Composites Part B 137 (2018) 1–15

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Composites Part B
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesb

Weldability of thermoplastic materials for friction stir welding- A state of art T

review and future applications
Ranvijay Kumara,b, Rupinder Singha,∗, I.P.S. Ahujab, Rosa Pennac, Luciano Feoc
a
Dept. of Production Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, India
b
Dept. of Mech. Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala, India
c
Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Salerno, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Polymer composites have certain advantages over metals in terms of mechanical as well as metallurgical
Friction stir welding properties. These can be joined with similar as well as dissimilar polymer composites (subject to certain con-
Polymeric materials ditions like glass transition temperature, rheological properties etc.). In last 20-25 years number of techniques
Viscosity and concepts has been developed to offer the possibility of joining of polymeric materials which have similar or
Similar
dissimilar characteristics. In present scenario mechanical fastening and adhesive bonding is replaced by applying
Dissimilar
welding concepts like: laser transmission welding, friction stir welding (FSW), ultrasonic welding, hot fusion
Composites
resistance welding etc. The FSW is one of the most acceptable welding techniques for production of structural/
industrial components. In this present work, requirements of FSW and its process capability has been highlighted
for joining of similar/dissimilar polymeric materials for future prospective.

1. Introduction
Welding, a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, has
a history as far back as the Bronze Age, where gold circular boxes es-
timated to be formed by pressure welding some 2000 years ago, have
been recovered. One of the largest welds from this period is the Iron
Pillar of Delhi in India, which was established nearly 1700 years ago. It
was not until the 19th century that professional welding, as known
today, was invented [1]. Ultrasonic welding for plastic materials can be
considered as the most accepted process with provision of automations
[2]. The organic nature of the inherently conducting polymers helps to
form good bonds between the thermoplastics to be welded [3]. When
the two amorphous polymeric samples above glass transition tem-
peratures contacted to each other, then mechanical strength is devel-
oped between interfaces responsible for the joining of polymers [4].
CO2 laser has the potential to perform welding of thermoplastic mate-
rials. Laser welding is arisen as solutions for non-contact sealing of
aseptic food containers [5]. A dynamic Monte Carlo lattice model is
appreciated for the simulation of weld formation of linear polymeric
chains [6]. Hot tool welding technique is an alternative method for the
high temperature natured amorphous thermoplastics like poly-
etherimide [7]. Similar to dynamic Monte Carlo lattice model another
concept of mesoscale modeling for welding of polymeric material has
been developed [8]. Injection molded hollow parts of plastic material
can be subjected to vibration welding for joining of complex structures
[9]. The resistance welding has great potential for high performance
application of fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites welding [10].
Polymer composites have certain advantages over thermosets in the
manner of mechanical as well as metallurgical properties. A hybrid
interlayer can be produced by the application of resistance welding by
reinforcement of carbon fiber with polyetherimide [11]. Fusion welding
for thermoplastic material can be a best alternative for the friction stir
welding where flexibility is needed in the process [12]. Unlike Adhe-
sion, cohesion and fusion bonding, auto-adhesion is a technique that
ensures the weldability of polymeric materials [13,14]. Friction
welding concept was originally come for similar metal joining, but it
was further applied for similar thermoplastic composites [15]. Later on
this concept was used for the dissimilar materials like steel-aluminum
and steel-copper and aluminum-magnesium cylindrical piece joining
[16,17]. After then it was considered for dissimilar plastic welding of
ABS to HDPE [18]. The number of studies has been reported to check
the mechanical, thermal and metallurgical properties of friction welded
piece [19–21]. Interface properties are examined to check the fusion,
deformation mechanisms and microstructure characteristics of friction
welded interface [17,22,23]. ABS and Nylon6 are commonly used
thermoplastics with excellent mechanical properties and are used

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ranvijayk12@gmail.com (R. Kumar), rupindersingh78@yahoo.com (R. Singh), ahujaips@gmail.com (I.P.S. Ahuja), rpenna@unisa.it (R. Penna),
lfeo@unisa.it (L. Feo).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2017.10.039
Received 18 October 2017; Accepted 31 October 2017
Available online 03 November 2017
1359-8368/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Kumar et al.
generally for friction welding application [18]. The joining of ABS or
Nylon 6 to itself or welding of ABS to HDPE is feasible [24]. But there is
a limitation of joint strength (for friction welded joints) of these ther-
moplastics that hinders its use in different engineering applications.
Some studies have highlighted the use of a tool in the form of a ring
which is rotated in between the interface of two pipes. This is getting
heated deformed by friction created due to rotation of ring, so welding
of pipeline is possible [25]. Friction inertia welding concept is widely
accepted in aerospace applications [26,27]. Reinforcement of polymer
with Nano-composite is the technique to make the feasibility of friction
welding process. The studies also highlight that friction spot welding of
polymethyl-methacrylate and polymethyl-methacrylate-Sio2 is feasible
[28,29]. The reinforcement of Nano-composite with polymers is re-
sponsible for the improved mechanical and metallurgical properties
[30].
2. Friction stir welding
The friction stir welding technique was developed by The Welding
Institute at UK in 1991 under the solid state welding techniques.
Friction stir welding and friction stir processing are the similar process
but differentiated by the nature of application. Friction stir welding is
techniques where a non-consumable tool of rotating type is inserted in
between the interfaces of two sheets to create the diffusion of their
edges for joining of materials (see Fig. 1).
Advancing side in friction stir welding/processing can be considered
as a side where flow of materials has higher temperature whereas re-
treading side is the phase where material flow has lower temperature.
The friction stir welding and friction stir processing can be differ-
entiated by investigating advancing and retreading side [33]. Fig. 1(b)
shows the basic schematic illustration of friction stir processing where
stirring is being carried in reversed processing directions w. r.t FSW.
Friction stir welding process overcome problem of void formation
caused during arc welding. Friction stir welding requires a shoulder
which is protruded with a pin called probe. The shoulder arrangement
creates the frictional heating as well as a pin probe facilitates the stir-
ring to the joint interface (Fig. 1(a)) [33]. The friction welding tool
(FSW tool) is one of the most important parts for success of the process.
The tool is consisting of a rotary round shoulder and a threaded type of
cylindrical pin [34–38]. Although prominent efforts have been made in
the previous years to develop economic and reusable tools, most of the
attempts have been empirical in nature and further work is needed for
refinement in tool geometry to modify the practice of FSW to hard
metals and alloys [39].
Fig. 1. Schematic illustrations of (a) friction stir welding and (b) friction stir processing [31,32].
2
Composites Part B 137 (2018) 1–15
2.1. Material compatibility
A demand for highly efficient joining techniques has been arisen for
dissimilar metals, alloys, thermoplastic and composites. It is very
challenging because, dissimilar materials with their specific mechan-
ical, chemical, thermal and physical properties create muddle for se-
lection of appropriate joining techniques. Joining of dissimilar metals,
alloys and thermoplastic is not a resilient exertion whereas similar
materials exhibits material compatibility which leads to highly efficient
joining [40–42]. Dissimilar materials hinder use of process in terms of
material non-compatibility. But researchers have been developed the
tools and techniques that offer possibility of dissimilar material
welding. Friction stir welding emerged as most efficient technique for
dissimilar characterized materials. Table 1 shows the compatibility of
the thermoplastic materials and their expiations.
Note: Friction-based Injection Clinching Joining (F-ICJ), Friction
Spot welding (FSpW), Friction stir welding (FSW), Vibration Welding
(VW), Low-density polyethylene (LDPE),High-density polyethylene
(HDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS), Polyamide (PA), ultra
high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), Poly(methyl metha-
crylate)(PMMA),polyetherimide (PEI) Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(ABS), polyethylene (PE), AA6181-T4 and AA6082 are the alloys of Al.
2.2. Machine/tooling considerations
Advancementin the FSSW machine tool was suggested by Paoletti
et al. (2015) [41] for welding of similar polycarbonate sheet. The hy-
brid novel setup was suggested by hybridization of piezoelectric dy-
namometer and infrared pyrometer for the force and temperature
measurement during processing on drilling setup. Fig. 2 shows a novel
machine tool setup for FSW that is consisting of the servo system to
regulate the axial tool plunge rate, inverter to regulate and control RPM
of the spindle motor.
Observations for the effect of the heat are necessary from the weld
quality point of view because any large change in heat can lead to the
produce defective or burned surfaces. It was suggested for FSW of PPPA
and PEI- AA6082 sheets that during welding, the heat measurement at
the surface of the weld beads was calculated using a infrared camera
from Flir, model ThermaCAM E300, that produces fully radiometric
images, made eligible to calculate the temperature of objects in terms of
defects [45,57]. It was suggestedthat machining center was equipped
with an electricity meter for metering of electrical energy absorbed
during FSW for welding of AA5754 sheets. The residual stress is the
liable to the production quality of the final weld [42]. As suggested that
the machine used for the production of the joints was instrumented
with a Kistler three channel load cell in order to record both forces
R. Kumar et al. Composites Part B 137 (2018) 1–15

Table 1
Compatible material, welding technique and their deliberations.

Materials Techniques Deliberations Ref.

PC-PC FSSW The joints have been obtained very sound and mechanical strength was closer to the base material. [41]
MDPE-MDPE FSW Friction stir welding for MDPE resulted into joint efficiency of 70% with w.r.t base material. The tool rotational [43]
speed and tilt angle were key factor for elongation and strength.
PMMA-PMMA FSW/FSpW The weld strength is comparable with other welding variant. The welding time was influenced by the rotation [44,45]
of tool. The formation of important discontinuities, at the retreating side of the welds, problems experienced by
the squeezing of melted material from both the shoulder and pin driven flow volumes.
HDPE-HDPE FSW/FSpW The determination of the welding parameters played important role for the weld strength. It was addressed that [46–51]
for influential use of the thermoplastics joints, the weld shouldhave adequate strength. Application of heating
shoulder can be best suited for the defect free joints produced by FSW
AA5059-HDPE FSW Mechanical interlocking through formation of micro- and macro constraints and interfacial chemical adhesion [52]
between the aluminum and
consolidated polymeric layers is expressed as the main bonding mechanisms during joining process
UHMWPEUHMWPE FSW Pre-heating before the welding process of the polymer sheet can be resulted in the better characteristics of the [53]
welded product.
AA6082-PP FSW The obtained mechanical properties were comparable to the ones known forsimilar processes. Drawbacks of the [54]
process are the further operations needed to produce the extrudedstud and the spot joining nature of the
process
PA66-PA66 + 30%GF VW Vibration welding is a suitable method for joining of dissimilar thermo- plastics and that the welding [55]
parameters influence the strength of the joints.
Carbon fiber reinforced PA66 laminates FSpW Reinforce of carbon fiber in PA66 matrix contribute the excellent joining efficiency and surface characteristics. [56]
The joining by present technique is comparable to the ultrasonic welding for production of carbon fiber
reinforced PA6 welds.
PEI- AA6082 F-ICJ F-ICJ joints are produced by means of frictional heating and axial pressure, controllableby the choice of process [57]
parameters. The polymer to metal alloys joint was produced with good mechanical durability.
PP-PP FSW/FSSW Tool geometry, tool rotation speed, tool penetration depth, and dwell time were the focusing parameters [58–66]
responsible for the change in the quality of the weld. Heating of tool resulted in control over loss of material
during FSW. The change in the pin geometry is strongly changes the mechanical, morphological and thermal
characteristics of FSW welds. The micro structural appearance and strength of welded parts was obtained 80-
92% of the base material
PP-PS FSW Applying stationary shoulder can enhance the surface characteristics as well as the mechanical strength of the
joints produced by FSW.
PP-PE FSW Selection of the optimum pin profile provides the durability of the joints as well as the better material flow [67]
during welding
ABS-ABS FSW Tool rotation speed, shoe temperature and travel speed were the responsible factors for change in the tensile [68–72]
strength of the ABS-ABS joints.Tool rotational speed generates the heat for plasticizing of polymer and
promotes adequate material mixing.
ABS-HDPE FSW Multiwall carbon nano-tube (MWCNT) at joint interface of ABS-HDPE interface offers the possibility of the [18]
dissimilar nature welding due to the extra-ordinary heat generation contributed by MWCNT.
PMMA-ABS FSSW The dissimilar welding of PMMA-ABS is possible by fixing the combination of process parameter such as, tool [73]
rotational speed, and tool plunge length and dwell time. The tool plunge rate plays very important role for the
joining efficiency consideration.
AA6181-T4-phenylene sulfide FSpW High joining time and intermediate rotational speed conditions provides the heat generation which lead to the [74–76]
better joining and surface characteristics.

Fig. 3. Hybrid FSW tool with assistance of heating [47,48].

Fig. 2. Hybrid setup for force calculation during FSW(Mlling + drilling), [41].
along the tool axis and residual stresses was measured in the long-
itudinal direction respective of loading direction [77]. Arora et al.
(2011) [78] suggested that, to compute the amount of torque used at
tool-work piece interface, the heat transfer and material flow can be the
input [47,48,59]. presented experimental setup that consisting of three
main parts: a cylindrical rotating pin, a stationary shoulder or shoe, and
heating system. The assisted heating by the secondary shoulder helped
to refine the surface of HDPE and PP by the heating. The heating leads
to the lesser defect in the weld quality. Fig. 3 shows the arrangement of
the welding setup assisted by the heated shoes or stationary shoulder.
One of the recent advancement in the FSW was suggested by the
Besler et al. (2016) [79] that one new method named as Friction crush
welding (FCW) can be achieved for control over material loss, mini-
mization of distortion and residual stresses. The FCW process requires a
non-consumable tool of harder material with ring shape configuration
as shown in Fig. the workpiece in need to kept flanged in the process

3
R. Kumar et al.
Fig. 4. Design for friction crush welding [79].
(See Fig. 4).
The application of the baking support for the plastic strip can be
helpful as designing the FSW tool to prevent the separation of the joint
interface [46]. For the FSSW of dissimilar sheet of PMMA-ABS, the
thrust bearing can be useful to maintain the pressure between tool and
plate and provide the free rotation for the tool pin [73].
2.3. Input variables/process parameters
The input variables/process parameters are the key to achieve the
efficiency of the joints in terms of mechanical, thermal and morpho-
logical properties, feasibility of joint, and ease of designing optimal
outputs conditions [80–85]. There are some of the input process para-
meters which are liable to change in the output properties of the final
weld product. From the FSW point of view welding speed, tool traverse
speed, tooloffset, specimen thickness, tool rotational speed, energy
input, pressure applied, tool geometry, tilt angle specimen grooving,
tool plunge length, dwell time, flange orientations, table speed, mate-
rial type, tool type depth of the tool and stirrer type are some of the
welding input process variable upon which output depends [42,86–94].
For 50 × 30 × 4 mm sheet of HDPE the FWS is eligible to weld at tool
rotational speed of 1500, 2100, 3000 rpm, tool transverse speed at 45,
75, 115 mm/min and at tilt angle of 1°, 2°, 3°. Tool rotation speed
contributed maximum for the change in the output as 73.85% [46].
Squeo et al. (2009) [95] have conducted similar operations. For
150 × 60 × 6 mm sheet of MDPE the rotational speed between 1400
and 2000 rpm, tilt angle 1-2° and travel speed of 15 mm/min is useful.
The rational speed contributes maximum for the change in the elon-
gation as well as tilt angle contributes maximum for the change in the
tensile strength of the MDPE joints produced by FSW [43].
100 × 25 × 3 mm PMMA specimen requires 500-200 rpm, 5.5–12sec
welding time, joining pressure of 3 bar and plunge depth of 3.5-4 mm
[44,45]. Friction-based Injection Clinching Joining technique (F-ICJ)
for production of hybrid structure of PEI-AA6082-T6 requires ultra high
rotational speed in between 7500 and 20000 rpm, frictional force of
0.2–0. MPa and frictional time of 2500-5000milliseconds [57]. For the
production of 2 mm thick weld of carbon reinforced PA66 laminates by
the friction spot welding, it is required 1000-3000 rpm. 1.8–2.2 plunge
depth and 3.6–7.5sec frictional time [56]. FSW for 10 mm PMMA plates
requires 700 rpm rotational speed, advancing speed of 25 mm/min, 15-
35 mm shoulderdiameter and 5-6 mm pin diameter [45]. For
100 × 100 × 3 mm with curve thickness of 2.7 mm dimension of
AA6082-PP sheets requires the rotational speed of 1000 rpm, feed rate
of 100 mm/min, 2° tilt angle, and 3000 N force 3-7 mm pin diameter
[54]. For joining of PC-PC sheets of 90 × 20 × 3 mm dimension
4
Composites Part B 137 (2018) 1–15
through FSW, tool plunge rate between 8 and 46 mm/min, tool rotation
of 1500-5400 rpm, pre-heating time of 0-20sec, dwell time 0-20sec and
waiting time of 0-20sec the joining is feasible [41]. The friction stir spot
welding is feasible for the PP strips of 120 × 60 × 5 mm with the input
variable of 1250 rpm, dwell time of 10-250sec, tool penetration depth
of 9.5 mm, shoulder diameter of 37 mm, pin diameter of 12 mm, pin
length of 7.5 mm and cross speed at 5 mm/min [58]. For producing
polymer–metal composites sheet(namely HDPE-Copper/clay nano-
composite) via novel variant of friction stir processing having dimen-
sion of 2 × 2.5 mm, it is required to have the shoulder temperature in
between 110 and 150 °C and transverse speed of 20-120 mm/min
[47–50]. 170 × 75 × 5 mm dimension of ABS sheet can be welded by
FSW for the rotational speed range of 800-1600 rpm, travel speed of 20-
80 mm, heating conditions in between 50 and 100 °C [68]. FSW of PP
sheets with dimension of 150 × 50 × 3 mm can be possible with
heating assisted tool rotation speed in between 360 and 840 rpm, 20-
30 mm/min tool travel speed, 18-20 mm shoulder diameter, 3.5 mm
pin diameter, 2.75 mm tool length, 2° tilt angle, 0.7 mm thread pitch
and resistance heating element power of 50W [59]. For similar polymer
welding with FSSW of PMMA-ABS with dimension of
100 × 25.4 × 5 mm can be feasible in the machining range of 500-
1250 rpm, plunge rate of 8-24 mm/min, dwell time of 10-30sec [73].
Welding of aluminum AA6181-T4 and carbon fiber-reinforced poly
(phenylene sulfide) with 1–1.15 mm thickness by friction spot welding
under 1200-1600 rpm, plunge depth of 0.75–1.15 mm, joining time of
2-4sec and joining force 6.8–8.3 KN is feasible [74–76]. On the dis-
similar welding of ABS-HDPE (dimension of 4 × 0.2, 4 × 0.3 and
4 × 0.4 mm) by the FSW process it is required to have the 25 mm
shoulder diameter, pin diameter of 8-10 mm, pin length 6 mm,
2500 rpm, plunge depth of 0.2 mm and tilt angle of 1° [18,96]. For
extruded sheet of PP with 10 mm thickness was welded with FSW
providing the conditions as plunge depth of 9.6 mm, feeding rate of
60 mm/min, rotational speed of 2000-3000 rpm [97–100]. Tool pin
geometry can be one of the most important factors regarding the
changes in the mechanical strength of the polymer joints. As studies,
the application of convex and simple tool largely affected the me-
chanical properties for FSW of 100 × 80 × 5 mm dimension of ABS
sheets [72]. Welding of the Al alloys (AA611) and polyphenylene sul-
phide (PPS)is possible in the translational speed range of 10-25 mm/
min, rotatonal speed at 1200 rpm, pin diameter from 6-13 mm and pin
length of 2.7 mm [101]. For dissimilar welding of the PP and PE sheets
of dimension160 × 60 × 8 requires the 4 axis CNC milling with 510-
3100 rpm, traverse speed of 6–31.5 mm/min, shoulder diameter of
17 mm and pin diameter of 10 mm [67].
2.4. Pin and shoulder design
Pin and shoulder design determines the durability of the final
welded-element/joints. For friction stirring welding cased design of the
tool and shoulder ensures the characteristic of the product by providing
mixing of the material at joints interface, amount of heat generation,
material flow during process, surface behavior etc. Resultant stress and
strain rate developed due to the tool on the work-piece can be helpful to
select the optimum design of the pin and shoulder in FSW, the selection
of different geometries of the pin and shoulder will definitely be helpful
to the durability of the final product [102–105]. Formation of more
amount of inter-metallic compound at the joint interfaces due to the
application of exact pin and shoulder design helps to interlocking of the
inter-metallic compound leading to resistance of the crack propagation
during tensile load application [106–108]. As recent studies about de-
sign of tool pin profile reported by Hajideh et al. (2017) [67] for the
FSW of dissimilar polymer like; polyethylene and polypropylene sheet
(160 × 60 × 8 mm), the 4 different types of pin profile was applied
(namely; threaded cylindrical, Square, Triangular and Straight cylind-
rical) (See Fig. 5) with constant shoulder diameter given the best
strength by applying the cylindrical pin profile under 1800 rpm.
R. Kumar et al.
Generally all the welding tools (Shoulder, pin and input process
parameters) are designed to get the desired mechanical, morphological
properties and thermal properties by the heat and trial methods re-
sulted in the resources wastage. For the case of thermoplastic material
welding by FSW, it is desired to have a mathematical model that can be
useful for the determination of input process parameter (especially for
the tool and shoulder designs). As suggested by the.
As a novel model was suggested for the cases of the metals and
alloys but from the thermoplastic prospective the given design can be
very helpful to design the shoulder diameter optimally; the optimum
shoulder diameter can be calculated as taking the maximum values in
terms of the objective function, J(f) as [78,109,110].
NT NL
J (f ) = ⎛ ⎜ × ⎞ ⎟ Mendeset al. (2014), Mendez et al (https://sites.ualberta.ca).
⎝ NT + NL MT + ML ⎠ (1)
Calculating the sticking torque (NT) and sliding torque (NL) during
welding processes, the total torque N can be calculated;
N = NT + NL (2)
NT and NL are during the sticking and sliding of the tool to the work
piece can be calculated as;
. F
NT = ∮ rA×(1 − δ ) τ × dA
A (3)
. Where Ashoulder is the area of shoulder and Apincross section is area of
NL = ∮ rA × δ μf PN × dA
A (4)
whererA is the area element for the dA from the tool axis andPN is the
axial pressure directed from the tool to the work piece, δ is the variable
fractional slip and μ is the coefficient of friction. Where multiplication
factor υr is the linear velocity of the tool and can be expressed as m/s. r
is the radial distance taken from axis of the tool. From here δ and μ can
be calculated as;
υr
δ= 0.31 × exp ⎛ ⎞ −  0.026
⎝ 1.87 ⎠ (5)
μ= 0.5 × exp(υ r× δ) (6)
For the welding of PP sheets of 100 × 50 × 5 mm dimension there
are for different geometry of the pin profile (namely; square pin,
threaded-tapered pin wit chamfer, threaded chamfer pin and four-flute
threaded pin) have been taken by Kordestani et al. (2017) [63] to check
the effect on the characteristic of final weld. The welding resulted for all
the profile was feasible but threaded pin profile with chamfer has been
given maximum mechanical properties. Aydin (2010) [53] has in-
vestigated the effect of the pre-heating of the pin profile that Pre-
heating before the welding process of the polymer sheet can be resulted
in the better characteristics of the welded product.
5
Composites Part B 137 (2018) 1–15
Fig. 5. Variety in the tool pin profile design [67].
An interesting observation have been made by Hoseinlaghab et al.
(2015) [111] regarding effect of the shoulder pin profile as selecting the
concave shoulder profile with inclination of 6° with cylindrical and
conical types of pin profile. Out of shoulder diameter 15-20 mm, pin
diameter 5-8 mm, pin height 5-7 mm and geometry of cylindrical-
conical, conical geometry resulted in the better appearance of the
welded piece mechanically. It was suggested that pin geometry is the
independent factor related to the other input process parameters. For
optimization of the process parameter related to pin geometries with
the FSW for HDPE plates has been conducted and out of cylindrical,
tapered cylindrical and grooved cylindrical pin cylindrical pin with
tapered profile was found maximum contributing profile for mechanical
strength [112].
[113,114] have conducted the FSW of rotary nature process for ABS
sheets of 300 × 80 × 6 mm and it has been formulated the relationship
for the calculation of applied pressure (F) directed during processing in
terms of shoulder and pin geometry. The pressure calculation can be
helpful to calculate the optimal design of the pin and the shoulder
profile with prospective of the energy consumptions. The relation of
pressure can be mathematically formed as;
P=
Apin crass section + Ashoulder (7)
pin cross-section exposed to the welding interface, F is the force can be
determined either horizontally, vertically or equivalently.
2.5. Material flow models
For welding of thermoplastic material, material flow characteristic/
mechanism plays most important role. It is need to understand the
friction stir welding process using mathematical concept (especially
flow mechanism) for the control of the input process parameter/vari-
able or requirement of the mechanical, morphological output of the
joint produced for polymeric material. During welding process when
work piece at welding interface gone to quasi-steady state (say internal
equilibrium state thermodynamically) both the transverse force FT and
FA on the pin is in equilibrium. Both the forces in terms of viscous stress
tensor (Pviscous) at the tool/work piece interface can be expressed as
[115,116].
.
FA = ∬ Pviscous . ez dA
T /W (8)
.
FT = ∬ Pviscous . ex dA
T /W (9)
where, Pviscous. ez and Pviscous. ex are the component of viscous stresses
R. Kumar et al. Composites Part B 137 (2018) 1–15

along the axial direction and welding direction respectively (Z and X- Table 2
axis). Calculation of flow of material during FSW is necessary for the MFI with different polymer and metal powder composition [122,123].
limiting the stresses induced to the material due to the forces and
Wt. % of Al MFI with ABS(g/10min) MFI with Nylon 6(g/10min)
temperature variations. The viscosity (μ) of non-Newtonian thermo-
plastic material is the function of the flow stress (σ), strain rate (є) and 0 8.898 9.972
the temperature (T) during welding. It can be expressed as, [116,117]. 10 9.722 10.622
20 11.114 12.285
σ(T, ɛ) 30 13.091 13.664
μ=
3ɛ (10) 40 14.613 14.656
50 15.250 16.214
Viscosity of thermoplastic material is liable for the change in the
total heat generation and material flow characteristics. If the two dis- Wt. % of Fe (g/10min) (g/10min)
0 8.898 9.972
similar thermoplastic materials is having the similar viscosity then
10 10.344 11.249
there might be a chance that they have the chance to strongly mix to 20 11.973 12.615
each other during the friction stir welding process. As model proposed, 30 13.681 14.208
the relation of viscosity towards achieving the material compatibility 40 15.075 15.006
can be expressed as [118,119]. 50 16.141 16.786

Q ⎞
Z = ɛ.  exp  ⎛ = A (sinh. σα )n
⎝ RT ⎠ (11) Fe reinforcement at 40% level the MFI was obtained very similar as
15.075 and 15.006 g/10min for ABS and PA6 matrix respectively.
Z is the Zener-Holloman parameter which is the function of material
The welding operations performed at the 40% reinforcement for
characteristics like; flow stress (σ), strain rate (є) and temperature (T).
both the polymer of ABS and PA6 was successful due to similarities in
Q is the activation energy for W/P material, R is gas constant, material
the material flow characteristics. And it was conclude that similar
constant are A andα . n is stress exponent. Putting the values of the flow
material flow leading to the enhanced weld ability of the dissimilar
stress can be useful to find the material viscosity. The σ can be calcu-
polymers.
lated as;
1
1 ⎡ ɛ Q ⎞⎞n ⎤ 2.6. Heat distribution analysis
σ=   sinh−1 ⎢ ⎛ exp ⎛
⎜
⎥⎟

α ⎢ ⎝ A ⎝ RT ⎠⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ (12)
During the processes of FSW, heat generation is liable to regulate
the material flow during the process. At the insertion or extraction of
tool to the work piece material the material flow only will be constant if
heat generation is kept regulated. The heat generation is depends upon
the movement of the tool and transverse speed, and this can be justify
with support of the fact that weld profile and other parameter must be
constant. To know the temperature and velocity field in the pseudo
plastic state might be helpful to know the material flow during FSW.
During the FSW process, heat generation in terms of thermal energy
conservation for material flow in x, y and z direction is given by; (re-
presentation of x, y and z direction by i = 1, 2 and 3 respectively)
[120].
δ (ui . T ) δT δT ⎛ δT ⎞
ρCp = −ρCp U + k
⎜ ⎟ + Sb
δx i δx i δx1 ⎝ δx i ⎠ (13)
ρ is the material density, ui = velocity for material for i axis, xi is the
coordinate of I, T is temperature of the interface during process, Cp is
the isobaric specific heat constant, K is the coefficient of thermal con-
ductivity. Now the heat generation/volume i. e Sb is due to material's
plastic deformation in terms of material flow. As material flow is de-
pends upon the generation of the heat at the tool or the tool-workpiece
interface, the heat generated at the interface can be either transfer to
the tool or the rest goes to the work-piece [121].
Material flow can also be characterized by knowing the rheological
properties (especially melt flow index). During the friction welding
process of dissimilar plastic material it is just needed to material must
be in similar MFI to be flow same during welding process contributing
to the compatibility. As per study conducted by the Singh et al. (2016)
and Kumar et al. (2017) [122,123] that friction welding of two dis-
similar lead to the enhanced weld ability it those have similar material
flow characterize (MFI in present case). Initially the welding of natural
PA6 and ABS was failed due to non-compatibility on the basis of MFI
contributed to the flow behavior. It was then tried to construct a ma-
terial flow model in terms of MFI. Table 2 shows the variation of MFI
with the changing Al and Fe content to the ABS and PA6 matrix. For Al
reinforcement at 40% level, the MFI was obtained 14.613 and
14.656 g/10min for ABS and PA6 matrix respectively. Similarly for the
The requirement of the heat though the welding process is re-
sponsible for obtaining the characteristics of the weld as desired me-
chanically and morphologically. The heat requirement in the case of the
thermoplastic welding is very less as compared to the metallic pieces
but the accuracy and sensitiveness matters because plastic are more
heat sensitive as compared to the metals and alloys. The little more
values of heat generation than requirement can lead to the burning of
the thermoplastic material and little less produces defected joints in
FSW. So it is required that heat generation during the FSW of ther-
moplastic must be exact to produce elegant joints. Proper heat gen-
eration contributed to the better control over the material flow during
the welding process which makes the process acceptable and produced
the joints having excellent mechanical, morphological and thermal
properties [124–129]. Welding speed and rotary speed are the asso-
ciated parameter for the heat generation which must be keep optimum
for the proper heat generation contributed to defect-less production of
welds [130–133].
A model was presented by Zhao et al. (2014) and Vairis and Frost
(2000) [134,135] for the case of linear friction welding process. The
model has been developed to calculate the average heat rate (q0) pro-
duces by the friction heat power;
T T /4
1 4
q0 =
T
∫ q. dt = T
∫ μPN υdt
0 0 (14)
T /4
4 2
=
T
∫ μPN αwcos (wt )υdt = Π
μPN αw
0 (15)
Α is the amplitude, w is the oscillation angular velocity, T is the
cycle period and t is the time, PN is the friction pressure and μ is the
coefficient of friction, q is the dimensionless slip rate.
Also reviewed by Zhao et al. (2014) [134] that energy frictionally
dissipated energy converted into the heat approximately 90%, the
weight factor for the distribution of heat (hdf) between two surfaces can
be calculated as;
q2 λ1 ρ1 Cp1
hdf = =
q1 λ2 ρ2 Cp2 (16)

6
R. Kumar et al.
where thermal conductivity is λ, density is ρ and specific heat capacity
is Cp. The substitute 1 and 2 denotes the material for which welding will
be processed. It is clear from here that two dissimilar thermoplastic
material if and only if can be welded when they have similar dis-
tribution of heat (factors depends upon the thermal conductivity, spe-
cific heat capacity and density of the different thermoplastic materials).
While performing friction welding it is mandatory to have the exact
calculation of the heat generation at both the interfaces that is
shoulder-work piece and pin-sideof work piece. As suggested by Shi
et al. (2015) and Mehta et al. (2013) [124,136] the heat generation can
be calculated as for shoulder-work-pieces (qa ) as;
2Πw U
qa = [η (1 − δ ) τcs + δ μPN ] ⎛ r− sinθ⎞
⎝ 60 60 ⎠ (17)
And at pin-side face of work-pieces (qb );
2Πw U
qb = [η (1 − δ ) τcs + δ μσNys ] ⎛ r− sinθ⎞
⎝ 60 60 ⎠ (18)
where η is the efficiency of the plastic deformation work, w is the ro-
tational speed of the tool, U is the welding speed (mm/min). θ is the
angle between welding direction and τcs is yield stress.
2.7. Numerical modeling
Mathematical models are the key to control any error and difficul-
ties developed during the process. For the present cases of the ther-
moplastic material it is also mandatory to have some mathematical
model on which work is going to be processed. Recently number of the
model have been developed such as; post weld aging time for control-
ling morphology, material flow model to command mechanical prop-
erties, heat transfer model, material mixing mode, time dependent/in-
dependent welding model and etc. [137–141]. Heat flow during the
welding process is responsible for the final weld quality; a model has
been developed by Mishra and Ma (2005), Frigaard et al. (2001)
[31,142] for heat flow rate in terms of net power (ho) can be expressed
as; where R is the radius of tool;
4 2
ho = Π μPN wR3
3 (19)
For calculation of the maximum temperature (T) developed during
the welding of Al alloy is suggested by Jasthi et al. (2009) [143] as;
T w2 ⎞
α untreated alloy [168]. Studies highlighted the DSC analysis which was
= K⎛ ⎜
4
⎟
Tm ⎝ v × 10 ⎠ (20)
where Tm is the melting temperature for selected alloy, K and α are
constant and exponent. Α varies between 0.04 and 0.06 and K varies
between 0.65 and 0.75.
3. Case studies for FSW with aid of additive manufacturing
In the present case study the thermal analysis has been conducted
on the joint produced by friction stir welding technique by introducing
as semi-consumable tool of dissimilar thermoplastic materials as studies
by Singh et al. (2017) [144]. The process is started with the selection of
the material for double screw extrusion (TSE) followed by fused de-
position modeling (FDM) and friction stir welding on CNC milling
machine. Melt flow index analysis have been investigated to enhance
the weld-ability of two dissimilar polymers. Thermal analysis is liable to
examine the thermal properties of any materials, including thermo-
plastic or thermosetting polymer matrix, as well as to determine the
effect of micro or nano-composite added to polymers [145–149]. DSC is
an effective tool for examining the change in the specific heat after
reinforcing nano-particle to the polymer matrix. Study reported for DSC
analysis reveals that 0.01% graphene to polyester and 0.01% graphite
improved the specific heat to 334% and 264% respectively [150]. The
thermal analysis can be helpful for those application areas where it is
7
Composites Part B 137 (2018) 1–15
required to determine the thermal degradation of the polymer or resins
[151]. One study highlighted that increase in the Barium Titanate as
filler to the Poly (Methyl Methacrylate) matrix from 5% to 20% resulted
in the increase in the thermal degradation [152]. It can be understood
from the thermal analysis that for some of the polymer, the specific type
of filler contributed to the thermal degradation and change in the
rheological properties [153]. Modulated Temperature Differential
Scanning Calorimetry (MTDSC) is the variant of DSC, the MTDSCis an
evaluation technique which can be analyses the effect of temperature
and other thermal properties on the specific heat of the sample. It was
established that the heat capacity is more strongly dependent on the
temperature than the thermal conductivity [154]. Crystallinity is the
one of the thermal analyses that can be helpful to check the affectivity
of the fiber on the polypropylene composites [155,156]. Lignocellulosic
fiber obtained from orange wood reinforced to polypropylene resulted
in the improved crystallinity as analyzed by DSC [157]. It was reported
for DSC that hydrophobic drug – phenacetin added to the polyethylene
glycol (PEG) at defined proprtion of 1–4:1 was liable to produce a solid
dispersion phase (crystalline structure) [158]. In relation to the con-
stitute variation analyses of polymers, DSC is applicable to the ex-
aminations of the thermal variations occurring in polymer arrange-
ments during chemical reactions (e.g. polymerization), oxidative
degradation, vaporization, sublimation and desorption [159]. The DSC
results are justified by the way of X ray diffraction, scanning electron
microsopy and transmission electron microscopy to explore the effec-
tivity of the nanoparticle on the polymer nanocomposite [160,161].
The recent study reported for analysis of the rabies virus by DSC for the
application of vaccine productions [162]. Friction welding is a process
of joining of materials and structures below their melting points. When
these materials come in contact with relative motion to each other, with
the action of friction, heat is produced and deformation takes place, due
to this intermolecular diffusion is occurred between their faces and thus
welding is performed. Friction stir welding (FSW) is one of the variants
of solid-state joining/friction weldingtechnique that use a non-con-
sumable tool to join two facing work pieces without melting the
workpiece material [163,164]. Thermal analysis with the DSC setup
explored the heat affectivity of the FSW process of the different welding
zones [165–167]. DSC measurements investigated the relation of the
crystallinity with the heat treatment of base material, an observation
has been made for decrease of ∼41% in the crystallinity of the PP in
joints made using the pre-treated alloy compared with ∼10% for the
carried out with a differential scanning calorimeter to investigate the
conversion of precipitates in different regions, the heat flow was ob-
served greater in thermo-mechanically heat affect zone (TMAZ) as
compared to the other heat zones [28,87,169]. DSC evaluation was
conducted to examine the evolution of precipitates in the NZ and the
HAZ, the larger is the proportion of precipitates in respected zones
lowered the tensile strength of the joints [170,171]. An interesting
observation has been reported that friction stir welding of the Al alloys,
DSC test performed for per 3 mm distance from base material to HAZ
resulted in the increased peak temperature of the welded piece [172].
Recently study has been carried to evaluate the effect of welding
parameters and weld depth on precipitation kinetics in FSWed metal
alloys [171–173]. The study suggested that fine and dense precipitation
of precipitate led to full recovery of strength in welding [174,175].
For the present study, ABS and PA6 polymer have been selected.
ABS and PA6 are two different characterized polymers based upon the
thermal, mechanical, chemical and metallurgical properties [176–180]
Many researchers have investigated and established the relationship of
melt flow index with numerous mechanical, chemical and thermal
properties like, Yield stress, Viscosity, molecular weight distribution
and shear rate [181–184]. The pilot experimentations have been con-
ducted to weld the ABS and PA6 material without any reinforcement.
The friction stir welding was carried out at CNC milling machine at
1200RPM of 30 × 30 × 6 mm dimensions of the ABS and PA6 sheets.
R. Kumar et al.
Fig. 6. DSC of ABS and ABS-40%Fe.
The welding was unsuccessful and it was experienced that the material
was not compatible as flow-ability differences between both the poly-
mers. So it is required firstly to make similar the flow-ability of the two
different polymers to be weld. The melt flow analysis was performed to
ensure the similarities in the flow characteristics (See Table 2 for the
MFI analysis of Fe reinforcing). After insuring the MFI of the two dis-
similar plastic of ABS and PA6 with Fe reinforcement ABS-40Fe and
PA6-40Al have been selected for experimentations and required com-
position then checked by DSC (See Fig. 6).
The DSC was conducted in the 3 cycle to check the stability and it
was experienced that both ABS and PA6 were stable in cycle3 as
compared to the other two. So reading of cycle 3 has been decided as
most appropriate. For ABS peak melting was obtained 208.110Cand for
ABS-50Fe it was 213.26 °C. Similarly the peak melting was obtained for
PA6 as 219.350Cand for PA6-40Fe as 218.85 °C (See Fig. 7). The peak
melting for ABS-40Fe and PA6-40Fe was obtained very similar as
213.26 °C and 218.85 °C, it is concluded from here that these compo-
sitions have the better compatibility according to peak melting point of
view.
After fixing the polymer and metal proportions at desired level by
melt flow index characterization the desired mixtures have been ex-
trude through a twin screw extruder. The main advantages of twin-
screw extruders (intermeshing co-rotating) are their exceptional mixing
capability that gives the remarkable characteristics to extruded pro-
ducts. In the twin-screw extrusion process, the raw materials may be
solids (granules, powders & flours), slurries, liquids, and possibly gases
[185,186]. The screw extrusion was processed at fixing the input pro-
cess parameter based upon pilot experimentations. At 100 rpm, 250 °C
and applied load of 10 Kg have been selected for the preparations of the
8
Composites Part B 137 (2018) 1–15
feedstock filament for the FDM. After preparation of feedstock filament
by twin screw extrusion at above mentioned process parameter, the
FDM set up was used to fabricate the parts of ABS, ABS-40%Fe and PA6-
40%Fe. Parts of ABS and ABS-40%Fe were used for the work piece plate
with dimensions of 30 × 30 × 6 mm whereas PA6-40%Fe was used for
fabrication of tool profile with 10 mm diameter and 50 mm length. The
Semi-consumable tool of PA6-40%Fe was chosen as the cylindrical pin
profile configuration whereas ABS and ABS-40%Fe for work pieces
square profile. The welding operations were conducted with keeping
the milling process parameter condition as stationary. The Tool rotation
speed, Tool consumption rate and table movement was kept as rota-
tional speed of 1200 rpm, traverse speed of 30 mm/min and tool plunge
rate of 0.5mm/10 mm of table movement. This time welding was
possible due to the similarities in the MFI of the two dissimilar poly-
mers.
The welded parts of ABS + ABS and ABS-40%Fe + ABS-40%Fe are
shown in Fig. 8. The parts of ABS + ABS welded with pin of PA6-40%F
was appeared visually as rough and defected joint whereas as and ABS-
40%Fe + ABS-40%Fe welded with PA6-40%Fe was appeared as sound
and elegant joint. The joint of ABS + ABS was come as less mixed due
to the large difference in the MFI. The similar MFI of ABS-40%Fe and
PA6-40%Fe enable it to make a elegant and less defective joints of ABS-
40%Fe + ABS-40%Fe.
There are 3 separate heat zones was appeared after the welding
process. The welded zones have been chosen as appearance of the
surface changes due to the heat. The zones appeared on the welded
surface are TMAZ (Thermo-mechanically affected zone), HAZ (heat
affected zone) and BP (base polymer). In the case of ABS-ABS joints the
TMAZ, HAZ and BP samples was tested through the DSC and the series
R. Kumar et al.
Fig. 7. DSC of PA6 and PA6-40%Al.
Fig. 8. Welded joints of ABS-40%Fe + ABS-40%Fe and ABS + ABS by pin of PA6-40%Fe.
of DSC curves of merged together to see the effect of the heat and re-
inforcement in the welded samples. Fig. 9 shows the merged DSC series
of (1) BP, (2) HAZ and (3) TMAZ. It was observed from the series that
material from TMAZ region gained highest melting peak of 220.49 °C
and gained lowest melting at HAZ with 220.30 °C. The series for the
TMAZ shows the perfect melting curve for PA6 which can be a con-
sideration of deposition of PA6-40%Fe at the joint area. The line of HAZ
and BP are similar to the ABS series which is an indication that there is
no mixing of consumable material has been deposited on the joint. As in
the case of TMAZ curve the solidification occurs as 190.68 °C which is
very closer to the PA6 matrix confirmed the mixing/stirring of the PA6
with ABS surface. The TMAZ curve has highest melting peak due to the
presence of the PA6 matrix on the TMAZ sample. One of the important
9
Composites Part B 137 (2018) 1–15
observations can be seen as from the merged series is that the heat flow
was maximum for the base BP and minimum for the TMAZ as during
heating the curve for BP on the top. The BP took 2.91 mJ energy to melt
whereas TMAZ taken 45.08 mJ energy to be melt. This energy taking
differences shows that TMAZ zone is the highest heat stable as com-
pared to the HAZ and BP.
Similar operation now conducted for the ABS-40%Fe + ABS-40%Fe
joint to check the effect of reinforcement and deposition nature of PA6-
40Fe pin tool. Similarly in the present case for TMAZ zone the melting
curve was introduced by heating an indication of mixing/stirring of
ABS with PA6. Reversed to the ABS + ABS joints the heat flow rate was
occurred maximum for the TMAZ sample whereas minimum for the BP
zone, this phenomena may occurred due to the better mixing/stirring of
the PA6 with ABS matrix. The reinforcement of the Fe particle lead to
the raising in the heat taken to melt the material. The heat taking ca-
pacity with 67.70 mJ for TMAZ was experienced maximum as com-
pared to the other zones. There was a true melting and a true solidifi-
cation curves were occurred has the significance for the deposition of
the PA6 on the TMAZ zone. Fig. 10 shows the merged line of DSC for
TMAZ, HAZ, BP and their integral melting behavior.
4. Prospective of friction stir welding for thermoplastics
FSW emerged as the advance technique for the joining of similar/
dissimilar metals, alloys and polymers to be potentially adopted in
various branches of manufacturing and engineering (Namely;
Structures assembly, oil and gas pipeline repair, automobile parts
joining, aviation joining, etc.) [187–191]. Fused deposition modeling
(FDM), polymer waste management, Screw extrusion are some of the
techniques which need scientific attentions to be integrated with FSW
process for formation of large functional/nonfunctional structures,
formation/joining of pavement sheet through sustainable waste
R. Kumar et al. Composites Part B 137 (2018) 1–15

Fig. 9. DSC results for TMAZ, HAZ and BP of ABS + ABS joints.

Fig. 10. DSC results for TMAZ, HAZ and BP of ABS-40%Fe + ABS-40%Fe joints.

10
R. Kumar et al.
management, joining of bridge assemblies, joining of heat exchanger
components, etc. [192–253].
5. Conclusions
• Joining/welding of two similar polymers is easy and requirement of
any material flow model, heat generation model, and optimum
welding tool configuration is less as compared to the welding/
joining of two dissimilar thermoplastic materials by FSW.
• Material flow in terms of viscosity is the most contributing factor for
compatibility of thermoplastic material. If two thermoplastic have
similar viscosity, this means that there are good chances that they
are compatible for FSW.
• The selection of pin profile, shoulder diameter, rational speed, travel
speed, tilt angle and plunge depth are some of the input process
variable that must be chosen with provision of optimum heat gen-
eration, material flow by the exact calculation to minimize the loss
of resources, energy and time.
Acknowledgements
The authors are highly thankful to Board of research in nuclear
science (BRNS) (No. 34/14/10/2016-BRNS/34036) and University
grant commission (UGC) (No. F.30-66/2016 (SA-II)), GOI, Punjabi
university, Patiala (Mech. Engg. Deptt.), Manufacturing research lab
(GNDEC) for providing financial/technical assistance to carry out the
research work.
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