BIOFUEL AND GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY

Course Code: BTE2509 Credit Units: 03

Module I: Biomass Sources, Characteristics & Preparation:

 Biomass Sources and Classification-Chemical composition and properties of different biomass materials
 Bio-fuels – Sugar cane molasses for fermentation of ethanol;
 Sources and processing of oils and fats for liquid fuels
 Energy plantations - Preparation of woody biomass
 Drying, Storage and Handling of Biomass.

Module II: Biogas Technology-

 Biodegradable organic matter
 Feedstock for biogas production,
 Operating parameters for biogas production,
 Dry and wet fermentation

Module III: Bio-Ethanol and Bio-Diesel Technology-

 Production of Fuel Ethanol by Fermentation of Sugars.
 Trans-esterification of Oils to Produce Bio-Diesel.

Module IV: Pyrolysis and Gasification of Biomass-

 Thermo-chemical conversion of Ligno-cellulose biomass - Pyrolysis of biomass,
 Thermo-chemical gasification principles

Module V: Combustion of Biomass and Cogeneration Systems-

 Combustion of Woody Biomass,
 Cogeneration in Biomass Processing Industries.
 Use of biogases for cogeneration.

Examination Scheme:
Components CT Attendance Assignment/ EE
Project/Seminar/Quiz
Weightage (%) 15 5 10 70
Text & References:
 Biotechnology and Alternative Technologies for Utilization of Biomass or Agricultural Wastes, A. Chakravarthy, Oxford &
IBH publishing Co., New Delhi, 1989.
 Biogas Systems: Principles and Applications, K.M. Mital, New Age International Publishers (p) Ltd., 1996.
 Biomass Energy Systems, P. Venkata Ramana and S.N. Srinivas, Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi, 1996.
 Fuels from Biomass and Wastes, D.L. Klass and G.M. Emert, Ann Arbor Science publ. Inc. Michigan, 1985.
 Bio-gas Technology, Khandelwal K.C. and Mahdi, Tata McGraw-Hill pub. Co. Ltd., New Delhi
 Advances in bio-gas Technology, O.P. Chawla, I.C.A.R., New Delhi. 1970.
 2 Biogas Technology

Biodegradable Organic Matter

Biodegradable material consists of organics that can be utilized for food by naturally occurring microorganisms within
a reasonable length of time. In dissolved form, these materials usually consist of starches, fats, proteins, alcohols,
acids, aldehydes and esters. They may be end product of the initial microbial decomposition of plant or animal tissue
or they may result from domestic or industrial waste water discharges.
The impacts of biodegradable organics are:
 Some of these materials can cause colour, taste and odour problems.
 Principal problem associated with biodegradable organics is a secondary effect resulting from the action of
microorganisms on these substances. The oxygen demanding nature of biodegradable organics is of utmost
importance in natural water systems.

When oxygen utilization occurs more rapidly than oxygen can be replenished by transfer from the atmosphere,
anaerobic conditions that severely affect the ecology of the system will result. The amount of oxygen consumed
during microbial utilization of organics is called the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). The demand for oxygen is
directly proportional to the amount of organic waste materials that are to be broken down. When oxygen demand
exceeds the available oxygen, the Dissolved Oxygen (DO) level falls and the aquatic system is said to be polluted.

Feedstock for Biogas Production

A great variety of organic material can be used in anaerobic digesters as a feedstock for generating biogas. However,
there are scientific, engineering and legal limits to what can be added successfully to a digester. In addition, the
feedstock needs to be a liquid mixture with an appropriate moisture content. For example, mesophilic complete mix
tank digesters (the type most commonly used today) typically operate best with a mixture of 4 to 8% solids in water.
Digesters require various moisture contents, depending on the design and operation of the system.

Most easily biodegradable biomass materials are acceptable as feedstocks for anaerobic digestion. Common
feedstocks include livestock manure, food-processing waste, and sewage sludge. The energy production potential
of feedstocks varies depending on the type, level of processing/pretreatment and concentration of biodegradable
material. Listed below are feedstocks that can be commonly used in anaerobic digesters:
Agricultural Feedstock Community-Based Feedstock Industrial Feedstock
 Animal manure  Organic fraction of MSW  Food/beverage processing
 Energy crops (OFMSW)  Dairy
 Algal biomass  MSW  Starch industry
 Crop residues  Sewage sludge  Sugar industry
 Grass clippings/garden  Pharmaceutical industry
waste  Cosmetic industry
 Food remains  Biochemical industry
 Institutional wastes etc.  Pulp and paper
 Slaughterhouse/rendering
plant etc.
Livestock manures are generally lower-energy feedstocks because they are predigested in the gastrointestinal tracts
of the animals. Manure, however, is an easy choice for anaerobic digestion because it generally has a neutral pH
and a high buffering capacity (the ability to resist changes in pH); contains a naturally occurring mix of microbes
responsible for anaerobic degradation; provides an array of nutrients, micronutrients, and trace metals; is available
in large quantities; and can be transferred by pump.

Animal wastes containing bedding such as chicken litter with substantial quantities of wood chips or sawdust can be
used successfully in anaerobic digestion. The woody material, which degrades very slowly because of its lignin
structure, is essentially passed through without digestion, and retention times are based on digestion of the manure.
Blending of energy-dense feedstocks with livestock manure is a common practice to maximize biogas production by
optimizing nutrient levels and providing buffering capacity. The use of manure as a base for anaerobic digestion is
important because many of the energy-dense feedstocks, such as food-processing waste and ethanol stillage, are
acidic, contain little if any naturally occurring microbes, and oftentimes lack the nutrients (nitrogen, trace elements,
vitamins, etc.) necessary for anaerobic digestion. Potentially, farms operating anaerobic digestion systems could
take on additional wastes and benefit from increased gas production as well as tipping fees.

Materials to Be Excluded from Anaerobic Digesters

Materials that should be excluded as feedstock from anaerobic digesters include those containing compounds known
to be toxic to anaerobic bacteria, poorly degradable material, and biomass containing significant concentrations of
inorganic material. Poorly biodegradable materials require higher retention times, meaning they must spend more
time in the anaerobic digester to be broken down and converted into biogas. Inorganic materials, on the other hand,
contain no carbon and cannot be converted into biogas. Materials such as sand bedding do not contribute to the
biogas potential and may cause operational problems such as pipe clogging, premature equipment wear and volume
reduction due to sludge accumulation. Also, the feedstock containing too much ammonium or sulfur should be
avoided, because ammonium and sulfur inhibit anaerobic organisms.

Evaluating Feedstock Biogas Potential

The biogas potential of different feedstock materials or feedstock combinations is often difficult to predict due to
differences in the source, processing, volatile solids concentration, chemical oxygen demand, moisture content,
and/or inclusion of toxic compounds. The total biogas potential assay, also known as the biochemical methane
potential (BMP) assay, provides an efficient and economic method for estimating biomass conversion and biogas
yield of feedstocks or feedstock blends. BMP assays are a multifaceted approach to evaluating the potential to
produce biogas. BMPs are a practical, lab-based approach to identifying and evaluating potential feedstocks for
anaerobic digestion. Potential anaerobic digestion feedstocks are commonly evaluated by three criteria.
1. Feedstock characterization: Both before and after BMP assay, includes pH, chemical oxygen demand
(COD), total solids (TS), and volatile solids (VS). Characterization results found prior to the experiment are
used to determine the quantity of feedstock needed to maintain the BMP assay for as much as 30 days.
Characterization results following the completion of the BMP assay are used to evaluate the anaerobic
digestion process in terms of the destruction of the organic material.
2. Total biogas production: Is measured throughout the BMP either through manual means or continuously
by commercial software designed for tracking gas production. Biogas can be scrubbed of the carbon dioxide
by running it through a potassium/sodium hydroxide solution to monitor only methane production or can be
left unscrubbed to monitor the total biogas production.
3. Biogas analysis: Biogas composition can be investigated by means of a gas chromatograph during the
BMP assay. Though the capital investment is large, gas chromatographs provide accurate measurements
of the constituents of the biogas produced during the BMP. Gas chromatographs can be set up to determine
the concentrations of methane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen sulfide gases.
The BMP assay is a combination of a single feedstock or feedstock blend, inoculum, and stock solutions in a batch
system. Inoculum is used to seed the feedstock with an active anaerobic culture to initiate activity and reduce any
lag time required for establishment of a culture. Stock solutions are added to assure that macronutrients,
micronutrients, and vitamin deficiencies do not limit biogas production. BMP evaluations should always be completed
in replication and results should be verified at pilot or full-scale, and it is strongly recommended that full-scale designs
not be based on BMP results because full-scale digesters are often run at continuous mode while BMP tests are
batch mode.

Operating Parameters for Biogas Production

The metabolic activity involved in microbiological methanation is dependent on the following factors:
 Substrate temperature
 Available nutrients
 Retention time (flow-through time)
 pH level
  Nitrogen inhibition and C/N ratio
 Substrate solid content and agitation
 Inhibitory factors
 H2S Concentration

Each of the various types of bacteria responsible for the three stages of the methanogenesis is affected differently
by the above parameters. Since interactive effects between the various determining factors exist, no precise
quantitative data on gas production as a function of the above factors are available. Thus, discussion of the various
factors is limited to their qualitative effects on the process of fermentation.

1. Substrate Temperature
a. Temperature Range of Anaerobic Fermentation
Anaerobic fermentation is in principle possible between 3°C and approximately 70°C. Differentiation is
generally made between three temperature ranges:
 The psychrophilic temperature range lies below 20°C,
 The mesophilic temperature range between 20°C and 40°C and
 The thermophilic temperature range above 40°C.
b. Minimal Average Temperature
The rate of bacteriological methane production increases with temperature. Since, however, the amount of
free ammonia also increases with temperature, the bio-digestive performance could be inhibited or even
reduced as a result. In general, unheated biogas plants perform satisfactory only where mean annual
temperatures are around 20°C or above or where the average daily temperature is at least 18°C. Within
the range of 20-28°C mean temperature, gas production increases over-proportionally. If the temperature
of the bio-mass is below 15°C, gas production will be so low that the biogas plant is no longer
economically feasible.
c. Changes in Temperature
The process of bio-methanation is very sensitive to changes in temperature. The degree of sensitivity, in
turn, is dependent on the temperature range. Brief fluctuations not exceeding the following limits may be
regarded as still un-inhibitory with respect to the process of fermentation:
 Psychrophilic range: ± 2°C/h
 Mesophilic range: ± 1°C/h
 Thermophilic range: ± 0,5°C/h

The temperature fluctuations between day and night are no great problem for plants built underground, since
the temperature of the earth below a depth of one meter is practically constant.

2. Available Nutrient
In order to grow, bacteria need more than just a supply of organic substances as a source of carbon and
energy. They also require certain mineral nutrients. In addition to carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, the
generation of bio-mass requires an adequate supply of nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorous, potassium, calcium,
magnesium and a number of trace elements such as iron, manganese, molybdenum, zinc, cobalt, selenium,
tungsten, nickel etc. "Normal" substrates such as agricultural residues or municipal sewage usually contain
adequate amounts of the mentioned elements. Higher concentration of any individual substance usually has
an inhibitory effect, so that analyses are recommended on a case-to-case basis to determine which amount of
which nutrients, if any, still needs to be added.

3. Retention Time
a. Batch-type and Continuous Plants
The retention time can only be accurately defined in batch-type facilities. For continuous systems, the
mean retention time is approximated by dividing the digester volume by the daily influent rate. Depending
on the vessel geometry, the means of mixing, etc., the effective retention time may vary widely for the
individual substrate constituents. Selection of a suitable retention time thus depends not only on the
process temperature, but also on the type of substrate used.
 b. Cost Efficiency
Optimizing the process parameters retention time - process temperature - substrate quality - volumetric
load determine, among others, the cost efficiency of the biological processes. But as each m 3 digester
volume has its price, heating equipment can be costly and high quality substrates may have alternative
uses, the cost-benefit optimum in biogas production is almost always below the biological optimum.
c. Substrate
For liquid manure undergoing fermentation in the mesophilic temperature range, the following approximate
values apply:
 Liquid cow manure: 20-30 days
 Liquid pig manure: 15-25 days
 Liquid chicken manure: 20-40 days
 Animal manure mixed with plant material: 50-80 days
If the retention time is too short, the bacteria in the digester are "washed out" faster than they can
reproduce, so that the fermentation practically comes to a standstill. This problem rarely occurs in
agricultural biogas systems.

4. pH Value
The methane-producing bacteria live best under neutral to slightly alkaline conditions. Once the process of
fermentation has stabilized under anaerobic conditions, the pH will normally take on a value of between 7
and 8.5. Due to the buffer effect of carbon dioxide-bicarbonate (CO2 - HCO3-) and ammonia-ammonium
(NH3 - NH4+), the pH level is rarely taken as a measure of substrate acids and/or potential biogas yield. A
digester containing a high volatile-acid concentration requires a somewhat higher-than-normal pH value. If
the pH value drops below 6.2, the medium will have a toxic effect on the methanogenic bacteria.

5. Nitrogen Inhibition and C/N Ratio

a. Nitrogen Inhibition
All substrates contain nitrogen. For higher pH values, even a relatively low nitrogen concentration may inhibit
the process of fermentation. Noticeable inhibition occurs at a nitrogen concentration of roughly 1700 mg
ammonium-nitrogen (NH4-N) per liter substrate. Nonetheless, given enough time, the methanogens are
capable of adapting to NH4-N concentrations in the range of 5000-7000 mg/l substrate, the main prerequisite
being that the ammonia level (NH3) does not exceed 200-300 mg NH3-N per liter substrate. The rate of
ammonia dissociation in water depends on the process temperature and ph value of the substrate slurry.

b. C/N Ratio
Microorganisms need both nitrogen and carbon for assimilation into their cell structures. Various experiments
have shown that the metabolic activity of methanogenic bacteria can be optimized at a C/N ratio of
approximately 8-20, whereby the optimum point varies from case to case, depending on the nature of the
substrate.

6. Substrate Solids Content and Agitation

a. Substrate Solids Content
The mobility of the methanogens within the substrate is gradually impaired by an increasing solids
content, and the biogas yield may suffer as a result. However, reports of relatively high biogas yields from
landfill material with a high solids content may be found in recent literature. No generally valid guidelines
can be offered with regard to specific biogas production for any particular solids percentage.

b. Agitation
Many substrates and various modes of fermentation require some sort of substrate agitation or mixing in
order to maintain process stability within the digester. The most important objectives of agitation are:
 Removal of the metabolites produced by the methanogens (gas)
 Mixing of fresh substrate and bacterial population (inoculation)
 Preclusion of scum formation and sedimentation
  Avoidance of pronounced temperature gradients within the digester
 Provision of a uniform bacterial population density
 Prevention of the formation of dead spaces that would reduce the effective digester volume.
In selecting or designing a suitable means of agitation, the following points should be considered:
1. The process involves a symbiotic relationship between various strains of bacteria, i.e. the metabolite
from one species can serve as nutrient for the next species, etc. Whenever the bacterial community
is disrupted, the process of fermentation will remain more or less unproductive until an equivalent new
community is formed. Consequently, excessive or too frequent mixing is usually detrimental to the
process. Slow stirring is better than rapid agitation.
2. A thin layer of scum must not necessarily have an adverse effect on the process. For systems in which
the digester is completely filled with substrate, so that any scum always remains sufficiently wet, there
is little or no danger that the extraction of gas could be impeded by the scum.
3. Some types of biogas systems can function well without any mechanical agitation at all. Such systems
are usually operated either on substrates with such a high solid content, that no stratification occurs,
or on substrates consisting primarily of solute substances.
Since the results of agitation and mixing are highly dependent on the substrate in use, it is not possible to
achieve a sufficiently uniform comparative evaluation of various mixing systems and/or intensity levels.
Thus, each such system can only be designed on the basis of empirical data.

7. Inhibitory Factors
The presence of heavy metals, antibiotics (Bacitracin, Flavomycin, Lasalocid, Monensin, Spiramycin, etc.)
and detergents used in livestock husbandry can have an inhibitory effect on the process of bio-methanation.
The following table lists the limit concentrations (mg/l) for various inhibitors.

Substance [mg/l]
Copper: 10-250
Calcium: 8000
Sodium: 8000
Magnesium: 3000
Nickel: 100-1000
Zinc: 350-1000
Chromium: 200-2000
Sulfide (as Sulfur): 200
Cyanide: 2
8. H2S Concentration
Hydrogen Sulphide results from the transformation of Sulphur containing proteins in the plant or animal
residues. For the cases where the biogas plants use a Combined Heat and Power Engine (CHP) for producing
heat and electricity, H2S can combine with water to form Sulphuric Acid and can hence damage the engine.
Further, high concentrations of H2S can poison the cell activity thereby reducing the methanation process.
Therefore a low concentration (<500 ppm) of the gas is desirable. Following are the measures that can be
taken to reduce the concentration of H2S in the biogas being sent to the CHP Engine:

1. Adding little O2 to facilitate breaking down of H2S by the small amount of aerobic bacteria residing in the upper
crust of digestate mixture.
2. Adding Iron salts (hydroxides and chlorides) to the silage. The iron salt-rich silage needs to be fed in the
fermenter on a daily basis so as to enhance the H2S minimizing effect. Chlorides are corrosive and cause
problems in the mixing tank. Therefore their use should be limited.
3. Passing the gas through a scrubber that strips the gas of H 2S and brings down the H2S level to almost zero
ppm. However, this method may involve high initial investment cost for buying scrubber.
Dry Fermentation vs Wet Fermentation
Wet fermentation
Water content in the substrate > 85%
 System requires mechanical parts to circulate
biomass in liquid holding tank, leading to increased
maintenance and repair costs
 Liquid mixture causes premature removal of input
before all organic matter has been digested,
resulting in a loss of energy
 System requires additional liquid to allow
fermentation, greatly increasing the amount of
system waste water and costly post-process
treatments
 Inputs require pre-treatment to prevent breakdown
of mechanical parts as input is agitated and moved
through system
 Input limited to “wet” waste streams
 Typical systems consume 10-30% of the energy
generated for plant operation, and treatment of
waste water requires additional energy
 Waste water volume increased up to 70%, requiring
high energy input for treatment and increasing risk
of groundwater contamination
Advantages:
 Considerably wider spectrum of substrates
applicable – many multistage plants work after this
process
 Better suitable for stronger water -containing, pasty
substrates
 Easier mixing by mechanical agitators or
compressed gas
 Easier adjustment of the solid – liquid ratio
 More easily controllable pH value, DM -
concentration, NH3 - content, and content of volatile
fatty acids
 Substrate easier to transport and therefore more
hygienic
 Better exchange of material and heat
 Less salt enrichment in the residue because salts
remain dissolved in the water
 Safe gas liberation out of the substrate
Disadvantages
 High process energy consumption: 30 – 45% of the
produced energy
 Demixing, e.g., formation of a scum (retention of gas
in the substrate or sediment layer (difficult
discharge)).
 Foaming can be problematical
 Odor can be problematical
Dry fermentation
Water content in the substrate < 85%
 Organic input remains stationary throughout
process, eliminating moving parts and resulting in
low system maintenance and repair costs
 Batch process and stationary system allow precise
control over input removal ensuring maximum
energy yield
 Closed loop liquid cycle — no additional liquid
required following start-up, eliminating post-process
waste water treatment needs
 No pre-treatment or sorting of inputs required prior
to system loading, saving time and money for
system operators
 Almost no limitations to inputs—over 3,000 inputs
have been identified and researched
 System has low energy consumption, using only 5%
of the energy generated for plant operation
 Organic input volume reduced by minimum of 40%,
a significant additional cost benefit, and waste water
is eliminated, removing risk of groundwater
contamination
Advantages:
 Compact construction of the complete plant
 Low maintenance: robust technique with only a few
rotating parts – low wear, but modern automatic
control technique required
 Better suitable for structural substrates (green)
 Low process energy consumption (below 15% of the
produced energy)
 No foaming
 Odor avoidable
 Less disturbing material
 Sometimes higher gas yield and gas quality (abt.
80% methane content, abt. 20 ppm H2S), so
desulfurization may not be necessary
Disadvantages:
 Additional costs for biomass conveyors
 Energy - consuming, pretreatment necessary.
 Mixing often difficult
 Sludge recycling as inoculum necessary
 Occasionally enrichment of inhibitors; e.g. NH3 or
volatile short - chain organic fatty acids
 Supply of nutrients and removal of gases (CO2 / CH4
) can be problematical
 Manual selection of disturbing material
questionable from point of view of hygiene –
special devices to maintain hygiene may be
required
DRY AND WET ANAEROBIC DIGESTION SYSTEMS
In wet digestion processes, the solid waste has to be conditioned to the appropriate solids concentration by adding process water
either by recirculation of the liquid effluent fraction, or by co-digestion with a more liquid waste. The latter is an attractive method
to combine several waste streams like sewage sludge or manure and OFMSW. Reactors used in wet digestion processes
generally are referred to as continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR), with application of mechanical mixers or a combination of
mechanical mixing and biogas injection. The application of a wet digestion process offers several advantages such as dilution of
inhibitory substances by process water and requirement of less sophisticated mechanical equipments. However, disadvantages,
such as complicated pretreatment, high consumption of water and energy for heating and the reduction of working volume due
to sedimentation of inert materials have to be taken into account.
The reactors used in dry anaerobic digestion processes generally do not apply mechanical mixers and may use biogas injection
to perform mixing of the digester content. However, using this technique, complete mixing of the digestate is almost impossible;
thus, the ideal contact of microorganisms and substrate cannot be guaranteed. As a consequence, individual processes may run
in different parts of the reactor, which limits an optimal co-operation of the microbial groups involved in the digestion process.
Thus, the digesters used in dry anaerobic digestion can be considered as plug flow reactors. Dry anaerobic digestion offers less
complicated pretreatments and higher loading rate (10 kg VS.m -3.d-1 or more). However, the systems require more sophisticated
mechanical equipments and less possibility to dilute the inhibitory substances.
In general, both anaerobic digestion processes can be considered a proven technology for the treatment of organic solid waste.
Luning (2003) reported that biogas production figures of the wet digestion process and the dry digestion process were identical.
The wet process produced more wastewater; however, this was compensated by a smaller amount of digestate to be disposed
of and the separation of inert materials suitable for recycling. De Baere and Mattheews (2008) reported that although the
applications of both systems have continued to increase in total capacity, dry digestion systems have been dominant since the
beginning of the 1990’s. An increase of wet systems was observed between 2000 and 2005 as a number of full-scale wet plants
were operated, while more dry fermentation plants were being installed since 2005. In 2008, dry anaerobic digestion provided
almost 54% of the capacity while the rest applied wet anaerobic digestion.

Several patented processes have been successfully proven their reliable performance in full scale plants.

BIOCEL
The system is based on a batch-wise dry anaerobic digestion. The total solids concentration of organic solid wastes as feeding
substrate is maintained at 30–40% dry matter (w/w). The process is accomplished in several rectangular concrete digesters at
mesophilic temperature. The floors of the digesters are perforated and equipped with a chamber below for leachate collection.
Prior to feeding, fresh bio-waste substrate and inocula (digestate from previous feeding) are mixed then loaded to the digester by
shovels. After the loading is finished, the digesters are closed with air tight doors. In order to control the odor emission; the system
is housed in a closed building that is kept at a slight under pressure. The temperature is controlled at 35–40ºC by spraying
leachate, which is preheated by a heat exchanger, from nozzles on top of the digesters. Typical retention time in this process is
reported to be 15 – 21 days. A full-scale BIOCEL plant is reported to have successfully treated vegetable, garden and fruit wastes
with the capacity of 35,000 tons/year. Approximately 310 kg of high-quality compost, 455 kg of water, 100 kg of sand, 90 kg of
biogas with an average methane content of 58% and 45 kg of inert waste are produced from each ton of waste processed.

DRANCO
The DRANCO (dry anaerobic composting) process employs a one stage anaerobic digestion system, which is followed by a short
aerobic maturation phase. Although mostly operated under thermophilic temperature (reportedly to be 50-55 °C), mesophilic
operation (35-40 °C) can also be applied for specific waste streams. The DRANCO process is typically a vertical plug flow reactor.
The digester is fed from the top of the reactor and the digested slurry is removed from the bottom at the same time. Usually one
part of the digested slurry is used as inoculum and mixed with six to eight part of fresh substrate. A small amount of steam is
introduced to the mixture in order to maintain the temperature. The preheated mixture is then pumped to the top of the reactor
through feeding tubes. There are no mixing devices needed in the reactor other than the natural downward movement of the
waste caused by fresh feeding and digestate withdrawal. The rest of the digested slurry is dewatered and the solid residue from
the process is then stabilized and sanitized aerobically during a period of approximately two weeks. The DRANCO process is
considered to be effective for treatment of solid wastes with 20-50 % TS. The typical retention time is 15 to 30 days, and the
biogas yield ranges between 100 and 200 m3/ton of input waste.

VALGORA
The Valorga system is a one stage dry anaerobic digestion process which uses a vertical cylindrical reactor which can be operated
at both, mesophilic and thermophilic temperature. In order to obtain a horizontal plug flow process, the digester is equipped with
a vertical median partition wall on approximately 2/3 of their diameter. The bio-waste substrate is fed through a port placed on
one side of the partition wall and the digestate withdrawal port is placed on the other side. The vertical mixing is performed by
internally recirculated high-pressure biogas injection every 15 minutes. The pretreatments prior to feeding include: dry ballistic
separation to remove the heavy fraction and other contaminants, crushing of bio-waste to obtain particle size < 80 mm, adjustment
of solids content to 25 -32 % by mixing with process water, and preheating by steam injection. The retention time of this system
is typically 18 – 25 days at mesophilic temperatures with a biogas yield of 80 to 160 m3.ton-1 of feedstock, depending on the type
of solid waste. One technical drawback of the system design is that gas injection ports are easily clogged when treating relative
wet (< 20 % TS) feed stock. Edelmann and Engeli (2005) reported that the operation of a thermophilic Valorga digester in
Switzerland was stopped for a relatively long time because of large quantities of sediments (sand, gravel) in the base of the
digester, hampering the function of the mixing equipment and reducing the active volume of the digester significantly.

KOMPOGAS.
The KOMPOGAS system is a one stage dry anaerobic digestion process. The fermentation process takes place in a horizontal
plug flow reactor at thermophilic temperature (typically 55-60 °C). The reactor is equipped by slowly rotating and intermittently
acting impellers to ensure mixing and help the resuspension of heavier materials. Prior to feeding, the solid waste is mechanical
pretreated in order to remove the impurities and reduce the size of the substrate. A total solids content adjustment by addition of
process water is done to have a TS concentration to around 23 to 28 %. If the TS values are lower than this range, heavy particles
such as sand and glass tend to sink and accumulate inside the reactor while higher values can cause excessive resistance to
the flow. The retention time of the system ranged from 15 – 20 days. Due to mechanical constraints, the volume of the
KOMPOGAS reactor is limited. If the solid waste generation is relatively high, the capacity of the plant can be facilitated by
installing several reactors in parallel, each with a capacity of either 15,000 or 25,000 tons/year. The KOMPOGAS system is
reported to run very stable, however, it has to be stressed that it is important to feed an appropriate mixture of wastes. A
KOMPOGAS plant which was run exclusively with protein rich food wastes first experienced an inhibition due to high ammonia
concentrations. Nishio and Nakashimada (2007) reported that three types of waste (i.e. Garbage and rejects from hotels, yard
waste, and old paper) were mixed at various ratios to control the C/N ratio before feeding to the KOMPOGAS plant. The plant ran
at stable operation for at least two years and generated biogas at a rate of about 820 m3/ton of VS.

WAASA
The Waasa process is a wet, one stage anaerobic digestion system and is operated at both, mesophilic and thermophilic
temperatures. This completely mixed process is maintained in a vertical reactor which is subdivided internally to create a pre-
digestion chamber by which the possibility of short-circuiting should be prevented. A relatively complex pretreatment including
mechanical sorting and waste washing has to be done prior to feeding. The sorting facility produces byproducts such as relatively
high calorie RDF (Refuse Derived Fuel) stream, ferrous/nonferrous metal fractions, paper and plastic fraction. The washing
process comprises a wet separation process that removes coarse inert materials and sand from the organic fraction. Process
water is added to fresh substrate to the desired concentration of total solids (10-15% TS). The slurry is mixed with small amount
of inocula, preheated with steam injection and pumped to the pre-chamber which is operated in a plug flow mode with retention
times of one or two days before digestion in the main reactor. The mixing in the digester is performed by mechanical impellers
and injection of a portion of the biogas into the bottom of the digester tank. Nichols (2004) reported a full-scale Waasa process
plant which was run at both temperatures parallely. The thermophilic process required a retention time of 10 days compared to
20 days in the mesophilic process. A modified Waasa process (Vagron) treating the mechanically separated organic fraction of
municipal solid waste in Groningen, the Netherlands was reported to reach a stable operation at an OLR of 7.7 kg VS .m -3 .d-1.
The biogas production was reported within the range of 100-150 m3/ton of feedstock with 20-30% internal biogas consumption
for the preheating of the feeding substrate. The volume reduction reached approximately 60%, and the weight reduction was
about 50-60%.

BTA.
The BTA process consists of two major steps: the hydro mechanical pretreatment and the anaerobic digestion processes. During
the hydro mechanical pretreatment the solids are diluted in hydropulpers with recirculated process water in order to obtain a
maximum solids content of 10%. The light impurities like plastics, foils, textiles, wood, as well as heavy impurities like stone,
batteries, and metals are removed by means of a rake and a heavy fraction trap. This process results in a thick, pumpable
suspension that is fed to the digester. The grit removal system can be optionally added in order to separate the remaining finest
matter like sand, little stones and glass splinters. Although commonly applied as single stage system, BTA also offers a multistage
system depending on the size of the plant. Single stage systems are mainly for relatively small, decentralized waste management
units whereas multi-stages systems are mainly for plants with capacities of more than 50,000 tons/year. The temperature in BTA
process is maintained in the mesophilic range, normally at 35 °C and the digester is considered as a completely mixed reactor.
Mixing is performed by biogas injection. The digestion residue is dewatered by a decanter centrifuge and generally sent to aerobic
posttreatment. The water demand of the process is met by recirculating the process water. Depending upon the waste
composition and local requirements, excess process water is sent to the sewage system, or will be additionally treated onsite
before it can be discharged. The generated biogas can be recovered for use in gas engines or co-heat and power (CHP) stations.
Depending on the waste composition, the gas yield ranges between 80 and 120 m3/ton of bio-waste.

SCHWARTING-UHDE
The Schwarting-Uhde process adopts a two-stage wet anaerobic digestion process which is performed in a series of two vertical
plug flow reactors. The first reactor is operated at mesophilic temperature for hydrolysis and acidification processes while the
second reactor is operated at thermophilic temperature for methanogenesis. The source sorted bio-waste is shredded to reduce
the particle size and diluted to a TS concentration of around 12 %. The slurry is preheated to the intended temperature by heat
exchangers and then pumped through a series of perforated plates placed within the reactor, which is employed to ensure the
uniformity of upward movement and to maintain plug flow conditions. Mechanical stirrers are not needed in for mixing purposes.
An adequate mixing is obtained by raising and lowering the column of liquid in the tank, thus creating turbulence at the perforated
plates via time controlled impulse pumps. The retention time in both reactors is about 5 to 6 days making an overall retention time
of 10 to 12 days. Biogas is collected at the top of the digesters, whereas settled heavy solids, which accumulate at the bottom of
the reactors, are frequently removed via screw pumps. This process design offers an advantage in decreasing the potential
formation of a thick floating scum layer which is commonly plaguing wet anaerobic digestion. However, due to the high risk of
perforated plates clogging, the Schwarting-Uhde process is only suitable to treat relatively clean highly biodegradable bio-waste’s
.A full-scale Schwarting-Uhde plant was reported to have stable operation at an OLR of up to 6 kg VS.m-3 .d-1. A successful solids
elimination of 55 – 60 % was reported to be achieved by a Schwarting-Uhde plant treating sludge from a wastewater treatment
plant.

LINDE-BRV
The Linde-BRV process can be considered as two-stage dry anaerobic digestion. After pre-treatment to reduce the particle size
and to remove impurities, solid concentration of source-separated bio wastes is adjusted to 34 %. The slurry is then predigested
in an aerobic upstream stage where the organic materials are partially hydrolyzed. After 2 days of retention time, the predigested
slurry is pumped to a rectangular shaped concrete digester in horizontal plug flow mode. The mixing is accomplished by several
agitators of transverse paddles. The horizontal plug flow movement is ensured by a walking floor installed on the bottom of the
reactor which also functions to transport the sediments to the digester’s discharging end. The process is commonly kept at
thermophilic temperature although modification to mesophilic is also possible. Some of the heating is done outside the digester
with a short heat exchanger, but primarily heating occurs within the digester walls using a heat exchanger. In the thermophilic
process, the retention time is reported about 21-25 days with an OLR of 8 kg VS .m-3 .d-1.