Uni

BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICUTLURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

GRADUATE PROGRAM

ASSESSMENT OF HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL RATE, PROCEDURES

AND EFFECT OF DUMPING SITE ON NEARBY SELECTED LAND RESOURCES OF

BAHIR DAR CITY, NORTHWEST ETHIOPIA

MSc Thesis

by

Gebremichael Maru Jember

June, 2017
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

i
 BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICUTLURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

GRADUATE PROGRAM

ASSESSMENT OF HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL RATE, PROCEDURES

AND EFFECT OF DUMPING SITE ON NEARBY SELECTED LAND RESOURCES OF

BAHIR DAR CITY, NORTHWEST ETHIOPIA

MSc Thesis
by
Gebremichael Maru Jember

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of

Science (MSc) for Land Resources Management

June, 2017
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

ii
 THESIS APPROVAL SHEET

As member of the Board of Examiners of the Master of Sciences (MSc) thesis open defense
examination, we have read and evaluated this thesis prepared by Mr. Gebremichael
Maru Jember entitled “Assessment of household solid waste disposal rate, procedures
and effect of dumping site on nearby selected land resources of Bahir Dar city,
Northwest Ethiopia”. We hereby certify that, the thesis is accepted as fulfilling the
requirements for the award of the degree of Master of Sciences (MSc.) in Land Resources
Management.

Board of Examiners

________________________ _____________ _______________

Name of External Examiner Signature Date

________________________ _______________ _____________

Name of Internal Examiner Signature Date

________________________ ___________ _____________

Name of Chair Person Signature Date

iii
 DECLARATION

This is to certify that this thesis entitled “Assessment of household solid waste disposal
rate, procedures and effect of dumping site on nearby selected land resources of
Bahir Dar city, Northwest Ethiopia”, and submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of Master of Sciences in Land Resources
Management to the graduate program of College of Agriculture and Environmental
Sciences, Bahir Dar University by Mr. Gebremichael Maru Jember (ID.No.BDU
0502064 PR) is a real work carried out by him under our guidance. The matter embodied
in this thesis work has not been submitted earlier for award of any degree or diploma to
the best of our knowledge and belief.

Getachew Fisseha (PhD) _________________ _______________

Major Advisor Signature Date

Enyew Adgo (PhD) _________________ _______________

Co-advisor Signature Date

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Before all I would like to thank my Almighty GOD for supplying me health, wisdom and
strength in my work and for his perfect protection and guidance of my life.

My first and foremost gratitude is forwarded to my advisor Dr. Getachew Fisseha and co-
advisor Dr. Enyew Adgo for their critical comments, corrections, assistance and
encouragement in the preparation of this research paper.

I am deeply grateful and have special thanks to Bahir Dart University College of
Agriculture and Environmental Sciences and for Department of Natural Resources
management Land resources program.

Next, my heart full thanks go to my best friends Muhammed Zadi and Birkneh Abebe who
assisted me during the whole work and to my parent who assisted me morally and
financially.

I would also like to offer my sincere gratitude to all staff of Bahir Dar city sanitation,
beautification and parks development office, to all workers of Dream Light P.L.C. and all
respondents, for their willingness and patience in replying to the interviews; their kind
cooperation and willingness to give me genuine information and allow me in accessing
secondary data that were critical for the preparation of the main body of this study. Lastly,
I would like to address my deepest thanks to my friends for their moral and material
support.

I wish to express my deepest love and gratitude to my mother Ayinalem Alaye for treating
me with love and for her exceptional worry. My father, Maru Jember, I thank him for his
sustained encouragement. I have always believed on the support of his prayer. Thank you
my dear!

v
 DEDICATION

This piece of work is dedicated to my preferred parent W/ro. Ayinalem Alaye and Ato.
Maru Jember.

vi
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS /ACRONYMS/

°C Degree cent grade

Cd Cadmium
Cr Chromium
CSA Central Statistical Agency
Cu Copper
EPA Ethiopian Population Agency
ETB Ethiopian Birr
Fe Iron
GPS Global Positioning System
HHs Households
Masl Meters above sea level
Mn Manganese
MoH Ministry of Health
MSW Municipal solid waste
MSWM Municipal Solid Waste Management
N Nitrogen
OC Organic Carbon
OM Organic Matter
Pb Lead
PH Acidity or basicity measurement meter
PLC Private Limited Company
SBPDO Sanitation Beatification Parks Development Office
SPSS Statistical Packages for Social Science
UK United Kingdom
UNEP United Nations Environmental Program
WHO World Health Organization
Zn Zinc

Table of contents
THESIS APPROVAL SHEET.........................................................................................................iii
DECLARATION.............................................................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT................................................................................................................v
DEDICATION.................................................................................................................................vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS /ACRONYMS/................................................................................vii
Table of contents............................................................................................................................viii
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................................x
ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................................xii
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................1

vii
1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................1
1.1. Background and Justification......................................................................................1

1.2. Statement of the Problem..........................................................................................3

1.3. Objectives...................................................................................................................4

1.3.1. General objective............................................................................................................4

1.3.1. Specific objectives..........................................................................................................4
CHAPTER TWO..............................................................................................................................6
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE.......................................................................................................6
2.1. Definitions of Key Terms.............................................................................................6

2.2. The Rate of Household Solid Waste Generation........................................................7

2.3. Solid Waste Collection, Transportation, Dumping and Recycling...............................9

2.3.1. Solid waste collection..............................................................................................9

2.3.2. Waste transportation.....................................................................................................10

2.3.3. Processing and recovery...............................................................................................10
2.3.4. Disposal of wastes........................................................................................................11
2.3.5. Reuse and recycle.........................................................................................................11
2.4. Effects of Municipal Solid Waste Dumping on selected Land Resources................11

2.4.1. Effect of dumping site on nearby selected land resources and human beings...............11
2.4.2. Conventional water quality parameter /constituents/....................................................12
CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................................13
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS................................................................................................13
3.1. Description of the Study Area...................................................................................13

3.1.1. Location........................................................................................................................13
3.1.2. Demography and population.........................................................................................14
3.1.3. Topography...................................................................................................................14
3.1.4 Geology.........................................................................................................................15
3.1.5 Climate..........................................................................................................................15
3.1.6. Water Body...................................................................................................................16
3.1.7. Land use and land cover...............................................................................................16
3.2. Data to be collected..................................................................................................17

3.3 Data sources..............................................................................................................17

3.4 Methods of Data Collection.......................................................................................17

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 3.5. Sampling Design........................................................................................................19

3.6. Sampling Procedures and Sample Size.....................................................................19

3.7. Method of Data Analysis...........................................................................................20

CHAPTER FOUR..........................................................................................................................21
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.................................................................................................21
4.1. Households Survey socioeconomic status data........................................................21

4. 2. Rate of Household Solid Waste Generation and characteristics.............................23

4.3. Collection, Transportation, Dumping and Recycling of Solid Waste management. 24

4.4. Effects of Municipal Solid Waste Dumping on nearby selected Land Resources.....33

4.4.1 Aesthetics aspects..........................................................................................................35

4.4.2. Concentration of selected soil and water parameters of the dumping site and nearby
farming land...........................................................................................................................36
4.4.3 Correlation of analysed parameters................................................................................43
CHAPTER FIVE............................................................................................................................46
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................................46
5.1. Conclusion.................................................................................................................46

5.2. Recommendations....................................................................................................49

CHAPTER SIX..............................................................................................................................50
6. REFERENCE.............................................................................................................................50
APENDIXS....................................................................................................................................57
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH..........................................................................................................68

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1. Land use and land cover around the study area..............................................................16
Table 4.1. Household survey concerning the socioeconomic status and general information.........22
Table 4.2. Waste storage material used and cleaning time..............................................................25
Table 4.3. Quantity of decomposable solid wastes in kg per day....................................................28
Table 4.4. Raw weight of decomposable solid wastes in kg per day...............................................29
Table 4.5. Moisture content in %age of decomposable household solid wastes.............................30
Table 4.6. Dry weight in kg per day of decomposable solid wastes................................................31
Table 4.7. Quantity of non-decomposable solid wastes in kg per day.............................................31
Table 4.8. Raw weight of non-decomposable solid wastes in kg per day.......................................32
Table 4.9. Dry weight in kg per day of non-decomposable solid wastes........................................32
Table 4.10. Quantity of glasses and other related solid waste materials in kg per day....................33
Table 4.11. Laboratory results of selected parameters in farm land soils and water samples..........36
Table 4.12. Laboratory results of selected parameters in On site soils and water samples………
…..37
Table 4.13. Concentration of selected parameters in soils and water samples on both sites...........41
Table 4.14. Correlations of analysing of soil and water parameters................................................43

x
 LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 3.1. Map of the study area ( Bahir Dar city)........................................................................14

Figure 4.1. Household solid waste generation rate and characterization in the city........................24
Figure 4.2. Waste collection material in the study area...................................................................27
Figure 4.3. Quantity of solid wastes in the study area....................................................................29
Figure 4.4. The Effects of solid wastes on human and animals......................................................34

xi
Assessment of household solid waste disposal rate, procedures and effect of dumping
site on nearby selected land resources of Bahir Dar city, Northwest Ethiopia

Gebremichael Maru, Getachew Fisseha and Enyew Adgo

Bahir Dar city Agricultural Development Office, Amhara, Ethiopia, Bahir Dar University College of Agriculture and Environmental
Sciences, department of Natural Resources Management, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT
An assessment was conducted in Shimbit, Fassilo and Hidar 11 sub-cities of Bahir Dar city, Ethiopia with
the aim of understanding the household solid waste disposal rate, procedures and the effect of dumping site
on nearby selected land resources of the area. Assessment of the household solid waste management is used
for the economical design of the sub structural elements. It is also necessary to obtain sufficient information
on type, characteristics and rate of disposal of a solid waste. The study was conducted by administered
scheduled questionnaires, recording of household solid waste disposal rate and other laboratory
measurements. Descriptive statistics such as one-sample and frequency statistics were used to present the
data. One way ANOVA was also used to analyze heavy metals, quantity and character of household solid

wastes. Major solid wastes generated by households were Ashes (40%), organic wastes (37.8%) and food
residuals (22.2%) and the major solid wastes quantified by households were decomposable household solid
wastes (31.1%) which were 0.5 kg/person/day, non-decomposable household solid wastes (77.8%) which
were 0.075 kg/person/day and glasses and other related materials of household solid wastes45 (84.4%)
which were less than 0.075 kg/person/day and the study area daily and annually solid waste generated were
(97148.1 kg) and (35386195.425 kg) respectively. The majority of respondent households’main waste
storage material was sack followed by basket. The four basic methods of collection were community bin,
curbside collection, block collection and door to door collection. In addition, the mean concentration of
organic matter (%), total nitrogen (%) and available phosphorus (ppm) in the dumping site soil samples
were 4.25±0.25, 0.22±0.024 and 175.67±30.27 respectively. The mean concentration of Fe (85.40±13.48),
Pb (14.80±2.84) and Zn (41.60±8.39) ppm in the dumping site soil samples were slightly lower than in those
soil samples taken from farm which were Fe (114.34±16.30), Pb (22.58±3.95) and Zn (61.47±10.17)
ppm.The pH values of the damping site (6.34±0.42s were slightly higher than in that of the farm land
(5.88±0.01. There was significant difference (p<0.05) in laboratory measurements between organic matter,
total nitrogen, available phosphorus and all other trace elements on farm land and on dumping site except
copper in the dumping site soil and water samples and Lead in the farm land water samples were not
significance(p>0.05). Generally, the study pointed out that the features of the household solid waste
disposal rate and management in the study area. Most organic wastes decompose easily as these were not
managed properly or were not changed to compost, they can be a cause for diseases and need further in-
depth monitoring and characterization works.

Key words: Household solid waste, dumping site, land resources, Heavy metals

xii
 CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background and Justification

The rapid urbanization that has been taking place during the 20th century virtually
transformed world in to communities of cities and towns facing similar challenges on
environmental issues in which most of them have to be addressed at international level
(Smith, 2010). Among those environmental issues solid waste management is a critical
one because as long as humans have been living in settled communities, solid waste
generation has been an unavoidable and critical issue both in developed and developing
nations. As a result, solid waste management became a worldwide agenda at united nation
conference on environment and development in Riodejieneiro in 1992 with a great
emphasis on reducing wastes and maximizing environmentally sound waste reuse and
recycling at first step in waste management (UNEP, 1996).
The physico-chemical properties of the degraded soils at these sites are one of the
important factor playing roles in vegetation development (Gairola and Soni, 2010). For
instance, soil structure and acidity affects the absorption and accumulation of
mineral elements by plants (Treshow, 1970) and thus play a very important role in
vegetation establishment and development at such sites.
Solid waste management is defined as the collection, transportation, processing, reusing,
recycling, and disposal of solid waste materials so as to reduce their effect on health,
environment and aesthetics. It is highly related with urbanization and industrialization. For
instance in early societies, solid waste management consisted of digging pits and throwing
garbage into them (Abebe Arega, 2010).
The current condition of municipal solid waste management service in different cities of
Ethiopia is also becoming a challenge for municipalities. For instance, according (Degnet
Abebaw, 2003) study of municipal solid waste management practices of 15 regional cities
of Ethiopia, a controlled solid waste disposal system was practiced in only two of them.
That means small proportions of the urban dwellers are served and a large quantity of solid
waste left uncollected. In addition, a study conducted by (Gebrie Kassa, 2009) revealed

1
percentage of solid wastes which are left uncollected and disposed anywhere without due
attention regarding their consequences in different cities of Ethiopia.
In Bahir Dar city, urbanization is increasing at an alarming rate (277,566 in 2014 and it is
301,425 in 2015) (CSA, 2007). It is putting immense pressure on municipal services. One
of the problems of the urbanization and increasing consumerism is the increased
generation of waste. This waste is not being adequately managed and is therefore creating
a serious health and environmental hazard, particularly in the slum areas, where the
residents have less capacity to pay for better services and are often ignored by the official
agencies. Poor urban settlements are more affected because of indiscriminate dumping and
the lack of open space. The dumping sites are not well planned, and they are open field
disposal (no sanitary landfill), are close to rural settlements and not at appropriate distance
from the center of the city. Due to the above cases dumping sites have negative impacts on
soil, ground water and human beings (Dream Light, 2010).
Bahir Dar city is characterized by rapid population growth caused by natural increase and
migration. Such rapid increase in population together with rapid development of the town
has produced increasing volumes of solid waste and in turn it induced greater
infrastructural demand, institutional setup and community participation for its
management. Despite its effective system of waste collection, the municipality is facing
problems by poor response for its efforts to encourage waste minimization at source.
Uncontrolled growth of squatter/unlawful resident settlements, poor co-operation between
the public and private sectors, inadequate coordination between stakeholders, the lack of
trained personnel, the lack of standardized vehicles and the frequent breakdown of
vehicles, inadequate enforcement measures, and no sanitary landfill(open field sites)
(Dream Light, 2010).
Solid waste was collected from the source using push carts to the temporary transfer
stations (Not legally approved sites (on the street sides). There are no standard transfer
stations in the city; Door to door collection covers all residences and commercials, and
some institutions; all healthcare and industries follow their way of removal; and Most of
them burn the waste; while some others dispose it to the nearby river (Abay or Blue Nile)
or Lake Tana. When the gaps we see in the study area (Bahir Dar) are no waste
segregation at the source; no standard solid waste transfer station; solid waste collection
does not cover all solid waste generators; service fee are inadequate to cover the service
costs. In addition to that transportation of the solid waste to the dumping site is also done

2
by the Dream Light plc. Transportation trucks are not standardized for solid waste
transportation purposes and no waste segregation before transportation (Dream Light,
2010).

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Bahir Dar city is characterized by rapid population growth caused by natural increase and
migration. According to 2007 national census report, the city had 218, 975 total
populations in 2010 and it estimated to be about 414,921 in 2020. Moreover, the generated
wastes will be 186.7 tons/day in 2020. Such rapid increase in population together with
rapid development of the city has produced increasing volumes of solid waste and in turn
it induced greater infrastructural demand, institutional setup and community participation
for its management. But, the city Sanitation, Beautification and Parks Development office
(SBPDO) which runs the solid waste management activities of the city could not fulfill the
above requirements. For instance, currently SBPDO has practice its activity by supplying
eight trucks for collection, transportation and disposal of the city solid waste. In addition
to this, there are no public solid waste storage containers and road side dust bins. So that it
highly suffered from shortage of solid waste management infrastructures and faced
unmatched burdens of collection, transportation and disposal of solid wastes. Furthermore,
SBPDO is surrounded by different institutional constraints such as lack of sufficient
manpower, weak financial and material resource, weak regulation and controlling
mechanism, and insignificant movement for public awareness creation (Dream Light,
2010).
These limitations led to deterioration of the city environment and also reinforce incorrect
disposal habits to the people. Most of solid wastes that are generated in the city remain
uncollected and a simply dumped in open areas, road sides, river courses, gullies.
According to the report made by SBPDO of Bahir Dar city in 2010, the total solid waste
generated in 2010 is estimated to be 98.5 tons per day (Dream Light, 2010).
As a result, municipal solid waste management in Bahir Dar has not been carried out in a
sufficient and proper manner. The environmental and sanitary conditions of the city have
become more serious from time to time, and people are suffering from living in such
conditions. So that urgent need of efficient House Hold Solid Waste Management
(HHSWM) on one hand and steady growth of solid waste problem on the other side are
still the main features of the city. Detail study of the overall condition of HHSWM service

3
should be the first move required for reducing this gap. Therefore, this study was initiated
to generate information on assessment of household solid waste disposal rate procedures
and the effect of dumping site on nearby selected land resources of Bahir Dar city.

1.3. Objectives

1.3.1. General objective

The general objective of the research was to quantify and evaluate household solid waste
disposal rate, procedures and the effect of dumping site on nearby selected land resources
of Bahir Dar city, Northwest Ethiopia

1.3.1. Specific objectives

1. To evaluate the rate of household solid waste generation in the study area.
2. To assess how household solid waste is collected, transported, dumped, reused and
recycled in the study area.
3. To assess the effects of municipal solid waste dumping site on nearby selected land
resources of the study area.

1.4. Research Questions

So as to achieve the intended objectives stated above, the following research questions
were formulated.
I. What is the rate of household solid waste generation and physical composition
in the city?
II. How household solid waste is collected, transported, dumped and recycled in
the study area?
III. What is the effect of municipal solid waste dumping site on nearby selected
land resources of the study area.

1.5. Significance of the Study

4
This study may has two main significances. First it may give some guide line information
to policy makers, solid waste managers and environmental protection agencies about the
existing situation of municipal and household solid waste management of Bahir Dar city.
The study may also be important in putting base line information to the next work who
would like to conduct detailed and comprehensive studies either in Bahir Dar city or other
parts of Ethiopia.

1.6. Limitation of the Study

The researcher did not finish this research without short comings. Some of them were
physico-chemical properties of water and soils limited during data collection due to
shortage of money. The writer also faced shortage of secondary data. Some of the
households are not willing to give daily solid waste segregation, collection and official
workers in the municipality of the city are also refused to give detail information related to
household solid waste management overall current status, SBPDO work process of some
consecutive years. But, the researcher tried to overcome some of those problems by
finding reference documents about the city Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM)
from public and other different colleges’ libraries and by using his own money.

5
 CHAPTER TWO

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1. Definitions of Key Terms

Solid waste can be defines as

 according to UK environmental protection act (1990), “it is any substance which
constitutes scrap materials, an effluent or other unwanted surplus arising from
application of any substances or article which requires to be disposed of which has
broken, worn out, contaminated or otherwise spoiled.”
 “any garbage, refuse, sludge, and other discarded solid materials resulting from
industrial, commercial, agricultural operations, and community activities, but does
not include dissolved materials” (U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, 1995 cited in
Samuel Shimelis, 2006, p.5).
 In short “it is anything that is neither liquid nor gas and is discarded as unwanted ”
(Federal Negarit Gazeta of Ethiopia, proclamation number 513 of 2007).

Municipal solid waste (MSW) - refers to materials discarded in urban areas for which
municipalities are usually responsible for collection, transportation, and final disposal
wastes, as well as construction and demolition debris. With respect to source from which
solid waste emanates, (Martin, 2000) categorized municipal solid waste as household
(residential) refuse, institutional wastes, street sweepings, commercial areas. Municipal
solid waste management - is an activity of planning and implementation of solid waste
management components such as collection, transfer and transportation, recycling,
resource recovery, and disposal MSW under jurisdiction of local government and
explained the influence of economic development by comparing gross national product of
developed and developing countries with their waste generation rate (Nashiimirimana,
2004).

Solid waste management is becoming a major public health and environmental concern in
urban areas of Ethiopia. In Ethiopia, like developing countries, increase of solid waste
generation is resulted from rapid urbanization and population booming. “The average solid
waste generation rate is about 0.221kg per person per day and it is also estimated that only

6
2% of the population received solid waste collection services” (Zebenay Kassa, 2010).
This shows that the operational condition of MSWM service and efforts made to change
the situation are low. As a result, small proportions of the urban dwellers are served and
large quantity of solid waste left uncollected. The public sector in Ethiopia is unable to
deliver services effectively, as result illegal dumping of solid waste along road sides and
open areas is a common practice due to inadequate supply of waste containers and longer
distance to these containers. The involvement of private sectors are also very limited, but
currently a number of micro and small scale enterprises are emerging to participate in
primary solid waste collection i.e. collect garbage at source from households and transport
it to the municipal waste containers and transfer points. To sum up the real situation of
MSWM in Ethiopia indicates that the problem of solid waste cannot be solved only by
mere effort of municipal government, there should be large involvement of the private
sectors in general and participation of micro enterprises and community in particular
(Abebe Tegegne, 2006).

2.2. The Rate of Household Solid Waste Generation

Solid waste generation rate: refers to the “amount of waste disposed during a given period
of time and the quantification of it involves different methods: by measurement at the
point of generation, through use of vehicle survey and by examination of records at the
disposal facility” (UNEP, 2009; in Zebenay Kassa, 2010). The rate of solid waste
generated in a given town is basically determined by demographic growth, seasonal
variation, geographic location, economic development and people’s attitude towards waste.

An accurate knowledge of quantity and rate of solid waste generation in a given area is
essential for preparation and implementation of appropriate MSWM. Because it provides
information on human, financial and equipment resources required for collection and
transportation of waste, to enact appropriate laws on waste reduction, and establish current
and future needs for solid waste disposal sites (Abel Afon, 2007).The level of service is
low, and generators often have to bring their wastes long distances and place it in
containers.

Waste generation encompasses activities in which materials are identified as valueless and
either thrown away or gather together for disposal. This functional element is very

7
important because all activities that lead to identification and understanding of solid waste
generation rate, volume, composition, area specific variations of waste generation and
their expected changes overtime are belong to this component solid waste management.
So, this functional element is a vital stage for acquiring accurate information that is
necessary to monitor existing management system and to make regulatory, financial and
institutional decisions (Gebrie Kassa, 2009).

Although developing countries have a lower rate of waste generation compared to

developed countries, their quantum of waste is high owing to their higher levels of
population growth. This clearly shows impact of population size on waste generation rate
(Pipatti et al., 2006). On the other hand, people’s attitude towards waste can also
conditioned solid waste generation rate in the form of their pattern of material use and
waste handling, their interest in waste reduction and minimization, and the degree to
which they refrain from indiscriminate dumping and littering (Schubeler, 1996). Solid
waste generation rates and composition vary from country to country depending on the
economic situation, industrial structure, waste management regulations and life style
(Pipatti et al., 2006). For effective planning and development of strategies for sustainable
management of solid waste, information about the quantity and categories of waste is of
great importance. Thus in the modern world, quantification and characterization are the
most important processes of all sustainable solid waste management systems (Senzige, et
al., 2014).

Studying the composition of solid waste categories at a particular place, realizes the
environmental potential the waste bears on integrating technologies like recycling and
resource recovery in the solid waste management systems. The information also assists in
planning, policy development, and infrastructure sizing decisions for various phases of an
integrated solid waste management program (Alqader and Hamad, 2012). Information
about the amount of different type of solid waste generated is a key step in deciding on the
suitable waste management option to go for. The same contention is held by (Acurio, et
al., 1997) who argues that any decision made for adequate solid waste management should
be based on better understanding of composition. Solid waste generation and composition
influenced by several factors among which include the socioeconomic factors such as
monthly income, average family size, number of room(s) and employment status (Sankoh
et al., 2012). In other studies it has been have found that there is a direct correlation

8
between social activities and the solid waste composition (Gidarakos, et al., 2005). Among
other factors consumption of goods and change in the source-sorting behavior affect also
the quantity and composition of the solid waste in households (Dahlén, 2008).

2.3. Solid Waste Collection, Transportation, Dumping and Recycling

2.3.1. Solid waste collection

Collection involves the process of picking up of wastes from collection points, loading
them in to a vehicle, and transporting it to processing facilities, transfer stations or
disposal site. As a result many collection activities in developing countries carried
out by informal sectors (UNEP, 1996). In general, there are four basic methods of
collection as described by (Tchobanolous et al., 1993) or (Ramachandra and
Bachamanda, 2006). These are community bin, curbside collection, block collection
and door to door collection.

According to Environmental Protection Authority and World Bank study conducted in

2004, per capita amount of waste generated in Ethiopia ranged from 0.17 to 0.48
kg/person/day for urban areas to about 0.11 to 0.35 kg/capita/ day for rural areas. The
range depends on several factors such as income of households and season. The total
generation of municipal solid waste in Ethiopia in 2003 is estimated to be 2.8 to 8.8
million tones. This can be split to approximately 0.6 to 1.8 million tons from urban areas
and 2.2 to 7 million tons from rural areas (UNDP, 1997).
Before 2009 the collection system was using 70 garbage containers which were situated in
the city. The generators were responsible to bring their waste up to the area where
containers were placed. And the secondary collection and transportation were the
responsibilities of the city service. But, after 2009 the collection system changed to door-
to-door collection and all the responsibility goes to a private company. The company’s
waste collection coverage is most of the residential and commercial sources, and some of
institutional waste sources (Dream Light, 2010).

9
2.3.2. Waste transportation

The number of trucks is 60, which is low as compared to the amount of waste generated.
Of these, about 50 per cent are not working regularly due to old age. According to the
Health Bureau, in 1996 the actual required trucks were 77 (UNDP, 1997). The vehicles
carry only a single container at a time to the disposal site. A trip is made to and from
collection sites only for single containers of maximum capacity 8m 3 or 2160 kilo grams.
Considering the cost of fuel, manpower and overhead costs for transportation per single
trip, the system is inefficient and not economical.

All vehicles in operation are considered including manually driven small carts,
mechanically driven sophisticated transportation vehicles, and special vehicles for
hazardous, bulky, and recyclable wastes. Generally, a properly design transfer and
transportation system highly reduces cost of collection (Abeje Hiruy, 2009). With respect
to transfer stations, “there are two basic modes of operation: direct discharge and storage
discharge. In storage discharge refuse is first emptied from collection trucks in to a storage
pit or to a large platform. While in direct discharge station, each refuse truck empties
directly in to larger transport vehicles” (Meenakshi, 2005).

2.3.3. Processing and recovery

This functional element includes all techniques, equipments and facilities used both to
improve the efficiency of other functional elements and to recover usable materials,
conversion products, produce energy, and compost from solid wastes. In addition it also
provides several advantages. First, it can serve to reduce total volume and weight of waste
material that requires collection and final disposal. Volume reduction also helps to
conserve land resources since land is the ultimate sink for most waste materials (Ogawa,
2002). On the other side, it also reduces total transportation cost of waste to its final
disposal site (Uriarte and Filemon, 2008). If the compost product has high enough quality
and markets exist, it can be sold. Environmentally, process of composting is preferable
than landfill processes. In a landfill, bacteria break down organics anaerobic ally (in
absence of oxygen) and resulted in release of methane gas. However, in composting
organic matter is decomposed using an aerobic process and produces no methane by
product (Zerbock, 2003).

10
2.3.4. Disposal of wastes

Disposal activities are associated with final dump of solid wastes directly to a landfill site.
Today disposal of wastes by land filling or land spreading is the ultimate fate of all solid
wastes whether they are residential wastes, or residual materials from materials recovery
facilities. Because sanitary landfill is not a dump it is an engineered facility used for
disposing of solid wastes on land without creating nuisances or hazards to public health
and environment” (Techobanglous, 2002).

2.3.5. Reuse and recycle

Reuse involves cleaning and using materials over and over. In other words, it means the
use of a product more than once in its original form for the same or a new purpose
(Watson, 2004). It relays on items that can be used over and over instead of throw away
items. This method is used to decrease the use of matter and energy resources, cuts
pollution, creates local jobs, and saves money (Miller, 2007). “Reusing is more efficient
and better than recycling and composting methods because cleaning and reusing materials
in their present form avoids the cost of energy for remaking them in to something else”
(Dream Light, 2010).

2.4. Effects of Municipal Solid Waste Dumping on selected Land Resources

2.4.1. Effect of dumping site on nearby selected land resources and human beings.

Leachate may contain large amounts of organic and inorganic compounds. If leachate is
not controlled, it can contaminant the surrounding soils, surface water resources and
ultimately to the groundwater by (Merwan et al., 2013). Water is a vital commodity, but is
very unevenly distributed in the earth. After studying the water budget, it becomes
apparent that 97.3% of the world’s water is in salty oceans, and 2.1% is located in ice cap,
a bar 0.06% is found in lakes, river, and grounds (Purdom, 1980). Most solid wastes are
not totally burned up; these wastes become a place for insects, rodents, and unpleasant
smells, therefore, these wastes cause harmful effects to the public health (Dream Light,
2010). Ground water pollution happens if the dump site is placed in recharges areas

11
because “Groundwater flows from recharge area through groundwater reservoir to
discharge area” (Ponce, 1989). The phosphate concentration varied from 0.5 to 7.4 mg L-1
and 2.66 to 18.2 mg L-1 at Kombolcha and Bahir Dar city (Mekonnen Gebeyaw, 2013)
respectively, which is above the critical level of 0.1 mg L-1 (World Health Organization.
2011). The sources of phosphate concentration at experimental sites are domestic
wastewater from cleaning agents, laboratories, and brewery and from runoffs and
agricultural activities in the surrounding areas. Nearly all human activities generate waste,
and the way in which this is handled, stored, collected and disposed of, can pose risks to
the environment and to public health (Zhu et al., 2008).The physico-chemical properties of
the degraded soils at these sites are one of the important factor playing roles in vegetation
development (Gairola and Soni, 2010). For instance, soil structure and acidity affects
the absorption and accumulation of mineral elements by plants (Treshow, 1970) and
thus play a very important role in vegetation establishment and development at such
sites.

2.4.2. Conventional water quality parameter /constituents/

PH: pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the water on a scale from 1 –14 (1 is
very acidic, 7 neutral and 14 very alkaline). The pH of water affects the solubility of many
toxic and nutritive chemicals; therefore, the availability of these substances to aquatic
organisms is affected. As acidity increases, most metals become more water soluble and
more toxic. Toxicity of cyanides and sulfides also increases with a decrease in pH
(increase in acidity). Ammonia, however, becomes more toxic with only a slight increase
in pH (World Health Organization. 2011).
Runoff, sewage, geology (limestone is associated with more alkaline conditions); high
nutrient levels are some of the causes to acidity or alkalinity. High nutrient levels cause
excessive growth of algae and plants that will lift pH values. Outside what is considered
the normal pH range there may be a loss of sensitive species. If extremely high or
extremely low pH values occur, it would result in the death of all aquatic life (World
Health Organization. 2011). Alkaline conditions can also increase the toxicity of other
pollutants such as ammonia. The safe aquatic habitat range is between 6.5 and 8.5.

12
 CHAPTER THREE

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Description of the Study Area

3.1.1. Location

Bahir Dar city administration is located in the north western part of Ethiopia with a total
area of about 368.62 square km and it is located 567 km from Addis Ababa. It is bordered
to the east by south Gondar zone Dera district; in the south by west Gojjam zone Bahir
Dar zuria district; in the north by Lake Tana and Bahir Dar zuria district; in the west by
Bahir Dar zuria district. Astronomically/ geographically it lies between 11° 38’ North
Latitude and on the East 38° 10’ Longitude. Its agro climatic zone is Winadega with uni
modal rainfall pattern. It is found on southern Lake shore of Lake Tana. It is the capital
city of Amhara National Regional State which is located at 1801 M.A.S.L. Bahir Dar city
incorporates three small urban centers as (satellite towns); namely Zegie, Tis Abay and
Meshenti with their rural vicinities Regional State under the revised Amhara National
Regional State(ANRS) proclamation No. 91/2003. In relative terms, Bahir Dar city is
found along the road of Addis Ababa-Debire Markos. It is one of the leading tourist
destinations in Ethiopia, with a variety of attractions in the nearby Lake Tana and Blue
Nile River (Haimanot, 2009).

The minimum and maximum temperatures are about 11.6°c and 26.4°c respectively. Bahir
Dar city has 9 sub cities, which are Fassilo, Shimbit, Tana, Ginbot 20, Shumabo,
Gishabay, Hidar 11, Belay zeleke and Sefeneselam.

13
(Source: Bahir Dar City Administration, 2015)

Figure 3.1. Map of the study area (Bahir Dar city)

3.1.2. Demography and population

The total population of the Bahir Dar city is about 277,566 of which 135,441 are males
and 142,125 are females.

3.1.3. Topography

Bahir Dar metropolitan area is mostly characterized by flat plain topographic landscape
although there have been some pockets of land with hills, rugged and undulating features.
The elevation of the metropolitan area fails in between the range of 1650 M.A.S.L (around
Tis Abay Fall) and 2100 M.A.S.L (around Meshenti). In general, the predominance of flat
landscape and plain topography in this area has a promising opportunity to undertake
various urban development activities in the centers and their vicinities in particular and in

14
the whole metropolitan area in general notwithstanding the adverse flooding and water
pounding problems. On the other hand, the hilly and rugged (undulated) land features in
and around these urban centers are identified as one of the major problem areas for any
development activities calling for metropolitan intervention (Bahir Dar City
Administration, 2013).
The city stretches over a predominantly flat land with hardly noticeable slope change. The
elevation variation in the area ranges from 1,786 M.A.S.L near the lakeshore to 1,886
M.A.S.L at Bezawit. The general slope orientation of the town is slightly towards Abay
River, which crosses the city proper from North West to south east and serves as the only
out let for surface water runoff from the city. Although there is no well- defined course of
surface water, the direction of drainage in dominantly towards Abay River except for some
areas, which drain in to Lake Tana. Because of its extreme flatness, the town has been
affected by flood problem (Haimanot, 2009).

3.1.4 Geology

The rocks exposed in Bahir Dar area mainly include basaltic lava flows (lava outpourings
and dames) and related spatter cones. The basaltic lava flows basically comprise
periphrastic and aphanite basalts. And the overall exposed thicknesses of the flows vary
from few meters to more than 100 meters at Bezawit. They seem to occur as alternate flow
layers in some places and are often highly weathered and fractured particularly at depth, as
bore hole log date reveals (Bahir Dar City Administration, 2013). Generally, the rocks out
cropping in Bahir Dar regional administration can be categorized based on lithology
variation as Aphetic Basalt, Vesicular Basalt and Scoria cereous Basalts.

3.1.5 Climate

Because of the complexity of climate in the region, several classification systems have
been applied to the Ethiopian situation. There is a significant seasonal variation in the
amount of rainfall. Almost 60.3% of the mean annual rainfall occurs in two raining months
of July and August with maximum mean value of more than 432mm (Haimanot, 2009).
The monthly mean maximum and minimum temperature records of Bahir Dar city in the
year between 1961 and 2000 showed that the highest mean monthly maximum
temperature occurs in April (29.7⁰c) and lowest in July and August (23.3 ⁰c). While the

15
mean monthly minimum temperature ranges for the lowest from 7.1⁰c in January to the
highest 14.2⁰c in the months of May (Haimanot, 2009).

3.1.6. Water Body

In the study area there is one major international river called "Abay" which is originating
at Lake Tana in Ethiopia and crosses Sudan and Egypt. It has a total length of 1,450
kilometers of which 800 km are inside Ethiopia. The estimated average annual
rainfall ranges from 1437 mm to 1521 mm in the study area. The discharge data
from 1960 to 2001 at Bahir Dar city gauging station indicates the mean annual flow
of the river Abay is about 123.07 m3/s (Bahir Dar City Administration, 2013 and
Walker et al., 2003).
Lake Tana is the source of Blue Nile covering an area of more than 3000 km². Thus, Lake
Tana and river Abay made Bahir Dar as one of the leading tourist destinations in Ethiopia,
by having a variety of attractions (Bahir Dar City Administration, 2013).

3.1.7. Land use and land cover

The core city has an estimated area of 33.12 square km. Each sub cities has been further
divided into zones (A, B, C, D and E).
In Bahir Dar area significant numbers of the urban dwellers and about 26% of the rural
residents are engaged in agricultural activities. Water body of Bahir Dar accounts just over
31% of the total land. Human settlement accounts to about 30% of the total land area of
the city (including rural, urban and informal settlements).

Table 3.1. Land use and land cover around the study area

No. Land use Area(ha) Percent

1 Agriculture 6588 23.72
2 Formal urban settlement 4214 15.17

3 Forest & Woodland 70.00 0.25

4 Marshy land 1880 6.77

5 Vacant, Rocky and roads 2327 8.38
6 Water Body/wetlands 8718 31.39

16
7 Rural Settlement 2982 10.74

8 Informal settlement 992 3.57

Total 27771 100

(Source: Bahir Dar City Municipality Cadastre Studies Office, 2009)

3.2. Data to be collected

The rate and quantity of the municipal household solid wastes were grouped into:
 Decomposable solid wastes like vegetables, fruits, leaves and
wastages of food.
 Non-decomposable solid wastes like plastics, pit, battery and so on.
 Glasses and other related materials.
Solid wastes were collected, transported; dumped and recycled. The data were
collected through focused group discussion and key informant interviews.

3.3 Data sources

In this study, the researcher used both primary and secondary data sources.
 Primary sources are direct measurement, survey, questionnaire and interview
 Secondary sources are latter studies, published books, journals

3.4 Methods of Data Collection

For gathering primary data, survey, observation, measurement, and laboratory analysis
were used. The rate/quantity and characterization of the household waste was done by
measuring in kilograms after and before drying. This quantification and characterization
was done repeatedly two times per household within one week interval.
Scheduled questionnaires (open and closed ended) were organized to collect data from
individual households. These questionnaires were first prepared in English but later they
were translated in to Amharic for making it easily understandable to samples. Accordingly,
detail data was collected from purposively selected sub cities. These had been done by
communicating and discussing with Bahir Dar city SBPDO staff with head and key
informant interview with dream light P.L.C. and by getting list of households.

17
Data from key informant interviews were gathered with the help of semi structured and
unstructured interviews with SBPDO (sanitation, beautification parks development office)
staff, elders, leaders of association/ cooperatives, Dream light PLC, men and women.
Focused group discussion was done by using interviews guides and helps the researcher to
get different ideas and perceptions of different groups and also triangulate issues in depth.

Four soil samples were taken from onsite (on the dumping site) and offsite (farming land)
within the top soil 0-60 cm soil depth. Eight samples were collected and each sample was
a composite sample of three sub samples. Soil auger sampler to take soil samples was used
to dig the top 60 cm layer of the surface for soil sampling. Large clods were broken up to
speed up drying with pestle for grounding the sample soil. The collected samples were
then stored in polythene plastic containers. Pretreated plastic bottles were used for the
collection of leachate samples. The fraction <2 mm (air-dried earth) was homogenized; the
sample was then subjected to analysis. It was washed with distilled water and before the
next sample was collected. The soil samples were dried on a plastic tray, grinded and
sieved before the analysis was carried out. After drying and grinding, the soil samples
were sieved through a 2 mm mesh sieve for the analysis of soil parameters. The pH was
measured based according to the methodology suggested by (Van Reeuwijk, 2002). Soil
samples (pH through pH water/KCL method, total N through oxidation by Sulphuric acid
or jeldhal and available P through Olsen method (acid + nonacid soils) and Bray method
(for acid soils). Available micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn) in soils were extracted with 0.005
(M) DTPA solution (Diethylene were analyzed for Fe, Mn and Zn by atomic absorption
spectroscopy model novAA400 Analytikjena, (APHA, 1998) and these heavy metals such
as Fe, Mn, Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn, and Cr were determined by atomic absorption
spectrophotometer. Soil samples such as pH, total N and available P and water samples
heavy metals such as Iron, Manganese, Lead, Cadmium, and Copper, Zinc, and Chromium
data were collected and identified in Bahir Dar University laboratory research center,
Bahir Dar Institute Technology, Ethiopia.

Four water samples were taken from onsite (on the dumping site) and offsite (farming
land) from hand dug wells. Heavy metals such as Iron, Manganese, Lead, Cadmium, and
Copper, Zinc, and Chromium were analysed. Photographs were taken during field
observation for partial exposure of transfer stations, disposal site, illegal dumping of
residents.

18
Water samples were stored in refrigerator at 4°c to prevent change in value due to
evaporation. The collected samples were submitted immediately for analysis to the Bahir
Dar University laboratory research center, Bahir Dar Institute Technology, Ethiopia. Total
concentrations of metals (Cr, Cd, Pb,) were determined by aquaregia (AR) extraction
according to a modification of ISO standard 11466.2, (Niskavaara, 1995). Heavy metal,
Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Lead (Pb), Manganese(Mn), Iron (Fe) and
Cadmium (Cd) in the leachate samples were determined using atomic absorption
spectroscopy model novAA400 Analytikjena according to the Standard methods for the
Examination of water and waste water.

On the other hand, secondary data were extracted from different sources including
published and unpublished materials from administrative office, SBPDO, municipality,
finance and economic development office, and health office of Bahir Dar city.

3.5. Sampling Design

The research sampling design of this study was Stratified sampling design with
Explanatory method.

3.6. Sampling Procedures and Sample Size

In order to collect primary data, the researcher used two different sample sizes with
different sampling procedures. In all cases, sample sizes were determined by considering
financial, time and resource constraints. The first stage was classifying 9 sub cities in to 3
separate strata: high waste generation, medium waste generation and low waste generation
sub cities based on household solid waste disposals amount, geographical location,
population density, and size of sub cities and availability of different infrastructures by
discussing with Bahir Dar city SBPDO staff with head and key informant interview with
dream light P.L.C. and by getting list of households.

The second stage was selecting sub cities that represent those stratums. These were
Shimbit, Fassilo and Hidar 11 sub cities. Then researcher selected sub cities from each
stratum. From the three sub cities a total sample size of 45 households were selected by
using random sampling method. For 45 households put sacks from each door to know the
amount/rate and quantity of household waste disposals and replace and take the samples

19
per three days for two weeks within one week interval. Then the researcher had identified
as decomposable and non-decomposable household solid wastes. For key informant
interviews and focused group discussion from all population of the city that was grouped
under three separate strata select health extension agents, sub cities leaders, youth leaders,
cooperative leaders, from all religious representatives, and other community
representatives for all views of wastes.

To determine samples size and procedures of evaluating the effects of municipal solid
waste dumping site on nearby selected land resources, the study used to divide the area of
dumping site land resources as offsite and onsite (nearby dumping site and unaffected site)
through selection of sites that are unaffected by taking the upper catchment of the
watershed.

3.7. Method of Data Analysis

Both qualitative and quantitative techniques were used for data analysis. Both from
primary and secondary sources data collected were recorded carefully in MS-excel sheet
and arranged in a logical sequence. Quantitative analysis methods, one way ANOVA
including percentages, means, graphical and tabular analysis, maps, rates and frequency
distribution were analyzed by SPSS (2015, Version 20.00) for analysis of the effect of
dumping site on nearby soils and ground water. Qualitative analysis techniques were done
by cause and effect relationships, inductive and deductive reasoning for the effect of
dumping site on human beings and on the environment from data that has to be collected
from focused group discussion, key informant interviews.

20
 CHAPTER FOUR

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Households Survey socioeconomic status data

Households waste management systems in the study area were identified through
interviewing different groups of the community based on sex, age structure, educational
background and family size. As indicated in Table 4.1 out of the 45 households
interviewed, most were women (66.78%) and (33.3%) were men. The average family size
was 5-6 persons (28.9%) and having 3-4 and 7–10 members had the largest percentage
(31.1%) and over ten and below 2 members having the lowest percentage (4.4%). Most of
the respondents were above the age of 35 year (62.2%), the other were 26-35 year (31.1%)
and only (6.7%) between 18-25. Regarding income, most households received a monthly
income of 1001-1500 ETB (33.3%) and only 24.1 % received over 2001 ETB. In addition
most respondent’s educational level were certificate level (20%) and only (6.7%) had
above first degree and (4.4%) were illiterate. Most of the respondents were lived in their
own house (71.1%) and only (2.2%) were lived in kebele rent house and the others 27.6%
were lived in private house rent.

As the researcher found out from the focused group discussion and key informant
interview that household solid waste generation is directly related with households’
economic status/income level and family size increment. Shekdar (2009) suggests that the
quantity of solid waste generation is lower in countries with lower GDP. This result is also
similar with study of Christopher (2016) on Mbeya city, Tanzania that solid waste
generation rates and composition vary from country to country depending on the economic
situation, industrial structure, waste management regulations, life style, monthly income,
and average family size, number of room and employment status of the community.
Accordingly, for solid waste management awareness creation is important, females are
more committed to do so as educational status is directly related with waste management.

21
Table 4.1. Household survey concerning the socioeconomic status and general
information.
Respondents
Characteristics Frequency %
Female 30 66.7
Sex Male 15 33.3
Total 45 100
18-25 3 6.7
26-35 14 31.1
Age (year)
>35 28 62.2
Total 45 100
Illiterate 2 4.4
Grade 1-4 3 6.7
Grade 5-8 9 20
Grade 9-12 7 15.6
Educational level Certificate 9 20
Diploma 8 17.8
First degree 4 8.9
Above first degree 3 6.7
Total 45 100
Kebele rent house 1 2.2
Private rent house 12 26.7
House ownership
Private house 32 71.1
Total 100
2 Members 2 4.4
3-4 Members 14 31.1
5-6 Members 13 28.9
Family size(number)
7- 10 Members 14 31.1
Above 10 2 4.4
Total 45 100
501-1000 6 13.3
1001-1500 15 33.3
Average monthly income(in
1501-2000 13 28.9
ETB)
Above 2001 ETB 11 24.4
Total 45 100

4. 2. Rate of Household Solid Waste Generation and characteristics

22
Waste generation rates data have been collected from information provided in the city by
several sources: municipalities, private company and the researcher made measurement on
major solid waste composition of households by separating and weighting it was per three
days for two weeks within one week interval from 45 households. The households solid
waste had a various mixtures of solid wastes produced in city areas and the dominant types
of solid wastes are food leftovers, vegetable peelings, onion, seed coats, grasses, kitchen
and garden wastes, animal wastes, ash, dust, leaves, scarp of chat, market place wastes
(vegetable and fruit wastes), papers, wood scraps, bones, straw, dead animals, cardboard,
cartons and paper packaging materials. Moreover, non-biodegradable wastes of plastics
(like plastic bags or “festals”, broken pieces of plastic materials, plastic packaging
materials), cables and useless electronic materials, pieces of ceramics, glass, cans, pieces
of metals, textile scraps, discarded old shoes, packaging materials, were the dominant
wastes.

The quantity of solid waste generation is mostly associated with the economic status of the
community. Shekdar (2009) suggests that the quantity of solid waste generation is lower in
countries with lower GDP. This result is also similar with study of Christopher (2016) on
Mbeya city, Tanzania that solid waste generation rates and composition vary from country
to country depending on the economic situation, industrial structure, waste management
regulations, life style, monthly income, and average family size, number of room and
employment status of the community.

In addition, as it is indicated in Figure 4.1 out of the total household solid waste, the
percentage of the ashe was dominant and covers high percentage (40%) and followed by
organic wastes (26.6%), food residuals (17.7%) and non-biodegradable wastes (15.5%).
This result is similar to the studies made in earlier times by Dream Light (2010) in the
same site. And also slightly similar to the study made by Solomon Cheru (2011) in Dessie
town. This may be due to the majority of the population uses wood as energy source for
making and preparing food. Moreover, solid wastes dominated by organic waste streams
were generated from households markets and commercial areas. This is mainly because
about 75% of HHSW of the city arises from residential areas and this source is dominantly
characterized by biodegradable solid wastes Bahir Dar city administration (2015).

23
Figure 4.1. Household solid waste generation rate and characterization in the city

. 4.3. Collection, Transportation, Dumping and Recycling of Solid Waste management

As on study indicated in Table 4.2 showed that the frequency of households home cleaning
time and collection of waste within a day was (44.4%), 2 days (42.2%), 4 days (11.1%)
and only (2.2%.) of the respondents clean their home a week once with the mean of +1.7
and standard deviation of +0.75 and the maximum cleaning time was 4 and the minimum
also 1 in a week. Moreover, the solid wastes collection materials that each households
used in the city also varies from sack (42.2%), basket (35.5%), festal (8.9%), metal
container (6.7%) to plastic (6.7%) container index with a ratio of 0.42, 0.35, 0.088, 0.066
and 0.066 respectively.

Moreover, in the study area, the solid waste generate was collected at fixed stations or
door to door and the process involved picking up of wastes from collection points once in
a week, loading them in to open/uncovered car or truck and transporting it to processing
services, transfer stations or disposal site. The transporting trucks were eight and they had
been transported the household solid wastes twice per day on average, these depends on
the size of the trucks those took time while loading the wastes. As a result many
collection activities in developing countries carried out by informal sectors and the way of
transportation by trucks is exposed to wind and sun exposing human beings and animals
for airborne diseases and common colds. It will be also availabilities and qualities of
transporting solid waste trucks/cars are too much limited. These cause delayance of

24
 collection of solid wastes on temporary collection stations that exposed to sun and rain
when the time is winter and summer respectively. These resulted in bad smell, airborne
diseases for human beings settled nearby the wastes collected (UNEP, 1996). And also
there are four basic methods of collection such as community bins, curbside collection,
block collection and door to door collection with similar to the description of
Tchobanolous et al. (1993) in Ramachandra and Bachamanda (2006). According to
Ethiopia Solid Waste and Landfill Country Profile and Action plan Community
Development Research (2011), urban waste management has been a challenge for
municipalities and urban governments in the developing world, largely due to poor
infrastructure and limited institutional capacity of the municipalities. Municipalities
throughout Ethiopia are not free of these problems and they are facing major challenges
with solid waste collection.

Table 4.2. Waste storage material used and cleaning time

Waste storage material first used Ran Min Ma

priority House cleaning time ge . x M+SD
Materi Co Ra Co 1.7+0.7
% Index
als unt nk Parameters unt % 3 1 4 5
Sack 19 42.2 0.4222 1 Every day 20 44.4 1
Baske Within 2
16 35.6 0.3555 2
t days 19 42.2 2
Metal
contai 3 6.7 0.0666 4 Within 4
ner days 5 11.1 3
Plastic
contai 3 6.7 0.0666 4 Within one
ner week 1 2.2 4
Festal 4 8.9 0.0888 3 Total 45 100

Total 45 100

In addition, sophisticated mechanically driven vehicles including hand pushed small carts,
and special vehicles for hazardous, bulky, and no recyclable wastes were used for waste
transportation. Generally, appropriately designed transfer and transportation system highly
reduces cost of collection. With respect to transfer stations, the basic modes of operation

25
were storage discharge. In which refuse is first emptied from collection trucks in to a
storage pit or to a large platform with similar to the finding of Meenakshi (2005).
According to Bahir Dar city, household solid waste collection done by Dream light solid
waste collection PLC, SBPDO, city service office recruited street sweepers and municipal
solid waste collection cooperatives. All solid wastes collected by the above responsible
body were from each household door to a temporarily solid wastes disposal site and finally
the city service solid waste truck dispose and transported the wastes to dumping site which
is found on the southern part of Bahir Dar city called Qoshe.
From the researcher observations, focused group discussion with SBPDO head and
workers and Municipal solid waste collection cooperatives workers and key informant
interviews with sub city and village representatives and households the majority of the city
solid wastes collection done through door to door by Dream light PLC and municipal solid
waste collection cooperatives. It was done on weekly bases for a household weekly and
two times a week and sometimes daily other for restaurants and hotels depending on the
amount and rate of solid wastes they generated. The payment for collection and disposal of
municipal and household solid wastes are different as the solid wastes generated differs,
but for all households the payment for solid waste collection is 8 ETB per month paid
together with water bill for Bahir Dar city service office; and for restaurants, hotels and
universities/hospitals from 20 up to 2500 ETB respectively depending on the amount and
rate of solid wastes generated.

26
(Source: field survey, 2015)

Figure 4.2. Waste collection material in the study area

4.3.1 Quantity of decomposable solid waste in the study area

As indicated in Table 4.3, on the average, rate of decomposable solid waste generation was
0.21 kg/person/day for all the 45 interviewed and surveyed respondent households. About
31.1 % surveyed household generated was more than 0.5kg kg/person/day and only 2.2 %
of the respondents generated (0.075 kg-0.125 kg/person/day). The lower waste generation
rate is attributed to the low economic activities in the area compared to the higher waste
generation household areas. This result is similar with study of Christopher in (2016) on

27
Mbeya city, Tanzania that solid waste generation rates and composition vary from country
to country depending on the economic situation, industrial structure, waste management
regulations, life style, monthly income, and average family size, number of room and
employment status of the community. More decomposable household solid wastes
generation might lead to the high level of composting and used as sources of income
generation if the awareness creation about waste management would be given for all
stakeholders and households as well.

Table 4.3. Quantity of decomposable solid wastes in kg per day

Amount of Number % Index Rank

Decomposable solid
wastes
0.075kg-o.125kg 1 2.2 0.022222 4

0.125kg-0.175kg 6 13.3 0.133333 3

0.175kg-0.2kg 12 26.7 0.266667 2

0.2kg-0.5kg 12 26.7 0.266667 2

>0.5kg 14 31.1 0.311111 1

Total 45 100.0

Moreover, as shown in Figure 4.3, at the municipal level, though it has improvement, the
limited knowledge on technologies and good practices for household solid waste
management, lack of equipment for the collection of sorted materials and the low interest
of decision makers in environmental issues and the level of awareness on individual
households quantification and household solid waste separation/segregation was very
tiresome. Awareness campaigns influence the behavior of individuals to segregate waste
due to their environmental concern and the need to participate in solutions.

28
(Source: field survey, 2015)
Figure 4.3. Quantity of solid wastes in the study area

4.3.2 Raw weight of decomposable solid wastes

As indicated in Table 4.4, the highest quantity of raw weight of decomposable solid waste
in the study area was between 0.2 -0.5 kg/person/day, (42.2%) followed by > 0.5
kg/person/day (24.4%) and the lowest were 0.075-0.125 kg/person/day (2.2%).

Table 4.4. Raw weight of decomposable solid wastes in kg per day

Amount of weight of N % Rank

decomposable solid umber
wastes
0.075kg-0.125kg 1 2.2 3
0.125kg-0.175kg 5 11.1 5
0.175kg-0.2kg 9 20.0 4

29
 0.2kg-0.5kg 19 42.2 1
>0.5kg 11 24.4 2
Total 45 100.0

4.3.3 Moisture content in % of decomposable household solid wastes

The results demonstrated that the optimum moisture content for the decomposable
household solid wastes can vary widely and ranging from near 13.3% to over 68.9% of
moisture content on a wet basis as shown in the Table 4.5. This showed that there is also
have a significant reduction in decomposition rate when operating outside the optimum
range; and these results may also suggest opportunities to mitigate this effect through
manipulation of the particle size of decomposable solid waste material generated in the
study area. This had also an implication for engineering analysis that demonstrates the
importance and challenges of maintaining optimum moisture content in dynamics of
decomposable waste material systems, where biological drying, metabolic water
production, and changes in compaction and porosity were all occurring over time.

Table 4.5. Moisture content in % of decomposable household solid wastes

Moisture in % of decomposable Nu % Rank

solid wastes mbe
r
6-24 6 13.3 3
25-35 31 68.9 1
36-47 8 17.8 2
Total 45 100.0

4.3.4 Dry weight decomposable solid wastes

The survey on the household’s dry weight decomposable wastes in the study area had
shown in Table 4.6 that the type of dry weight decomposable waste generated in the
whole mass of the waste were 0.2 kg-0.5 kg(57.8%), 0.175 kg-0.2 kg (24.4%), 0.125 kg-
0.175 kg(11.11%), >0.5 kg(4.4%) and 0.075 kg-0.125 kg (2.2%). This may be mainly
attributed to the type of waste separated at the household level usually manure and dried
grass. The purpose of the manure is to plaster walls and floors, whereas the grass is fed to
domestic animals”.

30
 Table 4.6. Dry weight in kg per day of decomposable solid wastes

Dry weight of decomposable Number % Rank

solid wastes
0.075kg-0.125kg 1 2.2 5
0.125kg-0.175kg 5 11.1 3
0.175kg-0.2kg 11 24.4 2
0.2kg-0.5kg 26 57.8 1
>0.5kg 2 4.4 4
Total 45 100.0

4.3.5 Quantity of non-decomposable solid wastes

As indicated in Table 4.7, unlike the decomposable solid wastes the non-decomposable
solid waste average rate of household solid waste generation rate was 0.093 kg/person/day
and about 77.8% of the respondents generated 0.075 kg/person/day which is the lower
waste generation rate. This may be attributed to the awareness level of the household that
leads non decomposable wastes were not be recycled. This result is different from the
studies made in earlier times by Dream Light plc. (2010) in the same site. The difference
may be due to the awareness level of households who sell for koraleos in separating non
–decomposable solid wastes and municipal leaders on the impacts of waste management
systems in the city.

Table 4.7. Quantity of non-decomposable solid wastes in kg per day

Amount of non- decomposable solid wastes Number % Rank

0.075kg 35 77.8 1
0.075kg-0.125kg 6 13.3 2
0.125kg-0.175kg 4 8.9 3
Total 45 100.0

31
4.3.6 Raw weight of non-decomposable solid wastes

Unlike the raw weight of decomposable solid wastes, the non-decomposable solid wastes
quantity was highest (77.8%) which was lower than 0.075 kg/person/day and about (8.9%)
were disposed in between 0.125 – 0.175 kg/person/day as indicated in Table 4.8. This may
be attributed to the awareness level of the households.

Table 4.8. Raw weight of non-decomposable solid wastes in kg per day

Amount of raw weight of non- Number %t Rank

decomposable solid wastes
0.075kg 35 77.8 1
0.075kg-0.125kg 6 13.3 2
0.125kg-0.175kg 4 8.9 3
Total 45 100.0

4.3.7 Dry weight of non-decomposable solid waste

This survey result had revealed some facts which go into details especially in separation of
wastes. Moreover, the survey result showed that there was a general and biased
understanding that separation of waste at source is not done except for the most usable ones
to sell to “Koraleos". As indicated in Table 4.9 the dry weight in kg per day of non-
decomposable household solid wastes generated from 42 respondents were (0.055
kg/person/day) in which about 93.3% of the total respondents and only 3 respondents
(6.7%) had generated 0.055-0.125 kg/person/day.

Table 4.9. Dry weight in kg per day of non-decomposable solid wastes

Dry weight in kg per day of Number % Rank

non-decomposable solid wastes
0.055kg 42 93.3 1
0.055kg-0.125kg 3 6.7 2
Total 45 100.0

32
4.3.8 Quantity of glasses and other related solid waste materials

Quantification of glasses and other related household solid wastes materials is also made
per day and data were taken from 45 respondents for the assessment. As shown in Table
4.10 the majority of the respondents (84.4%) disposed <0.075 kg /person/day and only (4.4
%) was disposed between 0.125 kg-0.175 kg/person/day mainly composed of glasses and
other related materials in the study area. This may also be related with the awareness level
of the households to dispose the lower amount of glasses and other related materials to the
disposable area.

Table 4.10. Quantity of glasses and other related solid waste materials in kg/day

Amount of glasses and related Number % Rank

materials
0.075kg 38 84.4 1.0
0.075kg-0.125kg 5 11.1 2.0
0.125kg-0.175kg 2 4.4 3.0

4.4. Effects of Municipal Solid Waste Dumping on nearby selected Land Resources

Solid waste management is one of the most challenging issues faced by developing
countries that suffer from serious pollution problems caused by the generation of
large waste quantities. The extent of effect of solid waste leachate on soil and water
at dumping sites and the nearby farm land is presented in Table 4.11. From the
survey that has been conducted of the solid waste in Bahir Dar city, there was a
general feeling that the dumping site was burdened with waste exported from the
university, residential and city commercial areas and was therefore left to deal with
the various impacts associated with disposal. To better analyze these impacts, soil
and water data has been collected and analyzed for selected land resource
parameters.

33
(Source: Field survey on waste dumping site)

Figure 4.4. The Effects of solid wastes on human and animals

As shown on above Figure 4.4 that researcher conducted and gained form focused group
discussion and key informant interviews with households live on nearby dumping site,
health stations staff sub city and village elders and representatives of different solid waste
collection cooperatives and officers of SBPDO Bahir Dar city that the dumpsite exposes
the residents around it to unacceptable levels of environmental pollutants with adverse
health impacts. A high number of children and adolescents living around the dumping site
had illnesses related to the respiratory, gastrointestinal and dermatological systems such as
upper respiratory tract infections, chronic bronchitis, asthma, fungal infections,
inflammation and itchiness of the skin, allergic and unspecified dermatitis/pruritus.

34
There are potential risks to environment and health from improper handling of solid
wastes. Direct health risks concern mainly the workers in this field, who need to be
protected, as far as possible, from contact with wastes. There are also specific risks in
handling wastes from hospitals and clinics. For the general public, the main risks to health
are indirect and arise from the breeding of disease vectors, primarily flies and rats.
Accordingly, on the study area improper MSW disposal and management causes all types
of pollution: air, soil, and water. Indiscriminate dumping of wastes contaminates surface
and ground water supplies. In urban areas, MSW clogs drains, creating stagnant water for
insect breeding and floods during rainy seasons. Uncontrolled burning of MSW and
improper incineration contributes significantly to urban air pollution. Greenhouse gases
are generated from the decomposition of organic wastes in landfills, and untreated leachate
pollutes surrounding soil and water bodies. Health and safety issues also arise from
improper MSWM. Insect and rodent vectors are attracted to the waste and can spread
diseases such as cholera and dengue fever. Using water polluted by MSW for bathing,
food irrigation and drinking water can also expose individuals to disease organisms and
other contaminants; this result is similar with findings of Dream Light PLC (Dream Light
PLC., 2010).

4.4.1 Aesthetics aspects

According to focused group discussion with nearby dumping site sub city village elders,
households, and health station experts that foul odour is emitted at the disposal site
due to continuous decomposition of organic matter and emission of methane,
hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, open burning of wastes etc. The problem is
intensified if proper mitigation measures are not adopted. Odour is emitted at the
collection points if quick removal of wastes is not practiced. Spreading of the
waste in the area adjacent to the dust bin due to activity of ragpickers cause
degradation of aesthetic quality. Uncontrolled disposal and open burning of wastes
at the landfill sites create poor vision. Domestic rats, birds and other scavenging
animals act as reservoirs for many organisms transmissible to people, including
plague, forms of typhus, leptospirosis, trichinosis, psittacosis, salmonella infection
and bovine tuberculosis.

According to focused group discussion with nearby dumping site kebele village elders,
households, and health station experts that chemical control of both houseflies and rodents

35
is not very effective because of widespread resistance. The essential basis of control
remains denial of access to food and harborage, by covered storage and efficient removal.
Aides mosquitoes, vectors of dengue and yellow fever, breed prolifically in discarded
containers that trap rainwater. Culex mosquitoes, vectors of filariasis, breed n polluted
stagnant water. Such breeding sites often occur where drains are choked by solid waste.
According to focused group discussion with nearby dumping site kebele village elders,
households, and health station experts that houseflies may be important in the transmission
of enteric infections, particularly those responsible for infantile diarrhea and dysentery.
Disease transmission by houseflies is greatest where inadequate refuse storage during
temporary village waste station, collection and disposal (leading to increased breeding) is
accompanied by inadequate sanitation. Thus flies gain greater access to human faeces and
then to food, this result is similar with findings of Dream Light PLC. (2010).

4.4.2. Concentration of selected soil and water parameters of the dumping site and
nearby farming land

The Groundwater of the study area is used for domestic and other purposes. Table 4.11
shows that the concentration of various parameters present in the hand dug well
groundwater samples from dumping site and nearby farming lands and soil
samples from dumping site and nearby farming land from which the quality of
groundwater, soils has been analyzed.

Table 4.11. Laboratory results of selected parameters in farm land soils and water samples

offsite soil samples (ppm) offsite water samples (mg/l)

S1 S2 S3 S4 LSM±SE S1 S2 S3 S4 LSM±SE
Parameters
0.93±0.13 2.31±0.0
Cu 0.66 1.27 0.76 1.02 2.28 2.34 2.32 2.29 1
125.6 114.34±16 10.6 10.2 10.66±0.
Fe 84.11 155.19 92.43 5 .3 3 8 10.74 11.01 15
Mn 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
22.58±3.9 15.8 8.27±3.7
Pb 14.63 31.62 17.43 26.67 5 5 0.99 13.5 2.75 4
Cd 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
61.47±10. 3.88±0.0
Zn 43.21 88.38 48.54 65.75 17 3.81 4.03 3.72 3.98 7
Cr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
OC 2.3 1.76 2.34 1.98 2.09±0.13

36
 OM 3.97 3.03 3.87 3.65 3.63±0.21
TN 0.2 0.17 0.32 0.25 0.24±0.03
AP 6.72 2.76 4.56 4.65 4.67±0.8
PH 5.92 5.84 5.87 5.9 5.88±0.01

Table 4.12. Laboratory results of selected parameters in dumping site soils and water samples

On site soil samples (ppm) On site water samples (mg/l)

parameters S1 S2 S3 S4 LSM±SE Se 1 S2 S3 S4 LSM±SE
1.04±0.35 0.71±1.0
Cu 1.73 0.17 1.47 0.78 2.11 -2.32 1.98 1.08 4
102.3 85.40±13. 13.1 11.14±0.
Fe 57 113.74 68.53 4 48 2 9.99 11.42 10.04 74
Mn 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
14.80±2.8 0.96±0.2
Pb 8.45 21.96 12.78 16.02 4 0.44 1.44 0.88 1.09 1
Cd 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
41.60±8.3 13.2 9.42±1.5
Zn 22.12 62.94 38.47 42.87 9 2 5.66 8.56 10.22 8
Cr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
OC 2.06 3.06 1.98 2.62 2.50±0.28
OM 3.56 5.27 3.78 4.06 4.25±0.25
0.22±0.02
TN 0.19 0.29 0.23 0.18 4
107.0 145.1 210.3 175.67±30
AP 7 240.17 2 2 .27
6.34±0.42
PH 5.67 7.54 5.86 6.32

(S1= Sample 1)

PH: PH of water samples varies from 5.24 to 6.59. The acceptable limit for the drinking
water standard is 6.5 – 8.5 (WHO, 1997). As shown in Table 4.11 and 4.12 the values are
5.67 to 7.54 and 5.84 to 5.92 in dumping site and in the farm lands respectively. Since
dumping site and farm land soil samples do not lie in the limit, it is not suitable for
drinking. The pH of soil was 5.88 in the farm land and the solid waste soil sample was
6.34. This might be due to the more household solid wastes were ashes disposed on the
dumping site and nearby sites also affected by this wastes by leachate, winds, and surface
flooding.
The pH values of the study area were slightly acidic which measured for 6.34±0.42 in the
dumps site and 5.88±0.01in the farm land with dissimilar to the finding of Hunachew

37
Beyene et al. (2011) study in Addis Ababa whose report that 8.17±0. 946. This result was
showed that the sorption of organic residues in the soil. This high value of pH in the
dumping site might be attributed with the huge amount of ash that was disposed in the
dumping site. Although pH usually has no direct impact on consumers, it is one of the
most important operational soil and water quality parameters. The mean concentration of
PH in the dumping site soil samples was 6.34±0.42 which is acidic tends to neutral than the
concentration of PH in the farm land soil samples (5.88±0.01) which is slightly acidic, the
most appropriate for the growth of vegetables, most fruits and grains. This research result
is different from the result which was done in Addis Ababa dumping site which was
slightly basic (7.09-9.51) in by Hunachew Beyene et al. (2011).

Nitrate: Nitrate is one of the most common groundwater contaminant. The excess levels
can cause methemoglobinemia, or "blue baby" disease. Although nitrate levels that affect
infants do not pose a direct threat to older children and adults, they do indicate the possible
presence of other more serious residential or agricultural contaminants, such as bacteria or
pesticides. Nitrate in groundwater originates primarily from fertilizers, septic systems, and
manure storage or spreading operations. The permissible limit for the nitrate is 45 mg/L
(WHO, 1997). The soil samples in farm land were 0.23 mg/L and soil samples in the
dumping site were0.22 mg/l. All the samples are within the permissible range.

Sulfate: Sulfate can be found in almost all natural water. The origin of most sulfate
compounds is the oxidation of sulfite ores, the presence of shales, or the industrial wastes.
Sulfate is one of the major dissolved components of rain. High concentrations of sulfate in
the water we drink can have a laxative effect when combined with calcium and
magnesium, the two most common constituents of hardness. The sample contains the
sulphate concentration in the dumping site soils were 175.6 mg/L and in the farm land soil
samples were 4.67 mg/l. The desirable limit for sulphate is 200 mg/L and the permissible
limit in the absence of alternate source is 400 mg/L (WHO, 1997). The samples from
dumping site and farm land are suitable for drinking. Phosphorus is usually present in
natural water as phosphates (orthophosphates, polyphosphates, and organically bound
phosphates). Sources of phosphorus include human and animal wastes (i.e., sewage),
industrial wastes, soil erosion, and fertilizers. Excess phosphorus causes extensive algal
growth called "blooms," which are a classic symptom of cultural eutrophication and lead
to decreased oxygen levels in creek water.

38
Copper: The desirable limit for copper is 0.05 mg/l and the permissible limit in the
absence of alternate source is 0.71 mg/l (WHO, 1997). In the dumping site, the
undesirable effect beyond the desirable limit is astringent taste, discoloration and
corrosion of pipes, fittings and utensils will be caused. The present water samples as
shown in Table 4.11 and 4.12 the values are 0.17 to 2.32 mg/l and 0.66 to 2.34 mg/l in
dumping site and in the farm lands respectively. Hence, all water samples (both in
dumping site and farm land) are contaminated due to copper and not suitable for drinking.

Manganese: The desirable limit for manganese is 0.1 mg/L and the permissible limit in
the absence of alternate source is 0.3 mg/L (WHO, 1997). Beyond this limit taste and
appearance are affected and has the adverse effect on domestic uses and water supply
structures. As shown in Table 4.11 and 4.12, the water sample has no appreciable
concentration of Manganese and it is found to be below the detection level. The detection
level is 0.01 mg/L.

Cadmium: The permissible limit for cadmium is 0.01 mg/L (WHO, 1997). Beyond this
the water becomes toxic. As shown in Table 4.11 and 4.12, the water sample has no
appreciable concentration of Cadmium and it is found to be below the detection level. The
detection level is 0.001 mg/L.

Lead: The permissible limit for lead is 0.05 mg/L (WHO, 1997). The detection level is
0.01 mg/L. In the dumping site, the undesirable effect beyond the desirable limit is
astringent taste, discoloration and corrosion of pipes, fittings and utensils will be caused.
The present water samples are having copper ranging as shown in Table 4.11 and 4.12 the
values are 0.44 to 21.96 and 0.99 to 31.62 mg/l in dumping sites and in the farm lands
respectively /L. Hence, all water samples (both in dumping site and grazing land) are
contaminated due to Lead and not suitable for drinking. The concentration of Copper in
the dumping site soils and water samples is non-significance as compared to other trace
elements(p<0.05) significance in the same study area. The concentration of Lead in farm
land water samples was (p>0.05) non-significance but its effect on farm land soil samples
was significance. Other trace elements have significance effect on the dumping site as
well as on the farm land, especially Iron and Zinc due to the

Chromium: The permissible limit for chromium is 0.05 mg/L (WHO, 1997). As shown in
Table 4.11 and 4.12, the water sample has no appreciable concentration of chromium and

39
it is found to be below detection level. The detection level is 0.03 mg/L. Hence, it has
insignificant effect on the study area soils and waters samples.

Iron: The permissible limit for chromium is 0.3 mg/L (WHO, 1997). Its concentration in
the dumping site samples was as shown in Table 4.11 and 4.12 ranging 11.14±0.74 mg/l to
85.40±40 mg/l and in the farm land samples 10.66±0.15 mg/l to 114.34±16.30 mg/l. It is
undesirable in drinking water in the study area. These were due to ashes and water from
natural deposits, industrial wastes, refining of iron ores, and corrosion of iron containing
metals.

Zinc: The permissible limit for chromium is 5 mg/L (WHO, 1997). As shown in Table
4.11 and 4.12 its concentration in the dumping site samples was ranging 9.42 ±1.58 mg/l
to 41.60±8.39 mg/l and in the farm land samples 3.88±0.07 mg/l to 61.47±10.17 mg/l. It is
undesirable in drinking water in the study area. These are attribute to the application of
numerous bio solids (e.g., livestock manures, composts, and municipal sewage sludge) to
land inadvertently leads to the accumulation of heavy metals such as Cu, Pb, Zn, and so
forth, in the soil.

The result of Iron (Fe), and Zinc (Zn) obtained in the dump site and nearby farm land were
found to be lower than the values obtained by Hunachew Beyene et al. (2011) at Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia. The results of the study indicates that all the metals are present in
higher concentrations as compared to the normal concentration of metals in soils as
given by Alloway (1990). The overall concentration of Lead (Pb) in the study location as
observed in the study has been found to be much higher than the average concentrations of
lead in roadside soils of Addis Ababa and Nazareth as reported by Prabu (2010). The
results indicated high levels of pollution and the immobilization may also be attributed to
alkaline pH as obtained in the present study area.
The mean concentration of Iron (Fe)(85.40 mg/l), Zinc (Zn)(41.60 mg/l) and available
Phosphorus (P)(175.67 mg/l) were found to be in an elevated concentration than the
typical concentration of MSW dumping site soil samples as in Addis Ababa by
Hunachew Beyene et al. (2011).

40
Table 4.13. Concentration of selected parameters in soils and water samples on both sites

Dumping site Farm land site

parameters LSM±SE Std. T (t Sig LSM±SE Std. T(t Sig.
Dev value) (p Dev value) (p
value value
) )
soil Cu 1.04±0.35 0.7 0.93±0.13 0.27 6.766 0.00
7
Fe 85.40±13.4 26.9 6.334 0.008 114.34±16. 32.61 7.013 0.00
8 6 30 6
Pb 14.80±2.84 5.69 5.202 0.014 22.58±3.95 7.92 5.704 0.01
1
Zn 41.60±8.39 16.7 4.954 0.016 61.47±10.1 20.35 6.04 0.00
9 7 9
OC 2.50±0.28 0.58 8.66 0.003 2.09±0.13 0.27 15.215 0.00
1
O 4.25±0.25 0.5 17 0 3.63±0.21 0.42 17.214 0
M
TN 0.22±0.024 0.05 8.915 0.003 0.24±0.03 0.06 7.167 0.00
6
Av. 175.67±30. 60.5 5.802 0.01 4.67±00.80 1.62 5.772 0.01
P 27 5
PH 6.34±0.42 0.84 15.10 0.001 5.88±0.01 0.04 336.14 0
Wate Cu 0.71±1.04 2.07 0.687 0.541 2.31±0.01 0.03 167.58 0
r 8
Fe 11.14±0.74 1.47 15.10 0.001 10.66±0.15 0.3 70.566 0
Pb 0.96±0.21 0.42 4.606 0.019 8.27±3.74 7.49 2.21 0.11
4
Zn 9.42±1.58 3.16 5.959 0.009 3.88±0.07 0.14 53.661 0

As shown in Table, 4.13 the mean concentration of Fe (85.40±13.48), Pb (14.80±2.84) and

Zn (41.60±8.39) ppm in the dumping site soil samples which were slightly lower than
those which was taken in farm land soil samples, the values were Fe (114.34±16.30), Pb
(22.58±3.95) and Zn (61.47±10.17) ppm. The statistical test opened that there is
significance difference between the two sites this result is similar with the findings by
Hunachew Beyene et al. (2011) in Addis Ababa. These might be due to the dispersion of
elements by various environmental and anthropological factors and also through wind.
All eight groundwater samples in dumping site and in the grazing site were analyzed for
heavy metals such as Cu, Fe and Zn, which are characterized as undesirable metals in
drinking water. The permissible limits of these metals in drinking water are respectively 1,
0.3 and 5 mg/L (WHO, 1997). As shown on Table, 4.13 Cu concentrations in the

41
groundwater samples in the dumping site and in grazing land were 0.71±1.04 and
2.31±0.01 mg/l respectively. However, Cu concentration was below detectable limit in all
of the samples. Fe concentration in the groundwater samples in the dumping site and in
grazing land were (11.14±0.74) mg/L and 10.66±0.15 mg/l respectively. Zn concentration
in the groundwater samples in the dumping site and in grazing land were 9.42±1.58 and
3.88±0.07 mg/L respectively. Higher concentration of Fe and Zn in some pockets may be
resulted from the leachate through percolation.

As indicated in above Table 4.13 among the analyzed elements, Fe had the highest
concentration which ranged between 11.14 to 854 mg/l in the study area. The
concentration of heavy metals Zn, Cr, Ni, Co and Pb in soils have been found to be higher
than their normal concentration in soils. The leachate is adding increased concentrations of
heavy metals Cr, Cd, Pb, Mn, Fe and Zn to the adjacent ground water and nearby farm
lands. Therefore, it can be deduced that continuous application of all categories of solid
waste on land resulted degraded quality of the soil, ground water and the stream water,
accumulation of metals in receiving soils and release of concentrated leachate to the
environment which further become potential source of entry into the food chain.

Available phosphorus: The value of Available phosphorus in the dumping site is

175.67±30.27 ppm where as in the farm land is 4.67±00.80 ppm, this shows that in the
dumping site the value is highly significant due to the liquid and solid waste disposed on
the dumping site .This result is similar to the findings of Mekonnen Gebeyaw et al. (2013)
in Bahir Dar and Kombolcha that was the phosphate concentration varied from 0.5 to 7.4
mg L-1 and 2.66 to 18.2 mg L-1 at Kombolcha and Bahir Dar city) respectively, which is
above the critical level of 0.1 mg L-1 (WHO, 2011). The sources of phosphate
concentration at experimental sites are domestic wastewater from cleaning agents,
laboratories, and brewery and from runoffs and agricultural activities in the surrounding
areas.

42
 As shown in Table, 4.13 the mean concentration of organic matter, total Nitrogen and
available Phosphorus in the dumping site soil samples were 4.25±0.25, 0.22±0.024 and
175.67±30.27 respectively in which the fertility status of soils in the study area both in the
dumping site and in the farm land site was highly significance. These might be due to the
applications of fertilizers and organic household solid wastes disposed to dumping site.
These amounts of soil fertility are highly suitable for most agricultural products.

4.4.3 Correlation of analysed parameters

Table 4.14. Correlations of analysing of soil and water parameters

Correlations of dumping site soil and water parameters

Copperso Ironso Leadso Zincso Ocarbonso Omatterso TotalNso AvailPso PHso Copperwo Ironwo Leadwo Zincwo
* * NS
Copperso 1 -.982 -.982 -.950 -.923NS -.822NS -.635NS -.983* -.962* .926NS .890NS -.957* .797NS

Ironso 1 .951* .907NS .969* .701NS .493NS .996** .894NS -.840NS -.940NS .944NS -.729NS

Leadso 1 .992** .850NS .838NS .731NS .969* .961* -.924NS -.902NS .989* -.896NS

Zincso 1 .777NS .847NS .794NS .935NS .948NS -.914NS -.879NS .987* -.946NS

Ocarbonso 1 .577NS .289NS .945NS .800NS -.742NS -.882NS .836NS -.539NS

Omatterso 1 .902NS .710NS .946NS -.975* -.521NS .762NS -.792NS

TotalNso 1 .538NS .795NS -.825NS -.421NS .690NS -.883NS

AvailPso 1 .899NS -.843NS -.958* .969* -.783NS

PHso 1 -.993** -.758NS .911NS -.836NS

Copperwo 1 .676NS -.860NS .810NS

Ironwo 1 -.944NS .767NS

Leadwo 1 -.911NS

Zincwo 1

** =Highly significance, * =Significance, NS= non significance

Correlations of farm land soil and water parameters

Copperso Ironso Leadso Zincso Ocarbonso Omatterso TotalNso AvailPso PHso Copperwo Ironwo Leadwo Zincwo
Copperso 1 .999** .992** .995** -.977* -.965* -.477NS -.891NS -.725N .652NS -.415NS -.959* .891NS
S

Ironso 1 .992** .996** -.985* -.965* -.513NS -.870NS -.700N .626NS -.420NS -.960* .909NS
S

Leadso 1 .977* -.977* -.926NS -.440NS -.860NS -.657N .575NS -.303NS -.987* .914NS
S

Zincso 1 -.976* -.985* -.536 NS -.885NS -.745N .678NS -.499NS -.931NS .883NS
S

Ocarbonso 1 .939NS .622NS .774NS .583NS -.503NS .402NS .955* -.964*

Omatterso 1 .576NS .887NS .804NS -.752NS .638NS .854NS -.820NS
TotalNso 1 .134NS .094NS -.065NS .636NS .387NS -.681NS

43
AvailPso 1 .936NS -.893NS .442NS .797NS -.589NS
PHso 1 -.994** .635NS .549NS -.345NS
Copperwo 1 -.667NS -.458NS .255NS
Ironwo 1 .152NS -.250NS
Leadwo 1 -.926NS
Zincwo 1

** =Highly significance * =Significance NS= non

significance

Copperso=Copper in dumping site soil sample, Ironso=Iron in dumping site soil sample,
Leadso=Lead in dumping site soil sample, Zincso=Zinc in dumping site soil sample,
Omatterso=Organic matter in dumping site soil sample, TotalNso= total nitrogen in
dumping site soil sample, AvailPso=available phosphorus in dumping site soil sample,
PHso= acidity or basicity of soils in the dumping site, Copperwo=Copper in dumping site
ground water sample, Ironwo=Iron in dumping site ground water sample, Leadwo=Lead
in dumping site ground water sample, Zincwo=Zinc in dumping site ground water
sample , ** =Highly significance, * =Significance and NS= non significance

The concentration of Pb had very significant positive correlation with Zn (r=0.992,

p<0.05) (Table 4.14) on soil samples of dumping site which indicates that it may be
coming in dumpsites from the same sources and the application of numerous bio solids
(e.g., livestock manures, composts, and municipal sewage sludge) to land inadvertently
leads to the accumulation of heavy metals such as Cu, Pb, Zn, and so forth, in the soil.
Certain animal wastes such as poultry, cattle, and pig manures produced in agriculture are
commonly applied to crops and pastures either as solids or slurries. Although most
manures are seen as valuable fertilizers, in the pig and poultry industry, the Cu and Zn
added to diets as growth promoters and as contained in poultry health products may also
have the to cause metal contamination of the soil. Likewise Iron had very significant
positive correlation with available phosphorus (r=0.969, p<0.05) on the soil samples of
dumping site, It may also be released to ashes and water from natural deposits, industrial
wastes, refining of iron ores, and corrosion of iron containing metals. While PH had very
significant negative correlation with Cu (r=0.993, p<0.05) on the water samples of
dumpsite, this is attributed to show that increasing pH can reduce the metal availability.

44
Many other relationships between various quantitative variables with heavy metals are
also significant with least correlation values. These are attributed to the leaks from the
waste disposal site; especially opened and unfenced dumping site is responsible to the
flow and leak of heavy metals and other pollutants from dumping site to the surrounding
and nearby areas through surface flow and seepage percolation. These results of
correlation can prove useful in understanding the relationships of metal concentrations
with each other and with physical properties of dumping site soils and water which are
similar findings with Raymond et al. (2011) in Nigeria.

As shown in Table 4.14, the concentration of Cu had very significant positive correlation
with Fe, Pb and Zn (r=0.999, r=0.992 and r=995, p<0.05) on soil samples of farm lands
respectively. Likewise, the concentration of Fe had very significant positive correlation
with Pb and Zn (r=0.992 and r=0.996, p<0.05) on soil samples of farm lands respectively
which indicate that they may be coming in dumpsites from the same sources and the
application of numerous bio solids (e.g., livestock manures, composts, and municipal
sewage sludge) to land inadvertently leads to the accumulation of heavy metals such as
Cu, Pb, Zn, and so forth, in the soil. While PH had very significant negative correlation
with Cu (r=0.994, p<0.05) on the water samples of farm land, this is attributed to show
that increasing pH can reduce the metal availability.

45
 CHAPTER FIVE

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Conclusion

This paper has attempted to analyze the rate and amount of household solid waste
management service of Bahir Dar city in general. In particular, the study explored
households’ solid waste physical composition and generation rate, household’s solid waste
management practice, and institutional structure and capacity of sanitation, beautification
and parks development department (SBPDO) of the Bahir Dar city. . Finally, on the basis
of qualitative and quantitative analysis of data, the findings of this study are summarized
as follows.
The principal sources of municipal solid wastes in Bahir Dar city are residences,
commercial areas, street sweeping, institutions, and small scale industries. However, the
considerable amount of solid waste of the city (60%) is generated from residential areas.
Though this source has such large dominance, the city’s SBPDO didn’t make frequent and
ongoing inspections on its solid waste composition and generation rate. But, this study
found out solid waste generation rate of household about 0.35 kg/person/day. This made
the daily and annual total solid waste generation of residential areas of the city to (97148.1
kg) and (35386195.425 kg) respectively. Furthermore, according to this study about 84.5
% of residential areas solid waste is composed of biodegradable solid wastes such as ash,
dust, and food byproduct waste. This composition is very suitable to make compost. This
is the best way of sustainable solid waste management both in terms of economic and
environmental value. But, there is no activity made by the city SBPDO, as well as other
actors towards application of this potential resource; except Dream light PLC started to
prepare compost but later stopped due to inappropriate site of composting site. But now
Arenguadie raey household solid waste collection Cooperative with the help of ORDA
Amhara sanitation and Hygiene programme started to prepare compost and how to reuse
and recycle the wastes.
This study also found that Bahir Dar city municipal solid waste management service is
very weak in terms of status, spatial coverage and solid waste management facility.
Presently, in the city there are no public solid waste storage containers and road side dust

46
bins. As substitution of these facilities there are Dream Light solid waste collection PLC
and other solid waste collection cooperatives solid waste collectors and transport that give
service only to door to door solid waste collections and block collections.
Those stations are located at the edge of main roads, and they are not well designed.
Simply they are road side open dumps without any health, aesthetic and environmental
impact considerations.
Besides this, those transfer stations are also characterized by uneven distribution both in
terms of distance from beneficiaries and kebele specific locations. Furthermore, municipal
solid waste collection and transportation activity of the city is carried out by two types of
collection methods such as door to door and transfer stations solid waste collection. Door-
to-door collection system is provided by Dream Light solid waste collection PLC and
other four solid waste collection cooperatives waste collectors and by municipality
collection truck. It is largely implemented for collection of solid waste from residential
areas to transfer stations. But, the rate, amount and spatial coverage of this service is very
unsatisfactory, only covers residents who are living in the center of the city and along
accessible streets.

Whereas the transfer stations collection method is directly performed by the SBPDO using
its collection truck. Based on average trip of a truck, the total amount of solid waste which
is daily collected and transported by the municipality is calculated as 80,000 kg but the
actual daily generated solid waste from all sources of the city is about 97148.1 kg.
Therefore, only 82.3% of the municipal solid waste of the city is collected and transported
Koshe (southern part of Bahir Dar city) disposal site of the city. As a result of this, huge
amounts of uncollected solid wastes are indiscriminately disposed in unauthorized areas.
In addition to poor solid waste collection and transportation practice, the city disposal site
is also found in unacceptable and very risky situation. Because, it is simply naturally
created gorge rather than manually prepared solid waste dumping through environmental,
economic and social impact considerations. The researcher found out that awareness about
these household solid waste generations, segregation, collection, and disposal is not well
done. Generally, on the study findings the rate and amount of household solid waste
generation in the study area was known.
It has been observed that the main solid waste management so far in the study area does
not involve recycling of the waste material. The waste material is simply collected with
block collection and door to door collection and transported where it would be burned and
47
dumped. Based on field survey, observation, focused group discussion and key informant
interviews result the reusing and recycling of household solid waste were not started
except Areguadie raey household solid waste collection cooperative with budget support
of ORDA Amhara Hygiene and sanitation programme started to prepare compost and how
to reuse and recycle the wastes.

The effect of municipal solid waste dumping site on nearby selected land resources of the
study area is toxicity of heavy metals in the farm lands for agricultural productivity. From
my own field survey, observations, from focused group discussion with SBPDO head and
workers and Municipal solid waste collection cooperatives workers and key informant
interviews with kebele and village representatives and households around dumping site
and scavengers; wastes pollute both the ground water and the air. It causes waterborne and
airborne diseases for human beings, tame animals and wild animals. In fact, the organic
part of the waste that is generated decomposes more easily, attracts insects and causes
disease, they exposed to cold, breathing disease etc.
But diseases, lack of modern and dependable waste disposal service, insufficient
knowledge about segregation of solid wastes at the source are the main constraints
which increase solid waste generation that cause health problems to households who
live around those areas.
Proper methods of waste disposal have to be undertaken to ensure that it does not affect
the environment or cause health hazards to the people living there. At the household-
level proper segregation of waste has to be done and it should be ensured that all
organic matter is kept aside for composting, which is undoubtedly the best method
for the correct disposal of this segment of the waste particle. Organic waste can be
composted and then used as a fertilizer other wastes can be recycled and reused for
further purposes including unemployment minimization for the community as the
whole.

48
5.2. Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the following measures are very important to
overcome MSWM problems of Bahir Dar city:

The residents of Bahir Dar city have low awareness and knowledge about solid waste
management issues. This clearly indicates the need of wider public awareness creation
activities. So that the SBPDO as well as health office of the city should deliver adequate
training and awareness creation to residents about side effects of solid waste, waste
segregation, collection, reuse, recycle, control of disease and application of sustainable
solid waste management practices. In this case, there is a need to give special attention to
women who are the most powerful change agent.

Designing and implementing of community-based solid waste collection and

transportation strategy should be set out at household level to improve waste segregation
and recycling to re use the solid wastes further and to improve soil conformation.

The soils in the area require various remediation technologies like bioremediation and
phytoremediation by growing certain plants in the area to minimize the rate of
contamination and extent of future pollution problems of Abay River due to leachate and
runoff from dumping site.

New modern sanitary landfill need to be developed to replace the present nearly
indiscriminate disposal method. In addition, ground water monitoring shallow wells
around the dumping site need to be provided to know more about the quality changes of
leachate due to the wastage.

Further a long term study is needed to characterization and physico-chemical properties of

soil and trace/heavy metals for the effects of municipal solid waste dumping site on nearby
land resources, plants and human beings and recycled using of waste like fertilizer
process.

49
 CHAPTER SIX
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 APENDIXS

APPENDIX .1
Questionnaire prepared for sample households in Bahir Dar city
This Questionnaire is prepared for an academic purpose for the fulfillment of Master
Degree in Land resources management. Specifically the objective of the study is
Evaluation of household solid waste rate disposal procedures and the effect of dumping
site on nearby selected land resources in Bahir Dar city. Therefore, your response is very
important for the success of the study because all information that you provide determines
the analysis and conclusion of the research. Hence, you are kindly requested to give your
response by selecting (circling) your answer from the given alternative choice or
describing your opinion. Please be informed that your response is kept in confidential and
you are not required to write your name. I would like to thank you for your cooperation.
Part one: Background information about the respondents.
Instruction: In order to answer the following questions, put a right sign (√) in the boxes
that located in front of your choice.
1. Sex: a. Male b. Female
2. Age ________
3. Educational level: a. No formal education b. 1-4 grade complete
c. 5-8 grades complete d. 9-12 grades complete
e. Certificate f. diploma
g. First degree h. Second degree and
above
4. House ownership condition:
a. Kebele rental house b. Private rental house c. Private house
5. Family size: ___________________________.
6. Average monthly income (in birr):
a. Less than 500 b. 501-1000 c. 1001-1500
d. 1500-2000 e. Greater than 2000
7. Kebele _______________
Part two: Questionnaire prepared for investigating households solid waste management
awareness, and practice together with their attitude regarding municipal solid waste
management of the town.
1. How often do you clean your house?
A. Every day B. with two days interval C. with three days
interval
D. with one week interval E. if others please specify
it_____________________.
2. How many solid waste storage materials do you use to store solid wastes produced in
your dwelling? __________________________
3. What type of solid waste storage material do you use in your house to store solid waste
produced from your dwelling?
A. sack B. basket C. metal container D. plastic container (‘festal’)

57
E. private pit F. I don’t use G. if others please specify
it_____________________.
4. Do you separately store solid wastes that are produced in your house and salable to
“Quraleos?” and exchange with “Liwach”?
A. yes B. no
5. If your answer for question no 4 is ‘yes’, which of the following items do you separate
for selling it to “Quraleos” and exchange to “Liwach” (possible to select more than one)?
A. Metals, B. Plastics C. Glass, bottles, can etc. D. Organic wastes
E. Electronic wastes F. textile and old shoes G. if other please specifies
it______________
6. Do you separate other solid wastes produced in your dwelling apart from solid wastes
which are salable to “Quraleos” and “Liwach”?
A. yes B. no
7. If your answer for question no 6 is ‘yes’, state the type of those solid waste?
________________________________________________________________________
______
8. If your answer for question no 6 is ‘yes’, for what purpose do you separately store
(possible to select more than one)?
A. Using as fertilizer B. giving to other users C. to use as fuel D. to use
as feeding animals E. to recover resources by using my own effort F. for
reducing the volume of waste, makes throwing convenient and contributing to
environmental protection. G. if other please specify it _________.
9. Do you know the idea of solid waste recycling and reusing?
A. yes B. no
10. If your answer for question no 9 is ‘yes’, do you recycle or reuse solid wastes generated
from your house? A. yes B. no
11. If your answer for question no 9 is ‘yes’, what type of materials do you reuse and
recycle (possible to select more than one)?
A. used Paper B. used glasses, bottles and glass materials. C. used
metallic materials D. used plastics and plastic materials E. Textile and used
umbrellas
F. if other please specify it _________________________________
12. If your answer for question no 9 is ‘no’, please describe your reasons?
________________________________________________________________________
______
________________________________________________________________________
_____.
13. Do you know that compost can be prepared from solid waste?
A. yes B. no
14. If your answer for question no 13 is ‘yes’ do you prepare compost from solid waste
produced in your house? A. yes B. no
15. Do you have access to door to door solid waste collection service delivered from the
municipality solid waste collection vehicle?
A. Yes B. No
16. If your answer for question no 15 is ‘yes’, in how many days interval you get this
service?
A. 1-3 days B. 4-7 days C. 8-15 days D. 16-30 days E.
above
30 days F. as available

58
17. Do you use municipal solid waste collection for door to door solid waste collection
from your residence?
A. Yes B. No
18. If your answer for question no 17 is ‘yes’, in how many days interval you get this
service?
A. 1-3 days B. 4-7 days C. 8-15 days D. 16-30 days E.
above
30 days F. as available
19. If your answer for question no 17 is ‘yes’, how much do you pay for the service render
per
Month? _____________________________________________________
20. Do you use informal sectors such as daily workers, laborers, and mentally retarded
people for door to door solid waste collection from your residence?
A. Yes B. No
21. If your answer for question no 20 is ‘yes’, how much do you pay for the service render
per month, and specify solid waste service provider criteria for fixing your charge?
________________________________________________________________________
______
________________________________________________________________________
_____.
22. Apart from the above bodies what are other means you frequently use to dispose the
solid waste of your household?
A. at the road sides and open fields E. dumping in river side’s and
gullies
B. dumping in bridges F. burn in my compound
C. burry inside my compound G. if other please
specify____________
D. simply disposes in my compound
23. Do you need the containers back again under regular follow up and place in your
surrounding?
A. Yes B. No
24. Does solid waste management service in your area is a burning issue as it compared
with other service like road service, water supply etc?
A. yes B. no
25. Have you ever obtained training, education or information about solid waste
management, and environmental and other problems created due to carelessly thrown solid
waste?
A. yes B. no
26. Would you be interested to learn more about solid waste management, environmental
impact of waste, and various ways of minimizing and treating the waste stream?
A. yes B. no
27. If so, what would be your favored method of increasing your knowledge?
A. open seminars B. Brochures distributed to residents
C. solid waste management campaign D. door to door education E.
Educational programs newsletter and magazines F. Educational programs in radio and
television
G. Exhibitions presenting good practices in solid waste management, sorting and recycling
H. other (please specify)
28. Have you ever participated in a cleanup campaigns in your kebele?
A. yes B. no

59
29. If your answer for question no 28 is “yes”, how many times you participate in the last
year_______________?
30. Do you know the rules and regulations of solid waste management of the town?
A. yes B. no
31. Have you ever seen the sanitation agent making supervision and control on illegal
dumping of solid wastes on the streets, open areas, river side’s and other areas?
A. yes B. no
32. In general, are you satisfied with the municipal solid waste management service of the
town which is delivered by sanitation, beautification and park development of Bahir Dar
under the jurisdiction of municipality?
A. Very satisfactory B. satisfactory C. fair D. unsatisfactory E. very
unsatisfactory
33. How do evaluate the effort made by the municipality to provide efficient solid waste
management service compared with other services of the town such as water supply,
electricity, telephone etc?
A. Very weak B. weak C. fair D. strong E. very strong
34. If your answer for question no 32 is ‘unsatisfactory or very unsatisfactory’, what would
you suggest for the Environment and Sanitation, Beautification and Parks Development
Department to do in order to overcome the constraints and improve the service?
________________________________________________________________________
______

If you have any additional comments, suggestions, or would like to elaborate on any of
your previous answers, please include it here, or attach a separate sheet?

APPENDIX.2

Interview questions prepared for Sanitation, Beautification and Parks Development

Department workers of Bahir Dar city.

Dear respondent this interview is conducted for an academic purpose for the fulfillment of
Master Degree in Land resources management program. Specifically the objective of the
study is Evaluation of household solid waste rate disposal procedures and the effect of
dumping site on nearby selected land resources in Bahir Dar city. Therefore, your response
is very important for the success of the study because all information that you provide
determines the analysis and conclusion of the research.

Hence, you are kindly requested to give your response. Please be informed that your
response is kept in confidential. I would like to thank you for your cooperation.

Part one: Background information about the respondents

60
1. Job title in your department
___________________________________________________.

2. Employment condition

a. Permanent b. Contract

3. Educational level

a. No formal education b. 1-4 grades complete

c. 5-8 grades complete d. 9-12 grades complete

e. Certificate f. Diploma

g. First degree h. Second degree and above

4. Work experience_____________________________________________________.

5. Monthly salary _____________________________________________________.

6. Family size _______________________________________

7. Have you ever been participated in solid waste management trainings or education
given in our country?

8. Does your institution give incentives, promotions and salary increment to you?

9. If your answer for question no 7 is ‘yes’, how do you evaluate the level of training,
education, incentives, promotions and salary increment opportunities offered to MSWM
workers?

10. Does your SBPD department work with other government and non-government
organization in its solid waste management operations? If your department works, please
list the organization and their activities on solid waste management of the town?

11. How do you evaluate your institution status on interaction with other government and
non-government organizations regarding MSWM of the town?

61
12. How do you see the institutional arrangement of SBPDOBD? Does such arrangement
have any problem on the efficient performance of your division? If it has please explain it?

13. Do you feel your organization has efficient capacity to handle MSWM
responsibilities?

14. Do you think the controlling mechanism of municipality it is effective? If your answer
is “no”, what do you think the reasons?

15. Do you work on Saturday and Sunday per time? If you work, do you get over time
payment?

16. Do your collection, transportation and disposal service cover all parts of the town? If it
not covered, please specify the major reasons?

17. Are you provided with medical care, safety wares, and other materials that are
necessary to keep? Your health?

18. Do you think residents of Bahir Dar city have clear and adequate awareness about
solid waste management systems?

19. Municipal solid waste management in Bahir Dar city? If any, please mention those
kebeles together with its main reasons?

20. What do you think should be done to improve the situation of MSWM of the city in
general? If you have any additional comments, suggestions, or would like to elaborate on
any of your previous answers, please include it here, or attach a separate sheet.

APPENDIX.3

Interview questions prepared for focus group discussion

Dear respondent this interview is conducted for an academic purpose for the fulfillment of
Master Degree in Land resources management program. Specifically the objective of the
study is Evaluation of household solid waste rate disposal procedures and the effect of
dumping site on nearby selected land resources in Bahir Dar city. Therefore, your response

62
is very important for the success of the study because all information that you provide
determines the analysis and conclusion of the research.

Hence, you are kindly requested to give your response. Please be informed that your
response is kept in confidential. I would like to thank you for your cooperation.

1. Is there any types of waste product in your area? a. yes b. no

2. If yes for question number 1, what types of wastes are there?

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------

3. What are the causes for these wastes in your area?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. What are the impacts of these wastes in your area?

a) Positive
impacts-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

b) Negative impacts--------------------------------------------------------------

5. What are your coping mechanisms for these negative impacts?

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------

6. Is there any governmental or non-governmental organization which supports to share

management of wastes?

a) Governmental organization support ------------------------------------------------

b) Non-governmental organization support (name) ----------------------------------------------

7. What types of solid waste collection methods do you know? -----------------------------

8. Does you participated the issue of solid waste management to participate both in
planning and implementation process of municipal solid waste management? If yes, please
describe those actors and their significant activity?

63
 APPENDIX.4

Statistical data analysis tables for soil and water samples

Descriptive Statistics of on site

Range Minimum Maximum Sum Mean Std. Deviation Variance
Copperso 1.56 .17 1.73 4.15 1.0375 .70367 .495
Ironso 56.74 57.00 113.74 341.61 85.4025 26.96464 727.092
Leadso 13.5100 8.4500 21.9600 59.2100 14.802500 5.6908369 32.386
Zincso 40.82 22.12 62.94 166.40 41.6000 16.79559 282.092
Ocarbonso 1 2 3 10 2.50 .577 .333
Omatterso 1 4 5 17 4.25 .500 .250
TotalNso .1100 .1800 .2900 .8900 .222500 .0499166 .002
AvailPso 133.10 107.07 240.17 702.68 175.6700 60.55338 3666.712
PHso 1.87 5.67 7.54 25.39 6.3475 .84053 .706
Copperwo 4.4300 -2.3200 2.1100 2.8500 .712500 2.0728945 4.297
Ironwo 3.1300 9.9900 13.1200 44.5700 11.142500 1.4754971 2.177
Leadwo 1.0000 .4400 1.4400 3.8500 .962500 .4179613 .175
Zincwo 7.5600 5.6600 13.2200 37.6600 9.415000 3.1600158 9.986

Frequency Statistics of on site

Coppers Ironso Leadso Zincso Ocarbonso Omatters TotalNso AvailPso PHso Copperwo Ironwo Leadwo Zincwo

o o

14.80250 41.600 175.670

Mean 1.0375 85.4025 2.50 4.25 .222500 6.3475 .712500 11.142500 .962500 9.415000
0 0 0

Std.
13.4823 2.845418 8.3978 . 30.2766 1.036447
Error of .35184 .289 .250 .42027 .7377485 .2089807 1.5800079
2 5 0 0249583 9 3
Mean

14.40000 40.670 177.720

Median 1.1250 85.4350 2.50 4.00 .210000 6.0900 1.530000 10.730000 .985000 9.390000
0 0 0

Mode .17a 57.00a 8.4500a 22.12a 2a 4 .1800a 107.07a 5.67a -2.3200a 9.9900a .4400a 5.6600a

Std.
26.9646 5.690836 16.795 . 60.5533 2.072894
Deviatio .70367 .577 .500 .84053 1.4754971 .4179613 3.1600158
4 9 59 0499166 8 5
n

282.09 3666.71
Variance .495 727.092 32.386 .333 .250 .002 .706 4.297 2.177 .175 9.986
2 2

Range 1.56 56.74 13.5100 40.82 1 1 .1100 133.10 1.87 4.4300 3.1300 1.0000 7.5600

Minimum .17 57.00 8.4500 22.12 2 4 .1800 107.07 5.67 -2.3200 9.9900 .4400 5.6600

Maximu
1.73 113.74 21.9600 62.94 3 5 .2900 240.17 7.54 2.1100 13.1200 1.4400 13.2200
m

64
Sum 4.15 341.61 59.2100 166.40 10 17 .8900 702.68 25.39 2.8500 44.5700 3.8500 37.6600

One-Sample Statistics of on site

N Mean Std. Std. Error T Df Significance
Deviation Mean (t value) (Degree (p value)
of
freedo
m)

Copperso 4 1.0375 .70367 .35184

Ironso 4 85.4025 26.96464 13.48232 6.334 3 .008

14.8025
Leadso 4 5.6908369 2.8454185 5.202 3 .014
00

Zincso 4 41.6000 16.79559 8.39780 4.954 3 .016

Ocarbonso 4 2.50 .577 .289 8.660 3 .003

Omatterso 4 4.25 .500 .250 17.000 3 .000

TotalNso 4 .222500 .0499166 .0249583 8.915 3 .003

175.670
AvailPso 4 60.55338 30.27669 5.802 3 .010
0

PHso 4 6.3475 .84053 .42027 15.104 3 .001

Copperwo 4 .712500 2.0728945 1.0364473 .687 3 .541

11.14250
Ironwo 4 1.4754971 .7377485 15.103 3 .001
0

Leadwo 4 .962500 .4179613 .2089807 4.606 3 .019

9.41500
Zincwo 4 3.1600158 1.5800079 5.959 3 .009
0

Correlations of On site

Copperso Ironso Leads Zincso Ocarbonso Omatters TotalNso AvailPs PHso Copperwo Ironwo Leadwo Zincwo

o o o

Copperso 1 -.982* -.982* -.950NS -.923NS -.822NS -.635NS -.983* -.962* .926NS .890NS -.957* .797NS

Ironso 1 .951* .907NS .969* .701NS .493NS .996** .894NS -.840NS -.940NS .944NS -.729NS

Leadso 1 .992** .850NS .838NS .731NS .969* .961* -.924NS -.902NS .989* -.896NS

Zincso 1 .777NS .847NS .794NS .935NS .948NS -.914NS -.879NS .987* -.946NS

Ocarbonso 1 .577NS .289NS .945NS .800NS -.742NS -.882NS .836NS -.539NS

Omatterso 1 .902NS .710NS .946NS -.975* -.521NS .762NS -.792NS

TotalNso 1 .538NS .795NS -.825NS -.421NS .690NS -.883NS

AvailPso 1 .899NS -.843NS -.958* .969* -.783NS

65
PHso 1 -.993** -.758NS .911NS -.836NS

Copperwo 1 .676NS -.860NS .810NS

Ironwo 1 -.944NS .767NS

Leadwo 1 -.911NS

Zincwo 1
NS
** =Highly significance, * =Significance, = non significance

66
 Descriptive Statistics of off site
Range Minimum Maximum Sum Mean Std. Deviation Variance

Copperso .61 .66 1.27 3.71 .9275 .27415 .075

Ironso 71.08 84.11 155.19 457.38 114.3450 32.61155 1063.513
Leadso 16.99 14.63 31.62 90.35 22.5875 7.91990 62.725
Zincso 45.17 43.21 88.38 245.88 61.4700 20.35583 414.360
Ocarbonso .5800 1.7600 2.3400 8.3800 2.095000 .2753785 .076
Omatterso .94 3.03 3.97 14.52 3.6300 .42174 .178
TotalNso .15 .17 .32 .94 .2350 .06557 .004
AvailPso 3.9600 2.7600 6.7200 18.6900 4.672500 1.6189580 2.621
PHso .08 5.84 5.92 23.53 5.8825 .03500 .001
Copperwo .0600 2.2800 2.3400 9.2300 2.307500 .0275379 .001
Ironwo .73 10.28 11.01 42.66 10.6650 .30227 .091
Leadwo 14.86 .99 15.85 33.10 8.2750 7.48705 56.056
Zincwo .31 3.72 4.03 15.54 3.8850 .14480 .021
Valid N (listwise)

Frequency Statistics of off site

Copperso Ironso Leadso Zincso Ocarbonso Omatterso TotalNso AvailPso PHso Copperwo Ironwo Le

Mean .9275 114.3450 22.5875 61.4700 2.095000 3.6300 .2350 4.672500 5.8825 2.307500 10.6650 8
Std. Error
.13708 16.30577 3.95995 10.17791 .1376893 .21087 .03279 .8094790 .01750 .0137689 .15113 3.
of Mean
Median .8900 109.0400 22.0500 57.1450 2.140000 3.7600 .2250 4.605000 5.8850 2.305000 10.6850 8
a a a a a a a a a a a
Mode .66 84.11 14.63 43.21 1.7600 3.03 .17 2.7600 5.84 2.2800 10.28
Std.
.27415 32.61155 7.91990 20.35583 .2753785 .42174 .06557 1.6189580 .03500 .0275379 .30227 7.
Deviation
Variance .075 1063.513 62.725 414.360 .076 .178 .004 2.621 .001 .001 .091 5
Range .61 71.08 16.99 45.17 .5800 .94 .15 3.9600 .08 .0600 .73
Minimum .66 84.11 14.63 43.21 1.7600 3.03 .17 2.7600 5.84 2.2800 10.28
Maximum 1.27 155.19 31.62 88.38 2.3400 3.97 .32 6.7200 5.92 2.3400 11.01
Sum 3.71 457.38 90.35 245.88 8.3800 14.52 .94 18.6900 23.53 9.2300 42.66

One-Sample Statistics of off site

N Mean Std. Std. Error Mean T (T value) df Sig. (p
Deviation value)

Copperso 4 .9275 .27415 .13708 6.766 3 .007

Ironso 4 114.3450 32.61155 16.30577 7.013 3 .006

67
 Leadso 4 22.5875 7.91990 3.95995 5.704 3 .011

Zincso 4 61.4700 20.35583 10.17791 6.040 3 .009

Ocarbonso 4 2.095000 .2753785 .1376893 15.215 3 .001

Omatterso 4 3.6300 .42174 .21087 17.214 3 .000
TotalNso 4 .2350 .06557 .03279 7.167 3 .006
AvailPso 4 4.672500 1.6189580 .8094790 5.772 3 .010
PHso 4 5.8825 .03500 .01750 336.143 3 .000
Copperwo 4 2.307500 .0275379 .0137689 167.588 3 .000
Ironwo 4 10.6650 .30227 .15113 70.566 3 .000
Leadwo 4 8.2750 7.48705 3.74352 2.210 3 .114
Zincwo 4 3.8850 .14480 .07240 53.661 3 .000

Correlation of off site

Copperso Ironso Leadso Zincso Ocarbonso Omatterso TotalNso AvailPso PHso Copperwo Ironwo Leadwo Zincwo
Copperso 1 .999** .992** .995** -.977* -.965* -.477NS -.891NS -.725N .652NS -.415NS -.959* .891NS
S

Ironso 1 .992** .996** -.985* -.965* -.513NS -.870NS -.700N .626NS -.420NS -.960* .909NS
S

Leadso 1 .977* -.977* -.926NS -.440NS -.860NS -.657N .575NS -.303NS -.987* .914NS
S

Zincso 1 -.976* -.985* -.536 NS -.885NS -.745N .678NS -.499NS -.931NS .883NS
S

Ocarbonso 1 .939NS .622NS .774NS .583NS -.503NS .402NS .955* -.964*

Omatterso 1 .576NS .887NS .804NS -.752NS .638NS .854NS -.820NS
TotalNso 1 .134NS .094NS -.065NS .636NS .387NS -.681NS
AvailPso 1 .936NS -.893NS .442NS .797NS -.589NS
PHso 1 -.994** .635NS .549NS -.345NS
Copperwo 1 -.667NS -.458NS .255NS
Ironwo 1 .152NS -.250NS
Leadwo 1 -.926NS
Zincwo 1

** =Highly significance
* =Significance
NS
= non significance

68
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

The author, Gebremichael Maru was born in April 28, 1988 in Bahir Dar city special zone,
kebele 13. He started attending his elementary school in 1995 at Shimbit and pursed his
secondary school in Fassilo secondary school and Bahir Dar higher education preparatory
completed in 2006. In 2007 he enrolled in Bahir Dart University Agricultural and
Environmental Science College and obtained his first degree in Natural Resource
Management in 2009. Soon after his graduation he was employed by the Ministry of
Agriculture and worked at various positions in Bahir Dar special zone agricultural office.
In September 2013 he joined Bahir Dar University, Faculty of Agriculture and
environmental science, Department of Natural Resources management, Land Resources
Management for his postgraduate study.

INTRODUCTION

Calcium carbonate, CaCO3, is found in nature giving hardness and strength to things such
as seashells, rocks, and eggshells. As hard as this substance is, it will react readily with
hydrochloric acid to yield carbon dioxide gas (and two other products). In this experiment
students will design an experiment by reacting eggshells with 2 M HCl to compare the
calcium carbonate composition of white (chicken) eggshells to brown eggshells.

A good quality eggshell will contain, on average, 2.2 grams of calcium in the form of
calcium carbonate. Approximately 94% of a dry eggshell is calcium carbonate and has a
typical mass of 5.5 grams,1 although these values can differ depending on sources.
Amounts as low as 78% have been published. The remaining mass is composed largely of
phosphorus and magnesium, and trace amounts of sodium, potassium, zinc, manganese,
iron, and copper. In the case of brown versus white eggs, a definitive difference in calcium
carbonate amounts may be hard to uncover. However, consider this. The color of the eggs
is nothing more than a result of a different breed. The quality, nutritional value, and taste
are identical between white and brown eggs, though two notable differences are size and
price. Brown eggs are usually larger and slightly more expensive. The reason for the price
increase is because brown eggs come from larger hens, which need to be fed more food

69
daily. With a larger intake of calcium each day, one might expect the produced egg to have
a higher calcium carbonate content. However, since the eggs are larger, it must be kept in
mind that the calcium is spread over a larger surface area during egg formation. A brown
eggshell's increased tendency to break, when compared to white, is often attributed to this
“thinning out” of calcium during deposition.

To avoid the breakage of eggs before reaching market, the eggshells needs to be as strong
as possible. The strength of eggshells is mainly determined by the percentage of calcium
carbonate in it. In order to monitor the quality of eggshells, the following experiment has
to be done to determine the percentage of calcium carbonate in eggshells.

In this experiment, back titration is used. First, excess acid is reacted with the calcium
carbonate in eggshells.

2HCl(aq)+CaCO3(s)→CaCl2(aq)+H2O(l)+CO2(g)

Later, if we can find out the number of mole of unreacted acid, number of mole of calcium
carbonate can then be found out. The number of mole of unreacted acid can be found by
titration with the following reaction.

HCl(aq)+NaOH(aq)→H2O(l)+NaCl(aq)

Percentage by mass of calcium carbonate in eggshell can then be calculated by the

following formula:

4.2AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

70
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the percentage by mass of calcium
carbonate in eggshells.

design an experiment that quantifies the amount of calcium carbonate present in a natural

substance.

relate the amount of a reactant or product of a chemical reaction to another reactant or

product.

work collaboratively with their peers to solve a given problem in the laboratory in a way
that models the scientific method.

apply a common acid reaction between hydrochloric acid and the carbonate ion.

Chapter 2

THEORY & METHOLOGY

PRINCIPLE OF THE EXPERIMENT

During this experiment, the percentage of CaCO3 in an eggshell is determined by reacting

the eggshell with hydrochloric acid. The equation for this reaction is:

2HCl (aq) + CaCO3(s)→Ca2+ (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l) + 2Cl- (aq)

This reaction cannot be used directly titrate with the CaCO3. Instead, an excess of
hydrochloric acid is added to dissolve the eggshell, and the remaining acid is titrated with
NaOH solution to determine the amount of acid that did not react with the eggshell. The
equation used to determine the amount of leftover acid is:

71
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → H2O (l) + Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENTS

Beaker Pipette Filler

Electronicbalance

Volumetric flask

BuretteWash bottle

Mortar and pestle Conical flasks

White tile

Filter funnel

Filtter paper 25.00 cm

3 pipette

CHEMICALS USED

2 M HCl Phenolphthalein

2 M NaOH

PROCEDURE

White and Red colour eggshells have taken and the protein membrane was removed on the
inside of the eggshells.

The eggshell was washed with distilled water

Dried in an oven for few minutes.

The eggshell was then grounded into fine powder by mortar and pestle.

72
2g of eggshell powder is weighted accurately by using an electronic balance and it was
transferred to a conical flask.

25.00 cm3 of HCl was pipetted to dissolve the eggshell powder.

Distilled water was added to the flask until it reached about 100cm3. The flask was
swirled gently.

Put the solution into cubed for two days.

Faltered the solution using filter papers.

Pippet out 25.00 cm3 from each solutions to titration flasks.

The solution was then titrated with standardized NaOH.

Repeat another two samples from each solution.

Collect the correct burette readings at the end point.

Chapter 3

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

THE COLOR CHANGE OF THE SOLUTION

White egg Brown egg

Colourless pink Colourless pink

THE TITRATION RESULT OF BROWN EGG

73
3

Volume of eggshells solution/cm3

25.00

25.00

25.00

Volume of NaOH used/cm3

20.10

19.90

20.10

Average volume of NaOH used: (20.10+19.90+20.10) = 20.03cm33

74
THE TITRATION RESULT OF WHITE EGG

Volume of eggshells solution/cm3

25.00

25.00

25.00

75
Volume of NaOH used/cm3

20.40

20.35

20.00

*Average volume of NaOH used: (20.40+20.35+20.00) =20.25cm33

Chapter 4

CALCULATIONS

CALCULATIONS

2HCl (aq) + CaCO3(s)→Ca2+ (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l) + 2Cl- (aq)

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → H2O (l) + Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

FOR BROWN EGG

Number of moles of NaOH used to react with HCl

=20.03cm3 /1000) X2M = 40.06X 10-3 mol

76
Since number of moles of NaOH = number of moles of HCl in 25cm3

=40.06 X 10-3 mol

HCl mols in 100cm3 = 40.06 X 10-3 X 4 mol

The initial no of moles of HCl: volume X molarity

= 100/1000 X2M = 200X10-3 mol

Number of moles of HCl used to react with CaCO3 =

( 200X10-3 - 160.24X 10-3) mol = 39.76X10-3 mol

According to the equation, one mole of HCI required to react with 2 moles of CaCO3,

Number of moles of CaCO3 reacted =39.76X10- 3 /2

= 19.88X10-3 mol

77
The weight of CaCO3 = 19.88X10-3g X100g

The % of CaCO3 in eggshell (brown) = (1.988/2) X100%

=99.4%

FOR WHITE EGG

Number of moles of NaOH used to react with HCl:

(20.25cm3/1000)X2 = 40.50X10-3mol

Since number of moles of NaOH=number of moles of HCl in 25cm3

= 4.50X10-3mol

HCl Volume in 100cm3 = 40.50 X10-3 X4 mol

The initial moles of HCl: volume X molarity

= 100/1000 X2M = 200X10-3 mol

78
Number of moles of HCl used to react with CaCO3 :

( 200X10-3 - 162X10-3) mol = 38X10-3 mol

Number of moles of CaCO3 reacted =38X10-3/2

= 19X10-3 mol

The weight of CaCO3 = 19X10-3g X100

The % of CaCO3 in eggshell (white) = (1.9/2) X100%

=95.0%

Chapter 5

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUTION

CONCLUSION

Percentage of CaCO3 in red eggshells= 99.4%

Percentage of CaCO3 in white eggshells= 95.0%

Therefore red eggshells has the higher percentage of CaCO3.

79
DISCUSSION

Source of errors

The eggshell powder did not dissolve completely

Variation in visual judgment at the end point

Instrumental errors of the electronic balance

The eggshell was not fully dried

Some droplets of solution may still adhere on the beaker and the glass rod which lead to
the reduction in number of moles of excess HCl

In this Experiment we can also do the EDTA titration.

REFERENCES

http://www.google.lk/search?
hl=en&source=hp&q=caco3+percentage+in+eggshell&btnG=Google+Search&meta=&aq
=f&oq=

http://wwwchem.csustan.edu/chem1102/Egg.htm

http://www.oppapers.com/essays/Determine-Percentage-Mass-Calcium-Carbonate-
Eggshells/165593

http://ag.ansc.purdue.edu/poultry/multistate/koelkebeck1.htm

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CaCO3 in egg shells

Practical scheme of work & IA Mandatory laboratory componentsCaCO3 in egg shells

A versatile 'back-titration'

This practical can be adapted to determine the amount of calcium carbonate in a variety of
different substances ranging from eggs shells to the shells of sea creatures, such as crabs,
or in natural or artificial stone such as marble, limestone cliffs or lime mortar from old
buildings. The basic reaction is simply:

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

It is not practical to measure the exact amount of acid required for a known mass of the
sample as it is difficult to determine exactly when all the calcium carbonate has reacted.
This practical makes use of a technique known as ‘back titration’ [1]. A known excess of
acid is added to the sample ensuring that the reaction goes to completion. The excess acid
is then diluted with water, made up to a known volume and then titrated against a standard
solution of sodium hydroxide. The amount of acid that reacted with the sample can then be
deduced. This practical ticks all the boxes to cover both of the mandatory laboratory

84
components listed in Topic 1.3. 'Use of the experimental method of titration to calculate
the concentration of a solution by reference to a standard solution' and Topic 8.2.
'Candidates should have experience of acid-base titrations with different indicators'.

Teacher’s notes

This is actually a very versatile practical. Several students each year basically incorporate
it into extended essays to answer such research questions as ‘Do free-range eggs contain
more calcium carbonate in their shells compared to those produced by battery hens?’ or
‘How does the composition of a particular lime mortar change over time?’ Obviously it
could also form the basis of a student's Individual Scientific Investigation. There is a
reasonable amount of data to collect and although there is no graphing the processing is
slightly more complex than a normal titration. The students can put into practice all they
have learned about uncertainties associated with their apparatus (balance, pipette, burette
and volumetric flask) to arrive at an overall uncertainty. They can then look in the
literature to find typical percentage compositions of the material they have used. Perhaps
much more important than this is to see whether they can question some of the underlying
chemical uncertainties associated with their result during their evaluation. How many
students will realise that the result assumes that the only thing in the sample reacting with
the hydrochloric acid is calcium carbonate. What would happen if magnesium carbonate is
also present (as it is in dolomitic rock) or if other anions such as sulfide (S2-) or
sulfate(IV) (sulfite) (SO32-) are also present?

I have used quite small quantities to save on chemicals and the environment. Provided an
accurate analytical balance is available to be used this should make little difference to the
accuracy of the final result. If you want to use more traditional amounts and 25 cm3
pipettes etc. then scale up the amounts. This means weigh out about 1.500 g of the sample
and add 50.0 cm3 of the 1.00 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid. After the reaction, dilute with
water and transfer to a 250 cm3 volumetric flask and make up to the mark with distilled
water. Then take 25.0 cm3 sample of this for titration with the standard 0.100 mol dm-3
sodium hydroxide solution.

Student worksheet

85
TO DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE BY MASS OF CALCIUM CARBONATE IN AN
EGG SHELL

INTRODUCTION:

The aim of this practical is to determine the percentage by mass of calcium carbonate in an
egg shell but could in fact be used to determine the amount of calcium carbonate in other
samples such as limestone rock or sea shells.

In addition to the stated aim of determining the percentage of calcium carbonate in the
shell you are also introduced to the technique of ‘back titration’. Calcium carbonate reacts
with hydrochloric acid but it is difficult to determine exactly when all the solid calcium
carbonate has reacted to one drop of standard hydrochloric acid solution if it is titrated
directly. In this experiment a known amount of excess acid is added to the sample to
ensure that all the calcium carbonate has reacted. The excess acid is then diluted and made
up to a known volume. Aliquots of this diluted excess acid solution are then titrated with a
standard solution of sodium hydroxide.

ENVIRONMENTAL CARE:

Because the samples are natural materials and the acids used mainly react to form either
calcium chloride or sodium chloride there are no particular environmental issues and the
waste can be disposed of down the sink. To save on distilled water this practical uses
smaller amounts than more traditional titration experiments.

SAFETY:

There are no particular safety hazards except for the usual need for care when handling
glassware and 1.0 mol dm-3 strength acids.

PROCEDURE:

Carefully wash the shell of an egg to remove any dirt and organic matter attached to it.
Dry the shell either in an oven or by using hot air from a hair dryer. Grind the shell into
small pieces and weigh accurately about 0.6 g of the shell into a conical flask. Using a
graduated pipette add 20.0 cm3 of 1.00 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid solution. Add the acid
slowly and swirl the flask to prevent any small amount of liquid escaping from the flask

86
with the carbon dioxide that is produced. Once the reaction has completely finished add
about 20 cm3 of distilled water and transfer all the contents of the flask to a 100 cm3
volumetric flask. Use more distilled water to ensure all the contents have been transferred
and to make the final volume to exactly 100 cm3. Take 10.0 cm3 aliquots of this solution
and titrate them with standard 0.100 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution using
phenolphthalein as an indicator.

Record all your data in an appropriate way.

CALCULATION:

1. Calculate the amount (in mol) of hydrochloric acid present initially in 20.0 cm3 of 1.00
mol dm-3 HCl(aq).

2. Calculate the amount of sodium hydroxide (in mol) present in the volume of 0.100 mol
dm-3 NaOH(aq) used for the titration.

3. Determine the amount (in mol) of unreacted HCl(aq) present in the 10.0 cm3 sample.

4. Determine the amount (in mol) of unreacted HCl(aq) present in the 100 cm3 solution.

5. Determine the amount (in mol) of HCl(aq) that reacted with the egg shell.

6. Calculate the amount (in mol) of calcium carbonate present in the egg shell.

7. Calculate the mass of calcium carbonate present in the egg shell.

8. Determine the percentage by mass of calcium carbonate in the egg shell.

9. Determine the total percentage uncertainty associated with your result.

DISCUSSION:

What assumption(s) have you made about the composition of the egg shell that could have
a serious effect on your result if the assumption(s) is/are not true?

87
 calcium carbonate in shells

Discuss

Description

SEPARATION OF CALCIUM CARBONATE EGGSHELLS FROM

ORGANIC MEMBRANE

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[001] The present invention relates to a method and system of separating calcium
carbonate eggshell from the inner lining of organic protein-based membrane in eggshell
by-product, in an efficient manner, for the purpose of producing a high purity calcium
carbonate product.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[002] This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional application no. 62044472.

BACKGROUND

[003] The egg processing industry discards over 600,000 tons of eggshells per year, after
breaking the egg and removing the egg white and yolk. Eggshells are generally thought of
as a waste product, however if the inorganic and organic components are separated,
commercial materials can be obtained and utilized in a variety of applications. Large

88
amounts of eggshell waste or by-product are generated annually and the majority ends up
in landfills. Therefore the process of isolating the valuable products is of interest to keep
the eggshell by-product out of landfill and to turn a low value material into a high value
one.

[004] There are two major components in eggshells: the membrane and the shell. The
membrane consists mainly of organic material, including collagen and amino acids. These
materials can be separated from the shell and used in the medical and cosmetic industries,
among others. The inorganic component of eggshell consists of calcium carbonate with
small amounts of magnesium carbonate and calcium phosphate. The majority of this
portion is calcium carbonate (CaCCb), which has a variety of applications. Many of these
applications require the calcium carbonate product to be of a high purity, particularly
where the calcium carbonate is to be used for human consumption.

[006] There is variation across the egg processing industry of the process for discarding
the shell. Some egg 'breaking' companies will dump and discard the remaining shell by-
product immediately after the removal of the liquid egg. This eggshell by-product will still
have remnants of wet material. Other breaking companies will first run the by-product
through a centrifuge-type apparatus, for the purpose of removing the bulk of the remaining
liquid egg, which will aid in reducing cost to discard the by-product.

[007] Approaches to separating shells from membranes known in the prior art have
limitations when considering the purity of the final calcium carbonate product, cost
effectiveness of the approach, and scalability of the approach. Several prior art approaches
are focussed on the purity and processing of the membrane by-product rather than the
calcium carbonate by-product.

[008] A number of approaches have been proposed where the separation is purely
mechanical in nature, which inherently results in a relatively impure final calcium

89
carbonate product with organic impurities. For example, US 6,176,376 and US 7,007,806
of MacNeil uses agitation in a liquid to create separation of the membrane and eggshell by
relying on the differences in bulk density between the membrane and eggshell portions.
The eggshell settles to the bottom of the tank while the membranes remain suspended in
liquid. US 6,649,203 of Thoroski describes an approach with centrifuging, washing,
centrifuging, drying, and milling stages followed by a pneumatic membrane removal. In
the pneumatic removal step, the membrane and eggshell fall through a suction flow which
diverts the relatively light membrane but not the eggshell.

[009] An approach that combines mechanical and chemical approaches may be seen in US
pub. No. 2006/0159816 and US patent no. 7,954,733 of Vlad. This approach uses
cavitation in a fluid tank (a mechanical step) to separate membrane from eggshell.
Optionally, the membranes may be dried. Acetic acid may then be used to extract certain
polypeptides from the membrane. However, this approach, and specifically the chemical
extraction, is focused upon separation and treatment of the membrane materials, not the
shells which are the source of calcium carbonate. In respect of the shells, they are again
separated through a mechanical separation process only, and will have relatively high
levels of organic impurities.

[010] US patent no. 7.597,280 of Floh describes a system where a slurry of finely ground
shell and membrane is introduced into a separation tank with an upward flow and a
number of overlapping vanes. The membrane is borne upwards and withdrawn by the
vanes; the shell falls to the bottom of the tank and is removed. The membrane is dewatered
(using protein

dewatering) and dried. Again, the focus of this approach is on the production of the
membrane as a product. In respect of the shells, they are separated through a mechanical
separation process only, and will have relatively high levels of organic impurities. This
approach is also quite costly. SUMMARY

90
[Oi l] There is a need for a method of separating the membrane and calcium carbonate
portions of eggshell by-products that produces calcium carbonate of a sufficiently high
purity to meet USP and other quality standards and be used for human consumption in the
food,

pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and similar markets, but is also cost-effective, able to handle
wide variations in the composition of the incoming eggshell by-product, can be scaled up
as desired to accommodate an industrial volume of discharged eggshell by-product, and
can be sold in commodity/bulk/ingredient form for inclusion in end-user/client products.

[012] The method and apparatus disclosed herein for the separation and generation of high
purity calcium carbonate from eggshell by-product can be broadly divided into mechanical
and chemical stages that work together to break down the by-product into very pure forms
of calcium carbonate via economically viable industrially-scalable methods.

[013] In the mechanical stage, the by-product is first agitated (for example, through a mill
apparatus) to create an initial mechanical separation of the membrane and shell in the by-
product material in preparation for the sieving step. The second mechanical step is
separation through sieving the by-product material to remove and recover relatively large
pieces of membrane material. There are advantages to performing this step via a staged
sieving process. [014] The sieved material will still have an undesirable (and in some
markets, an unacceptable) amount of membrane attached to the calcium carbonate. The
chemical phases involve digesting the material remaining from the sieve though digestion
using base chemicals. These steps may be designed to work with a number of different
bases, and with variations in the concentration of each base solution, the residence time
involved in each digestion phase, the temperature of each base solution, and other
variables associated with the processing of the material, number of digestion steps, and the
processing parameters. The inventors have investigated these possibilities and have found

91
that a process with a sodium hydroxide digestion followed by a sodium hypochlorite
digestion (followed by a water wash) results in a calcium carbonate product of greater than
98% purity that will satisfy USP requirements for use for human consumption, as well as a
number of end-use markets.

[015] After the calcium carbonate is washed in water to remove remaining surface sodium
hypochlorite and related salts, the purified calcium carbonate is typically dried. The
purified calcium carbonate may then be milled or refined to any necessary particle size or
subjected to other further processing as desired in the various marketplaces.

[016] In accordance with the present invention, there is provided a method for the
separation of calcium eggshell from an eggshell by-product comprising the steps of:

a. Agitating the eggshell by-product;

b. Sieving the eggshell by-product;

c. Subjecting the eggshell by-product to a functional digestion with a first base solution; d.
Subjecting the eggshell by-product to a refining digestion with a second base solution; and

e. Running the eggshell by-product through a washing stage using water.

[017] In another aspect, the method further comprises the step:

92
f. Drying the eggshell by-product.

[018] In another aspect of the present invention, the first base solution is one or more
bases selected from the set of sodium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, potassium
hydroxide, or an organic base, mixed with water. In another aspect of the present
invention, the first base solution is primarily sodium hydroxide mixed with water. In
another aspect of the present invention, the second base solution is primarily sodium
hypochlorite mixed with water. In another aspect, the step of subjecting the eggshell by-
product to a functional digestion with a first base solution comprises digestion with
between 15-45% solids loading, a temperature between 30 to 90 degrees Celsius, and 0.5
to 5% NaOH in H20, with fluidization and a residence time between 15 min to 60 min. In
another aspect, the step of subjecting the eggshell by-product to a functional digestion
with a first base solution comprises digestion with 15% solids loading by volume, a
temperature of 60 degrees Celsius, a 2.5% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution mixed in
water (by weight), with fluidization, and a residence time of 30 minutes. In another aspect,
the step of subjecting the eggshell by-product to a refining digestion with a second base
solution comprises a solids loading between 15-45% solids by volume, ambient
temperature, 6%-12% sodium hypochlorite (NaCIO) mixed in water (by weight) with
trace elements (less than 1%) of sodium hydroxide (alkaline solution), with fluidization
and a residence time of between 10 and 40 minutes. In another aspect, the step of
subjecting the eggshell by-product to a refining digestion with a second base solution
comprises a 30% solids loading (by volume), with an 8% NaClO solution (mixed in water
by weight), at ambient temperature, with fluidization, with a residence time of between 10
to 15 minutes.

[019] In accordance with the present invention, there is provided a method for the
separation of calcium eggshell from an eggshell by-product comprising the steps of: a)
agitating the eggshell by-product using a ball mill for between 5 and 40 minutes; b)
sieving the eggshell by-product with a sieve with a mesh size between 1/8 of an inch and
¼ of an inch; c) subjecting the eggshell byproduct to a functional digestion with a NaOH
solution comprising digestion with between 15- 45% solids loading, a temperature

93
between 30 to 90 degrees Celsius, and 0.5 to 5% NaOH in H2O, with fluidization, and a
residence time between 15 min to 60 min; d) subjecting the eggshell byproduct to a
refining digestion with a NaClO solution comprising digestion with a solids loading
between 15-45% solids by volume, ambient temperature, 6%-10% sodium hypochlorite
(NaClO) mixed in water (by weight) with trace elements (less than 1%) of sodium
hydroxide (alkaline solution), with fluidization, and a residence time of between 10 and 40
minutes; and e) running the eggshell by-product through a washing stage using water.

[020] In accord with the present invention, there is provided a system for the separation of
calcium eggshell from an eggshell by-product comprising: an agitator, a sieving device, a
functional digester using a first base solution, a refining digester using a second base
solution, and a water rinse; wherein said apparatus is configured so that the eggshell by-
product passes into the agitator, from the agitator to the sieving device, from the sieving
device to the functional digester, from the functional digester to the refining digester, and
from the functional digester to the water rinse. [021] In an aspect of the present invention,
the first base solution is one or more bases selected from the set of sodium hydroxide,
ammonium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or an organic base, mixed with water. In
another aspect, the first base solution is primarily sodium hydroxide mixed with water. In
another aspect, the second base solution is primarily sodium hypochlorite mixed with
water. In another aspect, the functional digester is configured for digestion with between
15- 45% solids loading, a temperature between 30 to 90 degrees Celsius, and 0.5 to 5%
NaOH in H20, with fluidization and a residence time between 15 minutes to 60 minutes.
In another aspect, the functional digester is configured for digestion with 15% solids
loading by volume, a temperature of 60 degrees Celsius, a 2.5% sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) solution mixed in water (by weight), with fluidization, and a residence time of 30
minutes. In another aspect, the refining digester is configured for digestion with a solids
loading between 15-45% solids by volume, ambient temperature, 6%-12% sodium
hypochlorite (NaCIO) mixed in water (by weight) with trace elements (less than 1%) of
sodium hydroxide (alkaline solution), with fluidization and a residence time of between 10
and 40 minutes. In another aspect, the refining digester is configured for digestion with a
30% solids loading (by volume), with an 8% NaCIO solution (mixed in water by weight),

94
at ambient temperature, with fluidization, for a residence time of between 10 and 15
minutes.

[022] In accord with the present invention, there is provided calcium carbonate obtained
from eggshell by-product with a purity of greater than 98%. In accord with the present
invention, there is provided calcium carbonate obtained from eggshell by-product with a
purity of greater than 99%. In accord with the present invention, there is provided calcium
carbonate obtained from eggshell by-product with a purity of greater than 99.5%. [023] In
accord with the present invention, there is provided a product prepared by the inventive
process, where the product comprises calcium carbonate and less than 2% impurities
(excluding water). In accord with the present invention, there is provided a product
prepared by the inventive process, where the product comprises calcium carbonate and
less than 1% impurities (excluding water).

[024] In accord with the present invention, there is provided a method for the separation of
calcium eggshell from an eggshell by-product comprising the steps of: a) Subjecting the
eggshell byproduct to a functional digestion with a first base solution; b) subjecting the
eggshell by-product to a refining digestion with a second base solution; and c) running the
eggshell by-product through a washing stage using water. In another aspect, there is
further provided the step of d) drying the eggshell by-product.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[025] Figure 1 is a schematic illustrating the steps of the process for separating eggshell
from membrane.

[026] Figure 2 is an elevation view of one embodiment of a system to implement the

process;

95
[027] Figure 3 is an aerial view of the embodiment illustrated in Figure 2. DETAILED
DESCRIPTION

[028] The process that is the subject of this patent works with a wide variety of liquid egg
discharged by-product products. It can process both shell material that has or has not
passed through a centrifuge, and material that has small amounts of liquid egg remaining.
The method will also operate when there is little to no liquid egg remaining in the by-
product feedstock.

[029] Turning to Figure 1 , the first stage of this process begins with newly discarded
eggshell by-product 10, which is waste to egg 'breaking' companies, containing shell and
organic membrane. As a general matter, the shell may or may not be ground, and the
organic membrane may or may not have been subject to some sort of separation process at
the supplier (i.e. before it enters the present system). The present method can process by-
product with wide variations without the need to recalibrate or vary the process.

[030] In step 12, the by-product 10 is agitated to loosen the membrane from the shell
aiding the effectiveness of the subsequent sieving step(s) via this initial mechanical
separation of membrane and shell.

[031] This agitation may be accomplished by numerous types of equipment. The agitation
may be accomplished by milling the incoming by-product. In a preferred embodiment, the
mill is a ball mill that produces material with a diameter of no greater than 5 mm. Testing
shows that with such a ball mill, sufficient separation can be achieved by between 5 and
60 minutes of milling. In a preferred embodiment, the separation is achieved by milling
for 20 minutes. [032] Although the primary goal of stage 12 is agitation and the resulting
separation of the membrane and shell, some size reduction of the shell will take place as a

96
by-product of this stage. This reduction can assist in the efficient sieving in the next step
14.

[033] In step 14, the discharged material from step 12 is sieved to separate larger pieces of
organic membrane from smaller pieces of membrane and shell. Generally, as more organic
membrane is removed at this stage, the subsequent digestion stage can become more
efficient, proficient and cost-effective.

[034] Generally, the sieving is best done through one or more screens or sieves. Flowing
water may be added to aid in the screening/sieving of preliminarily separated membrane
material and shell.

[035] In a preferred embodiment, the sieving will use one or more mesh screens with each
having a mesh size of 1/8 of an inch to 1/4 of an inch, with flowing water. In another
preferred embodiment, the sieves are tiered with decreasing mesh sizes, culminating in a
sieve with a mesh size of 1/8 of an inch to 1/4 of an inch.

[036] The discharge of membrane and shell that has successfully passed through the
sieving step will then pass on to the chemical phase of the process, step 18. The membrane
material that is removed by the sieving and is discharged from this process, indicated by
15 in Figure 1, will account for approximately 3%-7% of the by-product 10, by weight.
This membrane material 15 can be dried, preserved and further processed into a value-
added saleable product.

[037] Steps 12 and 14 comprise the mechanical portion of the process, indicated by 16 on
Figure 1.

97
[038] In step 18, the sieved material is put through a digestion process comprised of at
least two digestion steps using base solutions to remove remaining organic membrane and
other impurities from the calcium carbonate (or shell). Many variations of which bases to
employ, how many digestion steps to use, and the processing conditions are possible. The
processing conditions include the solids content (as a percent of volume), the temperature
of the base solution, the concentration of the base solution, the residence time, and the
presence of agitation or fluidization.

[039] A preferred embodiment has a functional digestion step 20, intended to remove the
bulk of organic membrane (left after the sieving step 14) from the shells, and a refining
digestion step 22, which is intended to remove the remaining traces of organic membrane
as well as any other (non-membrane) organic impurities. The functional digestion step 20
could be performed with sodium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide,
or an organic base. The functional digestion step could also be performed with a
combination of bases. In a preferred embodiment, the functional digestion step 20 uses
sodium hydroxide and the refining digestion step 22 uses sodium hypochlorite. [040] In a
preferred embodiment of step 20, after being screened through the screener/sifter in step
14, the remaining sieved pieces of shell and membrane will be conveyed via mechanical
and/or pneumatic conveyance to a steel tank fitted with an agitation apparatus containing a
solution between 0.5 and 5% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) mixed in water, by weight. In a
preferred embodiment, the solution is 2.5% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) mixed in water, by
weight. The sodium hydroxide solution should be slightly warmer than ambient room

temperature, and testing shows that the process works well at between 30 and 90 degrees
Celsius. In a preferred embodiment, the temperature of the NaOH solution is 60 degrees
Celsius.

[041] The amount of solids loading (solids to liquid ratio) in step 20 will vary depending
on desired operation time and volume required, but tests have shown that it should remain
within a basic range of 15%-60% solids loading by volume. The desirable and effective

98
residence time in the solution will also depend on application needs, and the temperature
of the solution.

[042] Tests have shown that an NaOH digestion step with between 15-45% solids loading,
a temperature between 30 to 90 degrees Celsius, and 0.5 to 5% NaOH in H20 and a
residence time between 15 min to 60 min will work. In a particularly preferred
embodiment, tests have shown that at 15% solids loading by volume and a temperature of
60 degrees Celsius and a 2.5% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution mixed in water (by
weight), a residence time of 30 minutes will be effective for this stage of separation.

[043] All remaining eggshell material at the end of functional digestion step 20 will be
discharged and conveyed to the refining digestion step 22. [044] In a preferred
embodiment of refining digestion step 22, the remaining shell product will be conveyed
via mechanical and/or pneumatic conveyance to a steel tank fitted with an agitation
apparatus containing a base solution. In a preferred embodiment, the solution is a sodium
hypochlorite solution. The sodium hypochlorite solution will work to remove any
remaining membrane via digestion, as well as any other (non-membrane) organic
impurities. Residence time and solids loading by weight can vary, however tests have
shown that a high level of purity can be achieved with a solids loading between 15-45%
solids by volume, ambient temperature, 6%-12% sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) mixed in
water (by weight) with trace elements (less than 1%) of sodium hydroxide (alkaline
solution) and an residence time of between 10 and 40 minutes.

[045] In a particularly preferred embodiment (based on tests), step 22 has a 30% solids
loading (by volume), with an 8% NaClO solution (mixed in water by weight), at ambient
temperature, with fluidization/agitation, for a residence time of 10-15 minutes.

99
[046] It is also possible for the solution in the refining digestion step to contain a mixture
of bases, including mixtures of sodium hypochlorite with sodium hydroxide, ammonium
hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or an organic base.

[047] The sodium hydroxide and sodium hypochlorite digestion stages 20 and 22
discussed above, working in tandem as a functional digestion followed by a refining
digestion, act to achieve a high level of calcium carbonate purity via the digestion of
organic membrane and purification of the shell. However, these stages 20 and 22 may be
used independently of one another, and can each achieve a high level of purity in isolation,
albeit lower than the purity achieved by the two steps together.

[048] A re-circulation and/or drainage system may be built-in to the system used in steps
20 and 22 (or more broadly step 18) to accommodate the drainage and refilling of the
digestion solutions upon the liquid becoming saturated and/or diluted from excessive batch
use.

[049] After digestion in step 18, the remaining shell material will be conveyed via
mechanical and/or pneumatic conveyance to a water rinsing stage 24 where it will pass
through a water bath or spray to remove any remaining surface sodium hypochlorite or
related salts (sodium chloride) (and surface NaOH, if any) from the shell.

[050] At this stage, a high purity calcium carbonate has been achieved, albeit in the
presence of water (for many purposes, the water will need to be removed as seen in the
next stage).

[051] From the water-rinsing phase, the material will typically be passed through a drying
device in step 26 to remove any excess moisture. Equipment that could be used in this
stage includes a range of different drying technologies. In a preferred embodiment, a

100
rotary dryer is used. In a preferred embodiment, the dryer operates within a temperature
range of 50 Degrees to 350 Degrees. It is important to not perform the drying stage in such
a way as to calcine the calcium carbonate; generally, the temperature should be kept below
800 degrees Celsius. [052] The method described herein can produce a calcium carbonate
product 28 in flake form with a purity between 99% and 100% calcium carbonate. The
shell product can be packaged as is into various forms of sanitary packaging, or further
passed through a mill capable of fine grinding to wide-ranging particle size distributions,
followed by finished goods packaging, depending upon the target market(s) and/or
application(s).

[053] An analysis of a representative final product from this process is given in Table 1. In
some specific experimental runs, this method has resulted in calcium carbonate purity
(measured using thermographic metric analysis) of 100%, with all impurities being below
detectable limits.

[054] In principle, the functional and refining digestion stages 20 and 22 can be used
without the initial agitation and/or sieving steps to achieve a high purity calcium carbonate
product.

However, this approach would be more costly than an approach that incorporates the
agitation and sieving steps, since the agitation and sieving steps will remove membrane
that otherwise would need to be removed through more aggressive and costly digestion.

Chemical Composition Breakdown— Calcium Carbonate

Test Method Compound Symbol Compound Name Results

101
Thermographic Metric Analysis (TGA) CaC03 Calcium Carbonate 98.3%

MgC03 Magnesium Carbonate 0.23%

Infrared Spectroscopy TOC Total Organic Carbon 0.0052% XRF & ICP LOI @1000C
Loss on Ignition (Weight) 43.99% X-Ray Fluorescence CaO Calcium Oxide 54.4%
Inductively Coupled Plasma MgO Magnesium Oxide 0.49%

Si02 Silicon Dioxide (Silica) 0.33%

A1203 Aluminum Oxide <0.1%

Fe203 Iron Oxide <0.01%

Na20 Sodium Oxide 0.01%

K20 Potassium Oxide <0.01%

Ti02 Titanium Dioxide <0.01%

MnO Manganese <0.001%

102
SrO Strontium Oxide (Strontia) 0.019%

P20S Phosphorous Pentoxide 0.31%

S Sulfur 0.021%

Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis CI Chlorine NMT 0.01% AMS Fe Iron <0.001%

Accelerator Mass Spectrometry As Arsenic 1.9 ppm

Ba Barium 10.7 ppm Cd Cadmium 0.02 ppm Cr Chromium <l ppm Pb Lead 0.07 ppm F
Fluorine Not Detected

Cold Vapor Hg Mercury Not Detected Hunter Brightness

L Scale 94.3 a Scale 0.02 b Scale 3.73

Table 1

[055] Optionally, after the sieving stage but before the digestion stage, further membrane
may be removed from the feedstock by burning. There are several devices known to
persons skilled in the art that could be used for this step, including flash dryers. However,
this step is disfavoured, since such burning is necessarily an expensive process, and tends

103
to produce a calcium carbonate product that is greyish in colour and thus unacceptable in
many markets. It is also unnecessary, since a high purity calcium carbonate product can be
achieved using the method described above without this step. If this step was to be used,
care needs to be taken to avoid calcining the calcium carbonate, which occurs at
temperatures approaching 800 degrees Celsius, and also occurs at a slower rate at lower
temperatures.

[056] Figures 2 and 3 illustrate a system implementation of the invention. Turning to

Figure 2, the newly discarded eggshell by-product, containing inorganic shell and organic
membrane, is introduced into an agitator 50. Numerous types of equipment known to those
skilled in the art may be used as an agitator 50. One type of equipment that may be used is
a milling machine. In a preferred embodiment, the agitator 50 is a ball mill that produces
material with a diameter of no greater than 5 mm. Testing shows that with such a ball mill,
sufficient separation can be achieved after between 5 and 60 minutes. In a preferred
embodiment, the separation is achieved by agitating for 20 minutes.

[057] The discharged material from agitator 50 is passed to a sieving device 52. Optionally
(and not illustrated), the discharged material may rest in a holding tank before being
passed to a sieving device 52. In a preferred embodiment, the sieving device has a single
sieve with a mesh size of 1/8 of an inch to 1/4 of an inch, optionally with flowing water to
assist in moving the material. In another preferred embodiment, the sieving will use a
multi-layer mesh screen with multiple sieves each having a mesh size of 1/8 of an inch to
1/4 of an inch, optionally with flowing water to assist in moving the material. In another
preferred embodiment, the sieves are tiered with decreasing mesh sizes, culminating in a
sieve with a mesh size of 1/8 of an inch to 1/4 of an inch, optionally with flowing water.

[058] The organic membrane material that is removed by sieving device 52 is discharged
into device 54. Device 54 may be any desirable device for the further processing, holding,
or disposal of the organic membrane material that is removed by sieving device 52.

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[059] The shell and remaining organic membrane that has passed through sieving machine
52 is passed to a functional digester 56 which uses a base mixed with water. Optionally
(and not illustrated), the discharged material may rest in a holding tank before being
passed to the functional digester 56. In a preferred embodiment, the shell and remaining
organic membrane that has passed through sieving machine 52 are conveyed via
mechanical and/or pneumatic conveyance to functional digester 56. In a preferred
embodiment, functional digester 56 is a steel tank fitted with an agitation apparatus
containing a solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) mixed in water. In other embodiments,
the solution may be ammonium hydroxide mixed in water, potassium hydroxide mixed in
water, an organic base mixed in water, or a mixture of these possible bases (sodium
hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, an organic base) mixed in water.
[060] In a preferred embodiment, the functional digester 56 is implemented with a solids
loading of between 15-45% (by volume), a temperature between 30 to 90 degrees Celsius,
a 0.5 to 5.0 % NaOH mixed in water solution (by weight) and a residence time between 15
minutes to 60 minutes. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the functional digester 56
is implemented at 15% solids loading by volume and a temperature of 60 degrees Celsius
and a 2.5% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution mixed in water (by weight) and a
residence time of 30 minutes.

[061] All shell and remaining membrane material after processing through functional
digester 56 is then conveyed to refining digester 58 which uses a second base (not the
same as the base used in the functional digester) mixed with water. Optionally (and not
illustrated), the discharged material may rest in a holding tank before being passed to the
refining digester 58. In a preferred embodiment, the shell and remaining organic
membrane that has passed through functional digester 56 is conveyed via mechanical
and/or pneumatic conveyance to refining digester 58. In a preferred embodiment, refining
digester 58 is a steel tank fitted with an agitation apparatus containing a solution of sodium
hypochlorite (NaCIO) mixed in water.

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[062] In a preferred solution, the refining digester 58 is configured so the incoming
material has a residence time of between 10 and 40 minutes, solids loading between 15-
45% solids by volume, ambient temperature, and a 6%-12% sodium hypochlorite (NaCIO)
mixed in water (by weight) with trace elements (less than 1%) of sodium hydroxide
(alkaline solution). [063] In a particularly preferred embodiment, refining digester 58 is
configured to operate at a 30% solids loading (by volume), with an 8% NaCIO solution
(mixed in water by weight), at ambient temperature, with fluidization, for a residence time
of 10-15 minutes.

[064] In another embodiment, the solution used in refining digester 58 is sodium

hypochlorite plus one or more additional bases mixed with water. The additional bases
may include sodium hydroxide, ammonia hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or organic
bases.

[065] A re-circulation and/or drainage system (not illustrated) may be built-in to digesters
56 and 58 to accommodate the drainage and refilling of the digestion solutions upon the
liquid becoming saturated and/or diluted from excessive use.

[066] After digestion in the refining digester 58, the remaining shell material will be
conveyed to a water rinse 60. Optionally (and not illustrated), the shell material may rest
in a holding tank before being passed to the water rinse 60. The water rinse may be any
water bath or spray known in the art that will remove any remaining surface sodium
hypochlorite or related salts (sodium chloride) (and surface NaOH, if any) from the shell.
In a preferred embodiment, the shells pass via mechanical and/or pneumatic conveyance
through water rinse 60.

[067] At this stage, a high purity calcium carbonate has been achieved, albeit in the
presence of water (for many purposes, the water will need to be removed as seen in the
next stage). [068] From water rinse 60, the shell material is passed through a drying device

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62 to remove any excess moisture. Optionally (and not illustrated), the shell material may
rest in a holding tank before being passed to the drying device 62. Many types of drying
equipment are known to a person skilled in the art and could be used as drying device 62.
In a preferred embodiment, drying device 62 is a rotary dryer. In a preferred embodiment,
the drying device 62 operates within a temperature range between 50 degrees to 350
degrees Celsius. It is important to not perform the drying stage at a temperature that would
calcine the calcium carbonate; generally, the temperature should be kept well below 800
degrees Celsius.

[069] The system and apparatus described above can produce a calcium carbonate product
in flake form with a purity between 98% and 100% calcium carbonate.

[070] The calcium carbonate can then be subject to further processing as desired for the
end- market. The calcium carbonate product can be packaged as is into various forms of
sanitary packaging, or further passed through a mill capable of super-fine grinding to a
smaller/finer particle sizes, followed by finished goods packaging, depending upon the
target market and/or application.

[071] Although the foregoing description and accompanying drawings relate to specific
preferred embodiments of the present invention as presently contemplated by the inventor,
it will be understood that various changes, modifications and adaptations may be made
without departing from the spirit of the invention.

Claims

CLAIMS What is claimed is:

1. A method for the separation of calcium eggshell from an eggshell by-product

comprising the steps of:

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a. Agitating the eggshell by-product;

b. Sieving the eggshell by-product;

c. Subjecting the eggshell by-product to a functional digestion with a first base solution;

d. Subjecting the eggshell by-product to a refining digestion with a second base solution;
and

e. Running the eggshell by-product through a washing stage using water.

2. The method of claim 1, further comprising the step:

g. Drying the eggshell by-product.

3. The method of claim 1 where the first base solution is one or more bases selected from
the set of sodium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or an organic
base, mixed with water.

4. The method of claim 3 where the first base solution is primarily sodium hydroxide
mixed with water.

5. The method of claim 4 where the second base solution is primarily sodium hypochlorite
mixed with water.

6. The method of claim 5 where the step of subjecting the eggshell by-product to a
functional digestion with a first base solution comprises digestion with between 15-45%
solids loading, a temperature between 30 to 90 degrees Celsius, and 0.5 to 5% NaOH in
¾0, with fluidization and a residence time between 15 min to 60 min.

7. The method of claim 5 where the step of subjecting the eggshell by-product to a
functional digestion with a first base solution comprises digestion with 15% solids loading
by volume, a temperature of 60 degrees Celsius, a 2.5% sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
solution mixed in water (by weight), with fluidization, and a residence time of 30 minutes.

8. The method of claim 5 where the step of subjecting the eggshell by-product to a refining
digestion with a second base solution comprises a solids loading between 15-45% solids
by volume, ambient temperature, 6%-12% sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) mixed in water

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(by weight) with trace elements (less than 1 %) of sodium hydroxide (alkaline solution),
with fluidization and a residence time of between 10 and 40 minutes.

9. The method of claim 8 where the step of subjecting the eggshell by-product to a refining
digestion with a second base solution comprises a 30% solids loading (by volume), with
an 8% NaClO solution (mixed in water by weight), at ambient temperature, with
fluidization, with a residence time of between 10 to 15 minutes.

10. A method for the separation of calcium eggshell from an eggshell by-product
comprising the steps of:

a. Agitating the eggshell by-product using a ball mill for between 5 and 40 minutes; b.
Sieving the eggshell by-product with a sieve with a mesh size between 1/8 of an inch and
¼ of an inch; c. Subjecting the eggshell by-product to a functional digestion with a NaOH
solution comprising digestion with between 15-45% solids loading, a temperature between
30 to 90 degrees Celsius, and 0.5 to 5% NaOH in ¾0, with fluidization, and a residence
time between 15 min to 60 min.

d. Subjecting the eggshell by-product to a refining digestion with a NaCIO solution

comprising digestion with a solids loading between 15-45% solids by volume, ambient
temperature, 6%-10% sodium hypochlorite (NaCIO) mixed in water (by weight) with
trace elements (less than 1%) of sodium hydroxide (alkaline solution), with fluidization,
and a residence time of between 10 and 40 minutes; and e. Running the eggshell by-
product through a washing stage using water.

11. A system for the separation of calcium eggshell from an eggshell by-product
comprising: an agitator, a sieving device, a functional digester using a first base solution, a
refining digester using a second base solution, and a water rinse;

wherein said apparatus is configured so that the eggshell by-product passes into the
agitator, from the agitator to the sieving device, from the sieving device to the functional
digester, from the functional digester to the refining digester, and from the functional
digester to the water rinse.

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12. The system of claim 11 where the first base solution is one or more bases selected
from the set of sodium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or an
organic base, mixed with water.

13. The system of claim 12 where the first base solution is primarily sodium hydroxide
mixed with water.

14. The system of claim 13 where the second base solution is primarily sodium
hypochlorite mixed with water.

15. The system of claim 14 where the functional digester is configured for digestion with
between 15-45% solids loading, a temperature between 30 to 90 degrees Celsius, and 0.5
to 5% NaOH in ¾0, with fluidization and a residence time between 15 minutes to 60
minutes.

16. The system of claim 14 where the functional digester is configured for digestion with
15% solids loading by volume, a temperature of 60 degrees Celsius, a 2.5% sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) solution mixed in water (by weight), with fluidization, and a residence
time of 30 minutes.

17. The system of claim 16 where the refining digester is configured for digestion with a
solids loading between 15-45% solids by volume, ambient temperature, 6%-12% sodium
hypochlorite (NaCIO) mixed in water (by weight) with trace elements (less than 1%) of
sodium hydroxide (alkaline solution), with fluidization and a residence time of between 10
and 40 minutes.

18. The system of claim 16 where the refining digester is configured for digestion with a
30% solids loading (by volume), with an 8% NaCIO solution (mixed in water by weight),
at ambient temperature, with fluidization, for a residence time of between 10 and 15
minutes.

19. Calcium carbonate obtained from eggshell by-product with a purity of greater than
98%.

20. A product prepared according to the process of claim 1, wherein the product comprises
calcium carbonate and less

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