Original Article
Landslides (2008) 5:19–30 P. Bertolo . G. Bottino
DOI 10.1007/s10346-007-0099-7
Received: 6 March 2007
Accepted: 29 August 2007 Debris-flow event in the Frangerello Stream-Susa Valley
Published online: 17 November 2007
© Springer-Verlag 2007 (Italy)—calibration of numerical models for the back
analysis of the 16 October, 2000 rainstorm
Abstract Three debris-flow simulation model software have been
applied to the back analysis of a typical alpine debris flow that
caused significant deposition on an urbanized alluvial fan. Param-
eters used in the models were at first retrieved from the literature
and then adjusted to fit field evidence. In the case where different
codes adopted the same parameters, the same input values were
used, and comparable outputs were obtained. Results of the con-
stitutive laws used (Bingham rheology, Voellmy fluid rheology
and a quadratic rheology formulation which adds collisional and
turbulent stresses to the Bingham law) indicate that no single
rheological model appears to be valid for all debris flows. The three
applied models appear to be capable of reasonable reproduction of
debris-flow events, although with different levels of detail. The
study shows how different software can be used to predict the
debris-flow motion for various purposes from a first screening, to
predict the runout distance and deposition of the solid material and
to the different behaviour of the mixtures of flows with variation of
maximum solid concentration.
Keywords Debris flows . Models . Rheology . Prediction
Introduction
The Frangerello Stream fan was studied as an example of parameter
calibration for numerical simulation and behaviour prediction of
debris flows. The study area of Frangerello Stream catchment is
located in the Piedmont Alpine (Coatian Alps) foothills and, in
particular, on the right orographic side of the central part of the
Susa Valley about 40 km west of Turin. It flows down within the
catchment area of the Dora Riparia River, a left-bank tributary of
the Po River.
Frangerello stream is a right-bank tributary of the Gravio Stream,
but they join together just below the fan apex to form a single fan
(Fig. 1). The municipality of Villar Focchiardo is located on the
Gravio-Frangerello fan.
Hydrological conditions
The climate of the study is southern Alpine, characterized by two
rainfall maxima, in spring and fall (Fig. 2). Winter is relatively dry,
but intense summer rain storms can affect the region. Mean annual
precipitation of the area is about 750 mm/year, based on the
analysis of the 1915–1986 Bussoleno rain gauge data.
Rainfall frequency averages 70 days/year, and the majority
of small flood events that occur in the valley can be explained
because of the intensity of rainfall rather than the total amount of
rain. Intense and continuous rainfall events are common during
September and October and originate when cold north-Atlantic
air masses descend towards the Mediterranean area and meet the
African warmer air.
Historical data and events
Examination of historical maps points out important variations
both in general morphology and in urban settlement of Villar
Focchiardo since the thirteenth century (Fig. 3). In the last 800 years,
the Gravio Stream main channel migrated westward and was
artificially channelized, thus abandoning old beds. Furthermore,
Villar Focchiardo urban settlement did not expand much until the
twentieth century, being confined in the upper portion of the fan.
Only in the last 50 years has housing expanded in the lower part
of the fan and near the fan apex. Aerial photographs of the fan
area for 1957, 1971 and 2000 were analysed to outline new settle-
ment areas, and Fig. 3 gives an idea of the rate of expansion.
The catchment area and the alluvial fan of the Gravio-Frangerello
Streams, like many other catchment areas in the Susa Valley, have
suffered multiple flood and debris-flow events during historic times.
Careful research in Villar Focchiardo municipality archives,
provincial archives and databases, in the Bussoleno and Villar
Focchiardo civic library and in the local parish archive, with some
interviews with the local population, leads to a database of 39
significant rainfall-related events starting from 1400 A.D. to 2000,
on 28 different dates (in some events, several streams caused
damages on the same date), as shown in Table 1. The severity level
of the event as determined in Table 1 takes into account the aerial
extension of the weather event (e.g. local or regional), the damages
(e.g. only one catchment involved or several streams) and victims.
In 41% of the events (16 episodes, 3 of these in the last century)
houses and human settlements were damaged, whereas in the
remaining events fields and local roads were damaged, usually with
bridges destroyed. In two events (1866 and 1891), people were
reported to be killed.
The analysis of the events shows that 90% of the processes with
associated damages are torrential flooding, 25% of which are
confirmed to be debris-flow phenomena, along minor branches or
side streams with fans. Other flood events were caused by the Dora
Riparia River that flowed in the bottom of the Susa Valley. In six
events all the streams together caused damages in the urban area.
With regard to the seasonality, 60% of the events occurred in
the spring (from April to June); in this the period of the year,
almost all the events involved more extended areas, and all of the
streams were reactivated at the same time. Many events took place
in May (30% of the total), followed by June (with 20% of the
events) and September (15%).
October 2000 event description
In October 2000, the heavy rainfalls (Fig. 4) triggered several
torrential floods and debris flows all along the Susa Valley, with
important reactivation on several alluvial fans formerly inactive for
a long time.
Landslides 5 • (2008) 19
 Original Article
Fig. 1 Sketch map of catchments in
Villar Focchiardo town

In 4 days, from the 13th to 16th of October, a total amount of
330 mm of rain, more than 40% of the mean annual precipitation,
fell at the Bussoleno rain gauge, with a maximum intensity of
18.8 mm/h at 11 A.M. on 14 October. A debris flow in the Frangerello
Stream caused considerable bank erosion, structural damage to
facilities and functional damage to roads and to several houses
located on the alluvial fan.
The debris flow of 15 October, 2000 in Frangerello Stream,
originated by a shallow landslide in the Quaternary deposits at
1,600 m a.s.l., on the right side of the stream. The landslide volume
was estimated at about 18,000 m3 after on-site measurements of the
scar area. Most of the landslide material immediately impacted the
water course and started to rush downstream, reaching the fan area
at about 7 in the morning.

Fig. 2 Median monthly rainfall at the

Bussoleno rain gauge

20 Landslides 5 • (2008)

Fig. 3 Historic evolution of urban development and Gravio streamcourse on Villar
Focchiardo alluvial fan
The channel bed suffered considerable widening, deepening
and bank erosion, chiefly between 900 and 1,500 m a.s.l., and
immediately above the fan apex. Walking upstream the fan apex
400 m along the channel (point C, Fig. 5), evidence of the debris
flow was found as high as 10 m above the channel bottom, where
the stream flows mainly in bedrock. In the channel, several sections
were obstructed by large boulders and many fallen trees, which
would have temporarily hindered the main stream flow, with
resulting small dam-break effects.
As noted by eyewitnesses, the event came in pulses and consisted
of an essentially fine-grained fluid mixture with suspended vegetal
debris following behind a coarser debris-flow front: this is typical of
a debris-flow behaviour, but it was not modelled in our analyses.
The debris-flow discharge exceeded the water-carrying capacity of
the channel on the left bank around 530 m a.s.l. (point A, Fig. 5),
corresponding to the fan apex, and downstream on the right bank
at 510 m a.s.l. (point B, Fig. 5), just upstream of a small bridge, which
is straight section, flooding meadows on the right side.
Two types of deposit that resulted from this event were
observed. At the fan apex and immediately upstream, the deposit
reached locally 3–4 m in thickness, with boulders of different sizes,
mainly large blocks of several cubic meters each. At a couple of
stream points, the flow eroded its deposits.
A secondary type of deposition is the fine-grained material that
overflowed the primary deposits described above, leaving the
channel and arresting on a meadow on the right side of the stream,
just before a block of houses. This fluid mass deposited over an
estimated area of 11,000 m2 (Fig. 5).
Field observations regarding the debris-flow event in the
Frangerello Stream (Fig. 5) were taken into consideration and
used as a basis for the back analysis, to calibrate the models
suitable for overflow process simulation on the fan.
The velocity of the flow in a curved sector (point D, Fig. 5) was
evaluated (Costa 1984), measuring the superelevation angle of
the flow surface between the inside and the outside of the bend
( δ≈9°) and the radius of curvature of the channel (r≈23 m). Using
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
the formula v ¼ ðr
tan δ
g Þ , the estimated velocity in that
point was v=6 m/s.
Table 2 summarizes the physical characteristics of the Gravio
and Frangerello Stream catchments, while Table 3 shows the elab-
oration for the Frangerello Stream maximum discharge for dif-
ferent time of occurrence: the water flow discharge evaluation was
obtained using the Bussoleno rain gauge data as the average
between results obtained using the kinematic method and the Soil
Conservation Service method.
Methods and results
DAMBRK model
A preliminary numerical model of the 16 October, 2000 debris-flow
event was carried out with the Boss DAMBRK software. This code
allows a numerical simulation to predict the formation and the
behaviour of a dam-break wave in moving downstream in a natural
riverbed. Alternatively, with a given hydrograph, the program
models the evolution of the resulting flood wave downstream the
inflow point, accounting of the flow resistances and the presence of
hydraulic infrastructures, determining the flow depth at different
times and lamination effects.
The flow regime can vary between subcritical and supercritical
and can vary in space and time. The program can route flows with
fluid properties (Newtonian fluids) or flows with significant solid
transport (non-Newtonian fluids, such as debris flows). Governing
equations are the 1-D Saint-Venant equations, coupled with specific
equations to take into account the flow through the dam breach
and other hydraulic infrastructures along the stream. There are
other equations for upstream and downstream boundary conditions.
The rheological parameters of dynamic viscosity and yield
strength enter into the definition of the term that is related in the
momentum equation to the energy loss due to the non-Newtonian
fluid. The DAMBRK code uses the empirical relationship of
Bingham to evaluate this term (Boss Corporation 1989). The resisting
force (τ) is a function of flow depth (y), velocity (v), constant yield
strength (τ0) and Bingham viscosity (μB)
@v
τ ¼ τ 0 þ μB :
@y
The few indications found in the literature about μB and τ0
values belong to a wide range; on account of this, an order of
magnitude of input parameters was selected as a result of literature
data and back analyses (Table 4) performed with the same software
Landslides 5 • (2008) 21
 Original Article
Table 1 Dataset of flooding events which involved Villar Focchiardo town
Date Weather event type Involved streams Effects/measures Severity
level
Around 1450 and in 1469 Not determined Gravio Overflow; severe damages to the village B
April 1473 Severe rainstorm and Gravio Debris flow; severe damages to fields and to the village A
cloudburst Fontane Debris flow; destruction of Chartreuse
1685 Not determined All streams overflow Severe damages to fields and houses B
1706 Severe rainstorms All streams overflow Severe damages to fields and houses; complete destruction A
of the old Parish Church
1725 Not determined Battibò Severe damages to fields and to local roads, probably as B
consequence of a debris flow
May, 1757 Rainstorms Gravio Fields damaged; partially removed the dyke built to protect C
the village
16 January, 1790 Rainstorms Gravio Threat of flooding B
Chiapinetto Debris flow; flooding of the settled area and fields on the
right and on the left bank
October, 1839 Rainstorms Gravio Large boulders reached the fan area; damages to fields B
May 1846 Not determined Battibò Flood; severe damages to properties: fields and houses B
25 September, 1866 Severe rainstorms Gravio Flood damages the settled area A
Chiapinetto Mass transport phenomenon: severe damages to the village,
dead (3?) and structural damages to buildings
Spring 1876 Severe rainstorms Gravio Mass transport phenomenon: levee destruction and damages B
to fields and to the village
Battibò Flood; severe damages to properties: fields and houses
1 June, 1891 Continuous rainfall and Battibò Debris flow: all the houses in Gerbola block destroyed; A
rainstorm several dead (5?) and missing
20 June, 1908 Flooding All streams overflow Several damages to local roads; gravel and mud deposits C
5 June, 1910 Flooding Dora Riparia River Flood; severe damages to private and public properties B
Spring 1911 Severe rainstorms Chiapinetto Mass transport phenomenon: damages to fields and to B
local roads
24–25 September, 1920 Continuous rainfall Gravio Bridges destroyed C
May, 1926 Continuous rainfall All streams overflow Several damages to local roads; gravel and mud deposits C
11 May, 1947 Continuous rainfall Gravio and Frangerello Torrential flood: roads, 4 bridges and levees destroyed; A
damages to fields
Chiapinetto 2 bridges removed and damages to levees
Battibò Torrent overflow with levees and roads destroyed
25 September, 1947 Continuous rainfall Gravio and Frangerello Aggravation of May 1947 flood damages, field flooded C
May, 1948 Rainstorms Gravio Severe damages to fields along the stream; a bridge destroyed C
May, 1949 Continuous rainfall Chiapinetto Overflow; destroyed 1 bridge and local roads; damages to B
private properties
Battibò Overflow; aggravation of May 1947 flood damages, levees
destroyed
Fall 1954 Rainstorm Gravio Levees and banks damaged by torrential flood C
3 November, 1956 – Gravio Several boulders fell into the stream C
13 June, 1957 Continuous rainfall Dora Riparia River Flood; functional damages to buildings along the river A
7 November, 1962 Continuous rainfall Gravio Torrential flood; damages to local roads C
Chiapinetto Torrential flood; floodwaters leaking settled areas
31 March, 1981 Flooding Chiapinetto Settlements and fields flooded B
Battibò Torrential flood; two bridges destroyed, local roads
damaged and fields flooded
15–16 October, 2000 Continuous and severe Chiapinetto and Bedload transport; fields flooded A
rainfall Battibò
Gravio and Frangerello Debris flow; 3 bridges removed and fields flooded by a
debris flow; severe bank erosion on fan apex
Dora Riparia River Flooded fields along the river course
Severity levels: A catastrophic, B severe, C moderate

for debris flows in the Kamikamihori Stream, in Japan, and in the flow discharge (m3/s), the overflow discharge at left and right banks
Moscardo Stream, Carnic Alps, Italy (Bertolo et al. 2005). (m3/s), the mean velocity (m/s) and the flow depth (m).
The back analysis applied values are listed in Table 5, and Figure 6 shows the modelled hydrographs for five different
output data at each cross-section for each time step are the debris- locations along the channel. Section 0 represents the debris-flow

22 Landslides 5 • (2008)
Fig. 4 Rainfall recorded at Bussoleno
rain gauge during the October, 2000
flooding event

starting point; section 3.3 (at about 3.3 km of longitudinal distance because of a bridge and where the side is 2 m high only, the fluid
from the initial point of the simulation) is just downstream the fan overflowed the right bank.
apex, and the simulation confirms what happened during the 16 The pattern of flow rates with time at different locations shows a
October, 2000 event when, in this section that is quite narrow certain attenuation of the peak discharge and a progressive

Fig. 5 Map of the flooded area of

the Frangerello Stream debris flow
and the Gravio Stream flooding
during the October, 2000 event

Landslides 5 • (2008) 23
 Original Article
Table 2 Relevant physical character- Relevant catchment parameters Gravio Stream Frangerello Stream
istics of the Gravio and Frangerello
Catchment area (S; km2 ) 17.9 3.6
streams
Maximum catchment elevation (Hmax; m a.s.l.) 2,801, Mt. Cristalliera 2,087, Mt. Salancia
Mean catchment elevation (Hm; m a.s.l.) 1,702 1,328
Fan apex elevation (H0; m a.s.l.) 500 500
Channel length (L; km) 9.63 4.21
Mean side slope (im; %) 62.2 54.2
Mean channel slope (ia; %) 16.3 30.2
Mean time of concentration (h) 1.29 0.51

Table 3 Maximum discharge for different recurrence intervals in Frangerello DAN model
Stream The analysis using the DAN model (Hungr 1995) was carried out
with a simplified profile and with different rheologies but main-
Frangerello Stream: maximum discharge Qmax (m3 /s)
taining constant the path and the volume of about 18,000 m3 of the
Interval of occurrence (years) C=0.7 C=0.8 C=0.9
initial sliding material. First of all, a back analysis using the same
T=20 24 28 31
data as in the DAMBRK Bingham rheology model was performed.
T=50 28 33 37
The input parameters using the same Bingham rheology (BIN1 in
T=100 32 36 41
Fig. 7) as in DAMBRK code are listed in Table 6.
T=200 35 40 45
T=500 39 44 50 A second trial changing Bingham parameters (BIN2 in Fig. 7) was
performed to simulate a more fluid flow, with higher water content
and mobility. The selected values are listed in Table 6. Several studies
(Ayotte and Hungr 2000; Köerner 1976; Rickenmann and Koch 1997)
suggest that the Voellmy rheology is more reliable for debris-flow
simulations. A couple of computations have been conducted using the
smoothing of the initial input hydrograph. This is the flood wave Voellmy rheology for the 16 October, 2000 debris flow in Frangerello
attenuation, and it can be seen especially along the channel in its Stream, starting from literature data.
terminal branch. The input values used for the Voellmy rheology (VOE2 in Fig. 7)
With regard to the velocities, the obtained values vary from 2.5 are listed in Table 6, and the variation of parameters along the flow
to 10 m/s: in detail, the maximum velocity simulated for section 3.3 path was intended to allow for the natural progressive increase of
(fan apex) is 7 m/s, and in the fan area, it decreases at 1.4 m/s, a water content in the flow, in particular 3,500 m downstream of the
velocity that allows the deposition of the major part of the coarse starting point, where there is tributary water inflow of the Gravio
solid material (e.g. Hjulstöm’s diagram). Stream.

Table 4 Boss DAMBRK literature data Event Date Unit weight flow Viscosity Yield strength
for input parameter calibration mixture γ (kN/m3 ) μB (kN∙s/m2 ) τ0 (kN/m2 )
Literature data (Boss DAMBRK-User’s manual 1989)
Jinshan debris reservoir, Anhui, China 1980 15.7 0.0021 0.038
Albertfan coal waste dump failure, Wales 1965 17.64 0.958 4.794
Rudd Creek landslide-induced mudflow, 1983 15.75 0.958 0.956
Davis County, Utah
Previous back analyses values (Bertolo et al. 2005)
Kamikamihori Stream, Japan Aug. 3, 1976 22 1 0.2
Kamikamihori Stream, Japan Aug. 17, 1978 22.5 1.1 0.2
Moscardo Stream, Italy Aug. 13, 1991 17.7 0.29 0.1
Moscardo Stream, Italy Sept. 30, 1991 18.5 0.6 0.18

Table 5 Parameter values used to perform the back analyses using Boss DAMBRK
Boss DAMBRK-back analysis values
Peak discharge Qmax [m3 /s] Unit weight flow mixture γ [kN/m3 ] Viscosity μB [kN∙s/m2 ] Yield strength τ0 [kN/m2 ] Volume concentration
24 2.2 1.5 0.4 0.8

24 Landslides 5 • (2008)
Fig. 6 Frangerello Stream: DAMBRK
modeled hydrograph for five cross
sections
Figure 7 shows the behaviour of the flow with the different
rheologies in terms of velocity. It can be clearly seen that Bingham
rheology highly overestimates the velocity in the upper portion of
the stream, with values up to 70 m/s. Velocity values obtained with
the Bingham rheology in the fan area gently slow down until the
velocity reaches a negligible value, when the flow is about to stop.
In particular, velocities drop quickly in the fan area. The fan apex is
located at a distance of 2,900 m from the starting point of the
debris flow, and here the simulated velocities are 8 m/s with the
first set of Bingham parameters, corresponding to the DAMBRK
model results, and 18 m/s with the second set of parameters, which
is a considerable difference.
Peak velocity values obtained with the Voellmy rheology are
smaller (20 to 30 m/s) compared to values obtained with Bingham
rheology, in the upper portion of the stream, where the slope is
steeper, although they are higher in the fan area.
In the cross section representing the fan apex, the simulated
velocities are 18 and 20 m/s, and they decrease regularly for the
next 400 m, from 8 to 2 m/s: after which, at about 3,850 m distant,
the flow stops.
The front height comparison (Fig. 8) shows that the flow depth
varies from 3 to 4.5 m in the stream channel compared to the flow
depth on the fan where it decreases to about 2 m. The front height
Fig. 7 Velocity values obtained with the DAN model along Frangerello Stream
at the fan apex cross section is about the same for the different
rheologies, and it is in good agreement with what actually happened
during the 16 October, 2000 flood event.
FLO-2D model
To simplify the model and to speed up the running time, the FLO-
2D back analysis was separated into two steps. The first part of the
model deals with the upper portion of the channel on the mountain
slope, where the stream is very steep and deeply carved so that it is
impossible to have overflow. The second part of the model is rel-
ative to the portion immediately upstream of the fan and through
the fan area. Due to lack of topographic data on the mountain flank,
compared with the riverbed, which is quite narrow (width varying
from 6 to 10 m), the upstream channel simulation was carried out
with a 50×50 m grid. On the fan, the channel is wider, and a greater
accuracy is needed; in this area, more topographic points are
available, and therefore, cells with a 30-m side were employed.
Manning coefficient n values, based on field observations, were
selected as 0.05 to 0.2 for the floodplains and 0.04 to 0.75 for the
channels.
The input hydrograph for the mountain reach of the stream,
which corresponds with the stretch between 1,600 and 800 m a.s.l.,
is shown in Fig. 9. The water discharge at the starting point of
the flow was evaluated with standard hydraulic formulations
(Kinematic and Soil Conservation Service methods), using data for
the 100-year return level. In the mountain reach simulation,
another cell with a constant inflow of 10 m3/s was assigned to
simulate the inflow from small tributaries that drain the catchment
area downstream from the debris-flow starting point.
For the lower reach of the Frangerello Stream, the outflow from
the upper stream portion increased by 10 m3/s of water to cover the
natural progressive increase of water content in the flow, leading to
the inflow hydrograph, resulting in Fig. 10.
At about 490 m a.s.l. the tributary water inflow from the Gravio
Stream, with a constant discharge of 80 m3/s, which is the 100-year
return level, was added to the flow.
The sediment hydrograph was calculated to represent the total
volume of about 18,000 m3 of the shallow landslide in the Qua-
Landslides 5 • (2008) 25
 Original Article
Table 6 Parameter values used to perform the back analyses using DAN
Unit weight solid Unit weight flow Viscosity Yield strength Friction Turbulence
material γ (kN/m3 ) mixture γ (kN/m3 ) μB (kN∙s/m2 ) τ0 (kN/m2 ) coefficient coefficient ξ (m/s2 )
DAN-back analysis values-Bingham rheology BIN1
Initial sliding volume, 18,000 m3 26 22 1.5 0.4
DAN-back analysis values-Bingham rheology BIN2
Initial sliding volume, 18,000 m3 26 22 0.9 0.24
DAN-back analysis values-Voellmy rheology VOE2-initial sliding material
Initial sliding volume, 18,000 m3 26 22 0.16 300
DAN-back analysis values-Voellmy rheology VOE2-along stream
Path sections from 800 to 3,500 m 26 20 0.14 400
Path sections from 3,500 to 4,800 m 26 20 0.10 1,000

ternary deposits at 1,600 m a.s.l. that fell into the stream on 16
October, 2000. The maximum sediment concentration by volume
at the beginning of the simulation was up to 75% (Fig. 9).
To define the rheological parameters in the debris flow, the pro-
gram requires the coefficient and the exponent of the relationships:
μ ¼ αeβCv τ y ¼ αeβCv
where Cv is the volume concentration. For the viscosity μ a co-
efficient α=0.72 and an exponent β=11 were used, and for the yield
stress τy, a value of the coefficient α=0.054 and exponent β=14.5
were applied, starting with literature values (FLO-2D Users Manual,
2003).
Figure 11 shows a velocity range of 3 to 8 m/s, with a minimum at
the fan apex cross section, where the flow starts to deposit. The
velocity increases after the Gravio Stream confluence because the
flow is more fluid due to higher water content.
Discussion
Velocity comparisons (Fig. 11) show that values obtained with the
DAN model using Voellmy rheology are very different from values
obtained with FLO-2D in the mountain reach of Frangerello Stream
whereas are quite similar in the stretch between 3,100 and 3,500 m
downstream from the starting point, in the Frangerello Stream fan
flatter areas, and becomes different again after the Gravio Stream
discharge increases the flow, a circumstance that cannot be modelled
with DAN.
The front height (Fig. 12), using FLO-2D, seems to be more
realistic than results obtained with the DAN model, although FLO-2D
seems to overestimate the flow depth in the first outflow section
(point A, Fig. 5), with a value of about 4 m.
Figure 13 shows the maximum overflow expansion simulated by
the FLO-2D code, and comparison with Fig. 5 emphasizes the good
agreement of the simulation with what actually happened in the
floodplain area during the 16 October, 2000 event. The FLO-2D
model allows analysis of the behaviour of the same discharge under
three different conditions: a pure water flow, a flow with 30% solid
material at the starting point and a flow with about 60% in volume
of solid discharge at the beginning of the debris flow, which is the
back analysis of the 16 October, 2000 event.
Figure 14 shows the maximum flow depth along the channel in
the lower reach of the Frangerello stream, for the three concentra-
tions: this demonstrates how the same discharge differs depending
on the quantity of solid material in the flow.
This latter analysis points out that the concentration of the
water-sediment mixture is an important parameter for accurate

Fig. 8 Comparison of front height

values obtained using the DAN model
for the Frangerello Stream

26 Landslides 5 • (2008)
Fig. 9 Inflow hydrograph in the upper
reach of the Frangerello Stream

Fig. 10 Inflow hydrograph for the

lower reach of the Frangerello Stream

Fig. 11 Comparison of velocity values

obtained with the Voellmy model
(using the DAN code) and using the
FLO-2D model

Landslides 5 • (2008) 27
 Original Article
Fig. 12 Comparison of flow depth
values obtained using the Voellmy
model (DAN code) and the FLO-2D
model

hazard zoning and design of effective countermeasures against
debris flows. Figure 15 shows the different areas flooded for the
different concentrations.
The same bulked discharge with 60% solid volume concentra-
tion floods a larger area (the red area, which is also beneath the
blue-green and the yellow area) than the same bulked discharge
with 30% solid volume (the yellow area, which is also beneath the
blue-green area).
Conclusions
The study has pointed out that different rheological models appear
to be necessary to evaluate different characteristics of the same
debris flow, but there is not a unique model to represent the full
complexity of the events which can be produced even for the same
channel.
The following conclusions were reached:
1. A first analysis of the debris-flow event in Frangerello Stream
was accomplished with the Boss DAMBRK software using the
Bingham rheology. In this simulation, good results were obtained
in terms of debris-flow front height. The parameters of yield
strength and Bingham viscosity found to be the best values to
represent the event were then used when applying the Bingham
rheology with the DAN model, obtaining comparable results.
2. The DAN model gave good results for the analysis of the debris-
flow event in the Frangerello Stream, using the Voellmy rhe-
ology and varying the parameters along the flow path to allow

Fig. 13 Debris flow on 16 October,

2000: maximum flow expansion simu-
lated with the FLO-2D model

28 Landslides 5 • (2008)
Fig. 14 Comparison of front velocities
for flows with different solid concen-
tration, modelled with FLO-2D

for the natural progressive increase of water content in the flow,

in particular where the tributary water inflow of the Gravio
Stream water joined the main channel. The decrease of solid
concentration in the flow results in a decrease of the friction
coefficient but with an increase of the turbulence coefficient.
Flow depth values are realistic and seem to confirm what
happened during the 16 October, 2000 event, but velocity values
appear to be too high in the mountain portion of the stream
and too low in the terminal fan reach.
3. The FLO-2D model was also applied to the debris-flow back
analysis. To get reliable results using this model, it is necessary
to have a high-resolution Digital Elevation Model. With FLO-
2D, a more accurate analysis can be performed, accounting for
the progressive increase of discharge due to the lateral inflow
from mountain sides and minor tributaries.
The model enables the hydraulics of a water-sediment flow
surge to be followed during and after the event. The most
significant hydraulic results yielded by the model are the
maximum height and velocity reached by the flow in each cell
throughout the entire simulation.
4. The numerical simulation carried out in the Frangerello Stream
for the same bulk discharge with different sediment concentra-
tions showed that the dynamic characteristics of a solid–liquid
mixture are different (higher concentration produces a flow
with higher depth but slower velocities) compared to a pure
water flow.
5. Flood mitigation and design of infrastructures along channels
should take into consideration the different rheological behav-
iours of hyperconcentrated sediment flows, such as floods,
mudflows and debris flows.
6. The calibration of all of these models is not advanced enough to
allow one to rely on pre-determined input parameters from the
literature. That is why local calibration, using back-analysis of
debris flow that happened in the vicinity of the project area, is
Fig. 15 Flooded areas for flows of the same discharge with different solid necessary to obtain reliable predictions of intensity parameters
concentrations, modelled with FLO-2D such as flow velocity and depth for future debris-flow events.

Landslides 5 • (2008) 29
 Original Article
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30 Landslides 5 • (2008)