal changes?
3. Define and give examples of xerophytes and epiphytes.
Apply Concepts
4. Many modern medicines have been discovered in trees and other plants. Why do you think so many disease-
fighting compounds are found in plants?
Think Critically
5. Identify two challenges faced by aquatic plants. Explain how they have evolved to adapt to the challenges.
57
3.4. Plant Reproduction and Life Cycles www.ck12.org
3.4 Plant Reproduction and Life Cycles
Lesson Objectives
• Identify processes of sexual reproduction in flowering plants, including pollination, fertilization (seed produc-
tion), seed dispersal, and germination.
Lesson Vocabulary
• reproduction
• pollination
• pollen
• fertilization
• seed dispersal
So what exactly is a flower?

This view is of a beautiful Lily flower. Notice the fine detail. Do you know why flowers look like they do? Why are
flowers so colorful? Why do some smell so nice? What is the purpose of all the parts?
58
Flowering Plants
Flowering plants evolved millions of years ago. They are unlike insects and animals. There are no boy or girl plants.
Plants have both male and female parts. They still need help to reproduce.
Some plants form seeds. These are called flowering seed plants. The seeds form in a special part of the plant. This
part is called the ovary. A plant’s fruit may fall to the ground. Once on the ground, the fruit may get eaten by
animals. How does getting eaten help spread seeds?
Once eaten, the seeds of the fruit are passed through the animal’s digestive tract. The animals will eliminate their
waste. This waste contains the fruit’s seeds. This is one way to spread seeds around. Animals do not stay in one
place. Animals can help spread seeds over a large area. It’s a great trade. The animal gets a tasty treat. The plant
gets help reproducing. The ovaries are just one of the plant’s parts.
The moving of pollen is another way plants reproduce. The flower’s job is to attract animals. They attract animals
such as bees and birds. These animals do not spread seeds by elimination. Instead, they spread the plant’s pollen.
They move the pollen from the male to the female parts of the plant. They also move the pollen to other nearby
plants. This process of moving pollen to other plants is very important. It helps to keep a diversity of plants.
Many animal are pollinators. A pollinator is any animal who carries pollen. They carry it from one plant to another.
FIGURE 3.12
A flower includes both male and female
reproductive structures.
Flowers and Pollinators
Some flowers may have bright colors. Others may have strong scents. Some may have sweet nectar. All these traits
help to attract animals. Why is it important to attract animals? Animals carry pollen. Animals move around a lot.
They can carry the pollen a long distance. These pollinators include insects, birds, mammals, and even reptiles.
59
Animals visit a flower. They pick up pollen from one flower. The animals then travel to another flower.
MEDIA
FIGURE 3.13
Brightly colored fruits attract animals that
may disperse their seeds. It’s hard to miss
the bright red apples on these trees.
Some plants rely on seeds getting stuck in animal fur. Once stuck, the seeds are carried off to another location.
Eventually, the seeds fall off.
FIGURE 3.14
Dandelion seeds have tiny parachutes.
Maple seeds have wings that act like little
gliders. Burdock seeds are covered with
tiny hooks that cling to animal fur.
Hoping the wind will blow is also risky for a plant. What if the wind does not blow? What if the blowing pollen
does not land on another flower? The wind could even blow the pollen over the ocean where it is wasted.
Do all plants have flowers?
No, plants do not all have flowers. For example, the mosses and ferns (see Figure 3.16) are both types of plants.
However, they never produce flowers. They don’t produce seeds, either. They do, however, make tiny spores to
reproduce.
60
FIGURE 3.15
The hummingbird has a long narrow bill.
The long narrow bill enables it to reach
nectar at the bottom of the tube-shaped
flowers. The bat is active at night. Bright
white, night-blooming flowers attract it.
Some plants do not depend on the birds and the bees. They don’t even produce seeds. Instead they produce spores.
Examples of plants that have spores are ferns and mosses.
The plant below is called the kangaroo fern. Maybe a better name would be a cheetah fern! Did you notice all the
little spots? All those spots are spores. So what’s a spore? Each spore can grow into a new individual plant.
FIGURE 3.16
Life Cycle of Plants
New plants come from seeds and spores. These seeds are carried by wind, water, or even animals! The seed
germinates, or sprouts, and begins to grow into a new plant. It uses minerals from the soil, sunlight, and water
to make its own food. As the plant grows, it begins to look like a small copy of the adult plant. Over time, it gets
larger. It eventually becomes an adult plant. It will produce seeds or spores, which will someday be the start of a
new plant.
Lesson Summary
• Flowers attract pollinators and fruits are eaten by animals. Both traits aid the dispersal of seeds.
61
1. State how fruits help flowering plants reproduce.

2. Explain how flowering plants and animals co-exist.
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fullscreen></iframe>
62
3.5 Animal Characteristics and Classification
• Draw an animal cell and label significant structures.

• Identify characteristics common to all animals.
• Describe the basic animal life cycle.
Lesson Objectives
• Classify animals into major groups (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, arthropods, vertebrates,
invertebrates, those having live births and those which lay eggs) according to their physical characteristics
and behaviors.
Lesson Vocabulary
• amphibian
• arthropod
• bird
• fish
• invertebrate
• mammal
• physical characteristics
• reptile
• vertebrate
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3.5. Animal Characteristics and Classification www.ck12.org
Is this an insect or an animal?
A snail is an animal just like you and me. That’s right, you too are an animal. No, you don’t look like a snail. You
do have some things in common. Animals can be divided into many groups. These groups are decided based on
their characteristics. All animals have some basic features in common. That does not mean they are the same. They
also have many differences.
For example, snails are mollusks and not insects. Mollusks have a unique set of features. Notice the large "foot" that
allows it to move. Yes, it only has one foot. Did you notice the long antennas on its head? This is where the snail’s
eyes are. They are on the end of the antenna. They are not on its head like most animals. The foot and eyes are
unique features. Scientists use these features to place animals into groups.
What is the Difference Between Plants and Animals?
Animals cannot make their own food. Animals get nutrients by eating other living things. Animals consume food.
Plants make their own food. This is one way to tell plants from animals.
Animal Structure and Function
Animals can look unique. They can also do unique things. Animals can sense the world around them. Most animals
have sensory organs. As an animal, you are able to hear. You can also smell, touch, and taste. Animals can also
move around. Movement allows animals to search for food. All of them are illustrated in Figure 3.17.
• Animals can sense the world around them. They can sense light and sound. Animals have a brain. The brain
interprets these senses. The brain tells the body what to do.
• All animals can move. An animal’s brain works with its muscles. The brain sends signals to the muscles. It
tells the muscles to move. Animals can look for food. Animals can avoid threats.
• Animals consume other living things. This is how they get their food.
Animal Life Cycles
Have you ever seen an egg? Some animals do not have live births. Instead, they lay eggs. The eggs contain the
embryo. The embryo matures in the egg. With time, it will hatch. Some animals hatch and do not need care from
their parents. They are ready to live on their own. Other animals will still need the care of their parents. Sea turtles
break out of their shells. They immediately walk to the ocean. They do this with no help from an adult. Birds stay
in the nest for many weeks. They are cared for by their parents. They leave the nest when they are strong enough to
fly.
Some animals give birth to live offspring. Animals like horses, cows, and whales give live birth. Their offspring are
born looking like mini adults.
What are some other differences animals may have?
Animals can be grouped in other ways. Some animals have external skeletons. An arthropod is an animal that has
a hard outer skeleton. Animals like spiders and insects have an external skeleton. Some animals do not even have a
skeleton. Jelly fish and worms do not have a skeleton.
Most animals do not have backbones. These animals are called invertebrates. Other animals do have backbones.
They are called vertebrates. You may know many of these animals.
64
FIGURE 3.17
Most animals share these characteristics:
sensory organs, movement, and internal
digestion.
Even animals with backbones have many differences. Can you think of some animals that have backbones? What
about some animals that do not have backbones? Table 3.2 shows some common types of animals. You will notice
that most animals do not have backbones.
TABLE 3.2: Major Phyla of the Animal Kingdom

Animals Examples Vertebrate or Invertebrate
sponges Invertebrate
jellyfish, corals Invertebrate
65

Animals Examples Vertebrate or Invertebrate
flatworms, tapeworms, flukes Invertebrate
roundworms Invertebrate
snails, clams, squids Invertebrate
earthworms, leeches, marine worms Invertebrate
insects, spiders, crustaceans, cen- Invertebrate

tipedes
sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, Invertebrate

sea cucumbers
fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, Vertebrates

mammals
66
Vertebrate Animals
Vertebrates are animals that have a backbone. They include fish, amphibians, birds, and mammals. Clearly, most
animal species do not have a backbone.
Vertebrate Classification
There are about 50,000 vertebrate species. They are placed in nine different classes. Five of the classes are fish .
The other classes are amphibians , reptiles , birds , and mammals. Table below lists some of their unique traits.
TABLE 3.3: Classes of Vertebrates

Class Traits Example
Hagfish They have a cranium but no back- hagfish figure*
bone.
They do not have jaws.
They have an internal skeleton
made of cartilage.
Lampreys They have a partial backbone. lamprey figure*

They do not have jaws.
made of cartilage.
Cartilaginous Fish They have a complete backbone. shark figure*

They have jaws.
made of cartilage.
Ray-Finned Fish They have a backbone and jaws. perch figure*

made of bones.
They have thin, bony fins.
Lobe-Finned Fish They have a backbone and jaws. coelacanth figure*

made of bones.
They have thick, fleshy fins.
67

Class Traits Example
Amphibians They have a bony internal skeleton frog figure*
with a backbone and jaws.
They have gills as larvae and lungs
as adults.
They have four limbs.
Reptiles They have a bony internal skeleton alligator figure*

They breathe only with lungs.
Their skin is covered with scales.
They lay eggs.
Birds They have a bony internal skeleton figure*

with a backbone but no jaws.
They have four limbs, with two
front limbs modified as wings.
Their skin is covered with feathers.
They lay eggs.
They are warm-blooded.
Mammals They have a bony internal skeleton bear figure*

Their skin is covered with hair or
fur.
They give live birth.
They have mammary (milk-
producing) glands.
They are warm-blooded.
Lesson Summary
• Animals do not make their own food.
• Animals can sense their surroundings. They have sensory organs. They have the ability to move. They also
have internal digestion.
• The 50,000 species of vertebrates can be placed into nine classes. Five of these classes are fish. The four
others include amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
1. Identify traits that characterize all animals.
68
2. Explain how animals are different from plants.

3. What are differences and similarities between, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals?
69
3.6 References
1. Sid Mosdell (Flickr:SidPix). The chrysalis (pupal stage) of a monarch butterfly . CC BY 2.0
2. FSC9394. Plants are firmly anchored by roots . CC-BY 2.0
3. VolodyA! V Anarhist. Phototropism is a plant’s response to light . public domain
4. Matt Turner. Leaves turn red and yellow in fall . CC-BY 2.0
5. Willow. This willow tree produces a compound that fights bacteria. . CC-BY 2.5
6. Lilies: Emmett Tullos; Cattails: Derek Jensen. Water lilies and cattails are adapted for aquatic living . Lilies:
CC BY 2.0; Cattails: Public Domain
7. Ken Bosma. Cactuses are adapted for arid environments . CC-BY 2.0
8. Miguel Vieira. Venus fly traps are carnivorous . CC BY 2.0
9. Christopher Auyeung and Hana Zavadska. CK12 Foundation .
10. Liz West. http://www.flickr.com/photos/calliope/54070473/ .
11. Top to bottom: Bryce McQuillan; Dr. James P. McVey, NOAA Sea Grant Program; Scott Oves. Animal chara
cteristics. . Top to bottom: CC BY 2.0; Public Domain; CC BY 2.0
70

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CK-12 Third Grade Science

Milton Huling, Ph.D.

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Printed: April 7, 2016

• Define force, and give examples of forces.

Force as a Vector (Advanced Topic)

Forces Acting in Opposite Directions

Forces Acting in the Same Direction

You Try It!

Lesson Review Questions

1. Define force. Give an example of a force.

6. Explain how forces are related to motion.

• How would you define friction?

• Describe friction and how it opposes motion.

Why Friction Occurs

Factors That Affect Friction

Friction Produces Heat

Lesson Review Questions

5. Explain why friction occurs.

How Can Gravity Be Overcome?

Lesson Review Questions

• Identify properties of magnets.

Magnetism and Materials

• A magnet is an object that attracts certain materials, such as iron.

Lesson Review Questions

1.5 Static Electricity

• Define electric charge and electric force. (Advanced Topic)

What Is Static Electricity?

Electric Charge and Electric Force

Static Electricity and Static Discharge

How Lightning Occurs

Lesson Review Questions

1. Define electric charge.

2.1 Weather Forecasting

• State how meteorologists predict the weather.

Predicting the Weather

• A thermometer measures temperature.

• A rain gauge measures the amount of rain.

have its own weather station.

• Weather is very complex. This makes it hard to predict.

Lesson Review Questions

2.2 World Climates

• Identify world climate zones and where they are found.

Climate Zones versus Climate Types

Tropical Climates Zones

Temperate Climates Zones

Polar Climate Zones

Lesson Review Questions

10. Compare and contrast two types of continental climates.

Earth’s overall climate is getting warmer.

• Why is Earth’s climate changing?

2.3 Fossils of Plants and Animals

• Explain what fossils are.

A petrified log in Petrified Forest National Park .

What Are Fossils?

How Fossils Form

Fossils in Sedimentary Rock

Other Ways Fossils Form

You can read about them in Figure 2.16.