8.

1 Stress and strain

8.2 Force-extension graphs and stress-
8 Deformation of Solids strain graphs
8.3 Strain energy
By Liew Sau Poh

define stress and strain for a stretched wire or elastic string

sketch force-extension graph and stress-strain graph for a Definition
ductile material
is defined as the property of a material
identify and explain proportional limit, elastic limit, yield point
and tensile strength that enables them to return to their
original dimensions (shape and size)
after an applied force (stress) has
distinguish between elastic deformation and plastic deformation been removed.
distinguish the shapes of force-extension graphs for ductile,
brittle and polymeric materials Deformation occurs when external
derive and use the formula for strain energy forces act to stretch, compress or shear a
calculate strain energy from force-extension graphs or stress- solid.
strain graphs. SF017 4

occurs when a material is deformed beyond its

An object or a material which returns to elastic limit.
its original length or size after being
distorted
It behaves within the elastic limit.

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Behaviour (

... Under deformation:

Inelastic
Strength the ability of a material to Elastic material
withstand a force without breaking. material
Stiffness the resistance of a material to Sponge Paper
changes in shape and size. Spring Metal
Ductility the tendency of a material to Rubber Plasticine
change its size and shape considerably
before breaking.
Brittleness the tendency of a material to
break without deforming. 8
8.1 Stress and Strain 8.1 Stress and Strain
Stress is defined as the force per unit Stress is scalar quantity and the
cross-sectional area on a body that tends dimension of stress is given by
to cause it to deform. F
A
F Where
MLT 2
A : stress
L2
F : force
M L 1T 2
A : cross - sectional area The unit for stress are kg m-1 s-2 or N m-2
or Pascal (Pa)
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8.1 Stress and Strain 8.1 Stress and Strain

Strain ( ) is defined as the fractional Tensile stress and strain

change in the dimensions of the object. Consider a rod that initially has uniform cross-
Strain is scalar quantity and sectional area, A and length l0.
Stretch the rod by applying the forces of equal
dimensionless.
magnitude F but opposite directions at the
Stress and strain can be classified into
both ends and the rod will extent by amount e
three types :
as shown in figure below.
Tensile and Compressive stress and l0 A
strain
F F
Bulk stress and strain
SF017 Shear stress and strain 11 SF017 e 12

Tensile stress Tensile strain

Tensile stress is defined as the ratio of the Tensile strain is defined as the ratio of
perpendicular force, F to the cross- elongation (extension), e to original length,
sectional area, A or l0 or
e l l0
F Tensile strain
Tensile stress l0 l0
A
Where Where e : elongation (extension )
F : the force act perpendicular to the cross section. l : final length
A : cross - sectional area l0 : original(initial) length
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Compressive stress and strain Compressive stress and strain

Consider a rod that initially has uniform l0

cross-sectional area, A and length l0. A
Compress the rod by applying the forces F F
of equal magnitude F but opposite
directions at the both ends and the length e
of the rod will decrease by amount e as F
Compressive stress
shown in figure below. A
l0 A e l l0
F F Compressiv e strain
l0 l0
SF017 e 15 SF017 16
 k : force(Hook e) constant
8.2 Force-Extension Graphs and
Stress-Strain Graph
Force-Extension Graphs
A : limit of OA A : limit of proportionality
Force, F proportionality
D B : elastic limit
The force (stress) Force, F
E increases linearly D
C : yield point with the elongation E
BC
D : point of maximum
(strain) until point
A
force (stress)
A. Point A is the BC
E : fracture (breaking) A
point limit of
proportionality.
OT extension, e OT extension, e
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k : force(Hook e) constant k : force(Hook e) constant

Force-Extension Graphs Force-Extension Graphs
OA A : limit of proportionality OA A : limit of proportionality
The straight line Force, F Fs = -ke Force, F
graph (OA) obeys D Where D
E E
k = force (Hooke)
Below
the limit of BC constant BC
proportionality, the A A
restoring force, Fs is
directly proportional
to the elongation, e O T OT
SF017
extension, e 19 SF017
extension, e 20

k : force(Hook e) constant k : force(Hook e) constant

Force-Extension Graphs Force-Extension Graphs
OA A : limit of proportionality B: This is the elastic limit of B : elastic limit
Fs = -ke the material.
Force, F Beyond this point, the Force, F
Where
D material is permanently D
k = force (Hooke) E stretched and will never E
constant regain its original shape
The negative sign BC and length. If the force BC
indicates that the A (stress) is removed, the A
restoring force is the material has a permanent
opposite direction to elongation of OT.
increasing elongation.
OT extension, e OT extension, e
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k : force(Hook e) constant k : force(Hook e) constant

Force-Extension Graphs Force-Extension Graphs
OB C -The yield point marked C : yield point
B : elastic limit
The area between the a change in the internal
two parallel line (AO Force, F structure of the Force, F
and CT) represents the D material. D
work done to produce E - The plane (layer) of the
E
the permanent
BC BC
atoms slide across each
elongation OT. other resulting in a
OB region is known as A sudden increase in A
elastic deformation. elongation and the
material thins
uniformly.
OT extension, e OT extension, e
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 k : force(Hook e) constant k : force(Hook e) constant
Force-Extension Graphs Force-Extension Graphs
D D : point of maximum E E : fracture (breaking)
force (stress) point
- The force (stress) on - This is the point where
the material is the material breaks or
maximum and is
Force, F fractures.
Force, F
known as the
D D
E E
breaking force
(stress). This is BC BC
sometimes called the A A
Ultimate Tensile
Strength (UTS).
OT extension, e OT extension, e
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k : force(Hook e) constant
Force-Extension Graphs Extension-Force Graphs
CDE C : yield point
D : point of maximum force (stress)
F
- This region is known
E : fracture (breaking) point
as plastic deformation. Steel
- - When the force Force, F
(stress) increases, the D
E
elongation (strain) Glass
increases BC
rapidly. A Rubber

e
OT extension, e
O
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Types of materials Types of materials

Ductile Stress-Strain Graph Brittle
Stress, Stress,
materials - materials - do
undergo plastic Steel not show plastic Steel
deformation behaviour
before breaking. Glass (deformation). Glass
Copper Copper
such as steel, Aluminium such as glass. Aluminium
copper,
aluminium.
O O
Strain, Strain,

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Y @ E) Y @ E)

Definition is defined as the ratio of the Its dimension is given by

tensile stress to the tensile strain if the
limit of proportionality has not been F l0
Y ML 1T 2
exceeded. A e
F
Tensile stress A kg m-1 s-2 @ N m-2 @ Pa.
Y Y F l0
Tensile strain Y
e Ae
l0
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 Y @ E) Y @ E)
does not depend to
the length of the wire but it depend to modulus for various material.
the material made the wire. Materials Y (GPa)
Aluminium 69
length of the wire is increase or decrease.
Copper 110
Steel 200
Nylon 3.7
Glass 70
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8.3 Strain Energy

Relationship between Force constant, k When a wire is stretched
by a load (force), work is Force
done on the wire and
F limit of
strain (elastic potential) propor-
energy is stored within. tionality
YAe YAe
F ke F
l0
ke Consider the force-
l0 elongation graph of this
wire until the limit of
YA 0 e
k
thus l0 elongation
law) as shown in figure.
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8.3 Strain Energy 8.3 Strain Energy

Force The total work done, W in Force From the definitions

stretching a wire from 0 to e of tensile stress and
is given by
limit of limit of tensile strain, thus
F F
propor- e propor- F
tionality W Fde tionality stress
0 A
e ( strain)l0 e ( strain)l0
Shaded Area F ( stress) A
W strain energy e
strain
1 l0
0 Fe 0
e elongation 2 e elongation e ( strain)l0
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Table below shows the typical value of elastic

8.3 Strain Energy moduli for several substance (material).

1
strain energy ( stress)( strain) Al 0 Volume
2
strain energy 1
( stress)(strain)
volume 2
Volume

This strain energy per unit volume is the

area under the stress-strain graph until
the limit of proportionality (straight line
graph).
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Example 1 Solution:
A wire of length 1.0 m is stretched by l0=1.0 m, e=0.6 x 10-3 m, m= 20 kg and r=1
amount 0.6 mm when a 20 kg x 10-3 m
mass is hung onto it. If the radius a. From the definition of tensile stress,
of the wire is 1 mm, calculate thus
a. the stress, W mg
Stress Stress 6 .24 x10 7 N m 2 @ Pa
b. the strain, A r2
b. From the definition of tensile strain,
thus
d. the force constant, W mg e 3
of the wire. (Use g = 9.81 m s-2) Strain Strain 0 .6 x 10
l0
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Solution: Example 2

A 0.10 kg mass hangs on a vertical tungsten wire of

Stress diameter 0.22 mm and length of 1.00 m.
Y 1.04 x10 11 N m 2 @ Pa Hanging from the bottom of this mass is a
Strain
copper wire of diameter 0.50 mm and length of
1.50 m that supports a 0.25 kg mass. Find the
modulus and force constant, thus total strain (elastic potential) energy of the
system. Assume that the elastic limit of the
YA Y r2 wires are not exceeded and both wires are
Force constant, k
l0 l0 massless. (Y tungsten = 3.60 x 1011 Pa ,Y copper
= 1.20 x 1011 Pa and g = 9.81 m s-2)
k 3 .27 x10 5 N m 1
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Solution: Solution:
m2=0.10 kg, m1=0.25 kg, lt=1.00 m, dt=0.22 x 10 -3
m, lc=1.50 m, dc=0.50x10-3 m.
Yt After the tungsten and copper wire stop to Yt
modulus,
stretch, the system is in equilibrium, hence
Tt lt Tc lc d2
Yt and Yc but A
m2 0 .10 kg F 0 m2 0 .10 kg 4
Free body diagram :
Ae t Ae c

Tc Tt 4Tt lt 4Tc lc
hence Yt and Yc
Yc
Tc m1 g m2 Tt m 2 g Tc
Yc d t2 et d c2 ec
m1
Tt 3 .43 N
Tc 2 . 45 N Tc
m1 0 .25 kg m1 g m2 g m1 0 .25 kg
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Solution: Summary
Deformation of Solids
Therefore
et 2 .51x10 4 m and ec 1.56 x10 4 m
Elasticity Behaviour of a wire
The total strain (elastic potential) e
Steel
energy is given by F = ke
1 1 Glass
Total strain energy Tc ec Tt et Rubber
2 2
O F
Total strain energy 6 . 22 x10 4 J =Stress/Strain
SF017 47
= Fl/Ae Elastic P.E.