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21.1 Propagation of sound waves


21.2 Sources of sound
21.3 Intensity of sound
Chapter 21. Sound waves 21.4 Beat
21.5 Doppler effect

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objectives objectives
a) explain the propagation of sound waves in air describe, with appropriate diagrams, the
in terms of pressure variation and different modes of vibration of standing waves
displacement in air columns, and calculate the frequencies
b) interpret the equations for displacement, y = of sound produced, including the
yo sin ( t kx), and pressure, p = po sin ( t determination of end correction
kx + /2) define and calculate the intensity level of
c) use the standing wave equation to determine sound
the positions of nodes and antinodes of a use the principle of superposition to explain
standing wave along a stretched string the formation of beats
d) use the formula v = (T/ )1/2 to determine the use the formula for beat frequency, f = f1 f2
frequencies of the sound produced by describe the Doppler effect for sound, and use
different modes of vibration of the standing the derived formulae (for source and/or
waves along a stretched string observer moving along the same line)
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What are sound waves? When we use Sound Waves


A mechanical wave that vibrates a Music ties into Sound waves and
medium (like air or water) with different frequencies.
frequencies. Each note has a different frequency.
These frequencies are then picked up by
We talk through sound waves, and apply
our ears. meaning to certain sounds.
They are created through a variety of Dolphins and bats use sound wave (sonar
interactions, but all are mechanical ). Dolphins use it to communicate, like a
(Physical). language, and bats use them to fly due to
poor eye sight.
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How they work How they work


Sound waves travel in a A sound wave is
longitudinal way (vertical measured in hertz
fashion), as shown by the (Hz) =>
tuning fork in the picture. vibration/second
The sound vibrates the These are High and
medium between the Low frequency waves,
they show the
whatever is straight in difference between
front of it. the two.
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How they work Frequencies
The periods, T between Interval Frequency Ratio Examples
the waves categorize Octave 2:1 512 Hz and 256 Hz
their frequencies, f as Third 5:4 320 Hz and 256 Hz
Fourth 4:3 342 Hz and 256 Hz
low or high.
Fifth 3:2 384 Hz and 256 Hz
f 1/T
The higher frequency has This chart explains sound waves pertain to
a smaller amount of time music
between waves, while the make music. For instance, raising a note an
lower frequency has a octave would require multiplying the base note
longer amount of time. by 2 (take a low c, with frequency of 261.5, to
raise it an octave: has frequency 523.)
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Frequency Sound
Note C C# D D# E F F# G G# A A# B C C# D A longitudinal traveling wave
Produced by vibrations in a medium
Octave 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
The disturbance is the local change in
Hz 262 278 294 311 330 349 370 392 415 440 466 494 523 554 587 pressure generated by the vibrating object
It travels because of the molecular
interactions.
This table shows the value in hertz of The region of increased pressure (compared to
certain notes (rounding applies). the normal pressure) is called condensation
The region of lower pressure is called
rarefaction.
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Sound 21.1 Propagation of sound waves

The maximum increase in pressure (DPm) is 1. The propagation of sound waves occurs due
the amplitude of the pressure wave. to the oscillations of individual particles with
(measurable) the medium producing traveling waves of
frequency: 20Hz to 20kHz. pressure fluctuations
Pressure waves below 20 Hz are called 2. The general form of particle oscillation
infrasonic waves y(x, t) = yo cos(kx - t) or
Pressure waves over 20kHz are called y = yo sin ( t kx)
ultrasonic waves. where yo is the magnitude of the particle
displacement

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21.1 Propagation of sound waves 21.2 Sources of Sound

3. The general equation for the pressure Musical instruments produce sounds in
fluctuations: various ways vibrating strings, vibrating
P(x, t) = Po sin(kx - t) or membranes, vibrating metal or wood
P = Po sin ( t kx + /2)
shapes, vibrating air columns.
The vibration may be started by plucking,
striking, bowing, or blowing.
The vibrations are transmitted to the air
and then to our ears.

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21.2 Sources of Sound: Vibrating Strings 21.2 Sources of Sound: Vibrating Strings
The strings on a guitar A piano uses both
can be effectively methods to cover its
shortened by fingering, more than seven-
raising the
octave range: the
fundamental pitch.
The pitch of a string of lower strings (at
a given length can also bottom) are both
be altered by using a much longer and
string of different much thicker than
density. the higher ones.
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21.2 Sources of Sound: Vibrating Air 21.2 Sources of Sound: Vibrating Strings
Columns and Air Columns
Wind instruments
create sound
through standing
waves in a column
of air.

A tube open at both ends (most wind


instruments) has pressure nodes, and therefore
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displacement antinodes, at the ends. 20

21.2 Sources of Sound: Vibrating Strings 21.2 Sources of Sound: Vibrating


and Air Columns Membrane
A piece of elastic membrane can vibrate in the
modes as shown in the figure below:

A tube closed at one end (some organ pipes) has Vibrating Membrane
a displacement node (and pressure antinode) at
the closed end. 21 22

21.3 Intensity of sound 21.3 Intensity of sound


Waves transport energy without
transporting mass. The amount of energy
transported per second is the power (P)
of the wave (in W)
Intensity is a measure of power
transmitted by a wave per unit area:
Power P 2 2
I= = = medium wave m
Area A

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21.3 Intensity of sound Loudness & Decibels

The energy transmission (power) is 1. The human does not perceive sound intensity
determined by the source. linearly but rather logarithmically
The power is distributed (spreads) in all Perceived Loudness, Iperceived log (Iactual)
directions. Far away from the source, the 2. The average minimum perceivable sound
power is spread over a greater area. intensity:
For a point source, intensity decreases Io -12 W/m2

inversely with the square of the distance 3. The decibel scale was been developed to
from the source:
P P ear perception (intensity level, ):
I(r) = = = (10 dB). log(I/I0) = (10 dB). log(I + 12)
A 4 r2
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21.4 Beats 21.4 Beats


1. When 2 sound waves the resultant wave 2. When the amplitudes of the 2 waves are similar but
the frequencies are slightly different then:
pattern exhibits both constructive and
destructive interference. a. The combined effect of interference
2. When the amplitudes of the 2 waves are produces periodic rises and drops in
similar but the frequencies are slightly loudness called beats
different then: b. The frequency of the beats (fbeat) is equal to
a. The frequency of the resultant wave is the difference between the 2 sound
roughly the average frequency of the 2 frequencies: fbeat = f1 - f2
waves 3. Musicians often tune their musical
instruments by listening to beat frequency
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21.4 Beat 21.4 Beat


The superposition of 2 sound waves: When two sound waves
fwave1=159.2 Hz fwave1=148.0 Hz of different but nearly
equal frequency (f1 and
f2) superimpose, we an
intensity variation at the
difference frequency
The intensity variation is
called beats 1 beat

The resulting beat frequency: The beat frequency is


equal to the difference
Used to tune musical
fbeat= fwave1 - fwave2 = 159.2 Hz - 148.0 Hz = 21.2 Hz instruments to same pitch
frequency | f1 - f2|
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21.4 Beat 21.4 Beat interference in time


Superimpose oscillations of equal amplitude, Consider two sound sources producing audible
sinusoidal waves at slightly different frequencies f1
but different frequencies Not and f2. What will a person hear? How can a piano
A sin(2 f1t) A sin(2 f 2t ) examinable tuner use beats in tuning a piano? If the two waves at
( f1 f2 ) ( f1 f 2 ) Oscillation at the first are in phase they will interfere constructively
2 A sin(2 t )cos(2 t) average and a large amplitude resultant wave occurs which
2 2
( f1 f 2 ) ( f1 f 2 ) frequency will give a loud sound. As time passes, the two waves
2 A cos(2 t ) sin(2 t) become progressively out of phase until they interfere
2 2
destructively and it will be very quite. The waves then
Modulation of amplitude gradually become in phase again and the pattern
repeats itself. The resultant waveform shows rapid
frequency of pulses is | f1-f2 | fluctuations but with an envelope that various slowly.

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21.4 Beat interference in time 21.4 Beat interference in time
The frequency of the rapid fluctuations is the Since the envelope has two extreme values in
average frequencies = f1 f 2 a cycle, we hear a loud sound twice in one
2 cycle since the ear is sensitive to the square of
The frequency of the slowly varying envelope = the wave amplitude.
The beat frequency is f beat f1 f 2
f1 f2
2

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60

60

50
50

40
40

f =100
30 30 f = 120
beats

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20

10
10

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
0
time
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
time

f1 = 100 Hz f2 = 110 Hz frapid = 105 Hz Trapid = 9.5 ms


f beat = 10 Hz Tbeat = 0.1 s (loud pulsation every 0.1 s) f1 = 100 Hz f2 = 120 Hz frapid = 110 Hz Trapid = 9.1 ms
f beat = 20 Hz Tbeat = 0.05 s (loud pulsation every 0.05 s)

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21.5 Doppler effect
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One might wonder why the siren on a moving
f =100
ambulance seems to produce sound with a
30 f = 104
beats higher pitch when it passes an observer and
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Is this simply because of the relative distance
between the observer and the ambulance
0
0 0.05 0.1
time
0.15 0.2 0.25 (sound)?
f1 = 100 Hz f2 = 104 Hz frapid = 102 Hz Trapid = 9.8 ms
Or is it because of the loudness of the sound
f beat = 4 Hz Tbeat = 0.25 s (loud pulsation every 0.25 s) produced by the siren?

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21.5 Doppler effect 21.5 Doppler effect


Christian Johann Doppler Doppler effect is the change in frequency of
(1803-1853)
a wave (or other periodic event) for
Studied motion related an observer moving relative to its source.
frequency changes (1842)
v vo v vo
fo fs fo fs
v vs v vs

Source (s) Observer (o) Source (s) Observer (o)


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21.5 Doppler effect 21.5 Doppler effect
Applications:
of waves and the observer are approaching police microwave speed units
each other, the sound heard by the observer speed of a tennis ball
becomes higher in pitch, whereas if the source speed of blood flowing through an artery
and observer are moving apart the pitch heart beat of a developing fetous
becomes lower. burglar alarms
For the sound waves to propagate it requires a sonar ships & submarines to detect
medium such as air, where it serves as a frame submerged objects
of reference with respect to which motion of detecting distance planets
source and observer are measured. observing the motion of oscillating stars.
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21.5 Doppler effect 21.5 Doppler effect


Consider source of On right - source
approaching
sound at frequency fs,
source catching up on waves
moving speed vs, wavelength reduced
observer at rest (vo = 0) frequency increased
Speed of sound v On left - source receding
What is frequency fo source moving away from
heard by observer? waves
wavelength increased
frequency reduced

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SITUATION 1 Stationary Source and SITUATION 1 Stationary Source and


Observers (NO DOPPLER EFFECT) Observers (NO DOPPLER EFFECT)
A stationary sound source S Thus, the frequency f heard by both stationary
emits a spherical wavefronts of
observers is given by,
v relative to the medium air. vt / v
In time t, the wavefronts move a
f
distance vt toward the
t
f - frequency of sound source
observers, O1 & O2.
v - speed of sound waves
The number of wavelengths t - time
detected by the observer infront
- wavelength
and behind the source are the
same and equal to vt
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SITUATION 2 Stationary Source;


21.5 Doppler effect
Moving Observers
What if both of the observers in figure 1 are Observer 1 moves a distance vot
toward the source at speed vo
moving, is there any change in the frequency
and wavelength of the source? We had known earlier that
wavefronts also move at speed v
towards O1 in time t at distance vt.
The distance traveled by the
wavefronts with respect to O1
becomes vt + vOt.
The number of wavelengths
intercepted by O1 at this distance
is (vt + v0t
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SITUATION 2 Stationary Source; SITUATION 2 Stationary Source;
Moving Observers Moving Observers
This shows that there is an increase in the If observer 2 moves away
from the sound source,
frequency heard by O1 as it goes nearer to the the distance traveled by
sound source as given by, the wavefronts with
respect to O2 in time t, is
(vt v0t ) / v v0 (2) vt vot.
f' Consequently, there
t would be a decrease in the
frequency heard by O2 as
Since = v/f, then given by,
v v0 (3) v v0
f' f f' f (4)
v v
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SITUATION 2 Stationary Source; SITUATION 3 Moving Source;


Moving Observers Stationary Observers
As the source moves a
v v0 (5)
distance vST (T=1/f
f' f
v period of wave) toward
O1 there is a decrease in
In these situations only the frequency heard the wavelength of sound
by the observers changes due to there motion by a quantity of vsT.
relative to the source. The shortened
However the wavelength of sound remains vsT
constant.

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SITUATION 3 Moving Source; SITUATION 3 Moving Source;


Stationary Observers Stationary Observers
The frequency of sound wave heard by O1 With respect to observer
increases as given by, 2, the wavelength of
sound increases, where
v v v vsT.
f' The frequency of sound
' vs T v/ f vs f
wave heard by O2
decreases as given by,
v
f' f (6) v
v vs f' f
v vs
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SITUATION 3 Moving Source; SITUATION 4 Moving Source and


Stationary Observers Observer
v From the equations (5) and (8), we can now
f' f (6)
derive the equation of general Doppler Effect
v vs by replacing f in equation (5) with of
v (7)
equation (8). This result to,
f' f
v vs v v0
f' f (9)
Combining Equations (6) and (7), we have v vs
v (Moving source and observer)
f' f (8)

v vs
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SITUATION 4 Moving Source and SITUATION 4 Moving Source and
Observer Observer
v v0 v v0 v v0
f' f (9) f' f f' f
v vs v vs v vs
The ± signs correspond to the direction of the Approaching observer, Receding observer,
source or observer when they are moving receding source receding source
relative to the other. These would determine If vo> vs , observed Decrease in
whether there is an increase or decrease on the frequency increases observed frequency
frequency heard by the observer during the If vo< vs , observed
motion. frequency decreases
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SITUATION 4 Moving Source and


Problem
Observer
A train has a whistle, which emits a 400 Hz
v v0 v v0 sound. You are stationary and you hear the
f' f f' f
v vs v vs whistle, but the pitch is 440 Hz. How fast is
train moving towards or away from you?
Approaching observer, Receding observer,
approaching source approaching source
If vo> vs , observed
Observed frequency
frequency decreases
increases
If vo< vs , observed
frequency increases
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Solution: Summary: Sound waves


The pitch is higher, so the train is moving Propagation
y = yo sin ( t kx)
p = po sin ( t kx + /2)
towards you.
Open ends tube: Ln= n /2, fn = nv/2L
Its speed relative to you is found from Sources of sound One Closed End tube: Ln = n /4, fn = nv/4L

f = f0v/(v-vs). We have I = P/4 r2


(v-vs) = f0v/f = (400/s)(330 m/s)/(440/s) Intensity level = (10 dB). log(I/I0)

= 300m/s. Beat f beat =| f1 - f2 |


Therefore vs = 330m/s 300m/s
= 30m/s Doppler effect f f[(v v0)/(v vs)]

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