Objectives

6.1 Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

6.2 Gravitational Field
6.3 Gravitational Potential
Chapter 6 6.4 Satellite Motion in Circular Orbits
6.5 Escape Velocity
Gravitation

Learning Outcome
(a) g) use the formula for potential energy U = -
and use the formula F = GMm/r2 GMm/r
(b) explain the meaning of gravitational field h) show that U = mg r = mgh is a special case
(c) define gravitational field strength as force of of U = -GMm/r for situations near to the
gravity per unit mass surface of the Earth
(d) use the equation g = GM/r 2 for a i) use the relationship g = - dV/dr
gravitational field j) explain, with graphical illustrations, the
(e) define the potential at a point in a variations of gravitational field strength and
gravitational field; gravitational potential with distance from
(f) derive and use the formula V = - GM/r the surface of the Earth
3 4

Reflection: Reflection:

For every action there is an equal and F1 = - F2 or m1a1 = - m2a2

opposite reaction. Jet propulsion exhaust gases in one
or direction and the rocket in the other direction
Whenever on object exerts a force on a Gravity jump from a table and you will
second object, the second object exerts an accelerate to earth. In reality BOTH you and
equal and opposite force on the first object. the earth are accelerating towards each other
action = opposite reaction You small mass, huge acceleration (m1a1)
F1 = -F2 or m1a1 = -m2a2 Earth huge mass, very small acceleration (-
m2a2)
Source:http://campus.kcu.edu/faculty/bhaynie/ips/ch03.ppt Section 3.4 5 BUT m1a1 = -m2a2 Source:http://campus.kcu.edu/faculty/bhaynie/ips/ch03.ppt
Section 3.4 6

Newton's Laws in Action

Gravity is a fundamental force of nature
We do not know what causes it
We can only describe it
Law of Universal Gravitation Every particle
in the universe attracts every other particle
with a force that is directly proportional to
Friction on the tires provides necessary centripetal the product of their masses and inversely
acceleration. proportional to the square of the distance
Passengers continue straight ahead in original between them
direction and as car turns the door comes toward Gm1m2
passenger 1st Law Equation form: F =
As car turns you push against door and the door r2
equally pushes against you 3rd Law Source:http://campus.kcu.edu/faculty/bhaynie
/ips/ch03.ppt
Section 3.4 7 Source:http://campus.kcu.edu/faculty/bhaynie/ips/ch03.ppt Section 3.5 8
 Gm1m2 F = Gm1m2 / r2
Equation form: F =
r2
G is the universal gravitational constant m1 F1 F2 m2
G = 6.67 x 10-11 N.m2/kg2 r
G:
is a very small quantity The forces that attract particles together
thought to be valid throughout the universe are equal and opposite
was measured by Cavendish 70 years after F1 = - F2 or m1a1 = - m2a2

Source:http://campus.kcu.edu/faculty/bhaynie/ips/ch03.ppt Section 3.5 9 Source:http://campus.kcu.edu/faculty/bhaynie/ips/ch03.ppt Section 3.5 10

6.1 Newton's Law of Gravitation

Gm1m2 Two objects with masses of 1.0 kg and 2.0 kg
F = are 1.0 m apart. What is the magnitude of
r2 the gravitational force between the masses?
1.0 m
For a homogeneous
sphere the Negligible
1.0 kg 2.0 kg
gravitational force force
acts as if all the Force of
mass of the sphere Force of
9.8 N
were at its center 19.6 N
Earth
Source:http://campus.kcu.edu/faculty/bhaynie/ips/ch03.ppt Section 3.5 11 Source:http://campus.kcu.edu/faculty/bhaynie/ips/ch03.ppt
Section 3.5 12

6.2 Gravitational Field

Gravitational field: a region where
Two objects with masses of 1.0 kg and 2.0 gravitational force acts on a body.
kg are 1.0 m apart. What is the
magnitude of the gravitational force Gravitational field strength, g at a point
between the masses? in a gravitational field is the
Gm1m2 gravitational pull per unit mass on a
F=
r2 body at that point, thus g = F/m.
(6.67 x 10-11 N-m2/kg2)(1.0 kg)(2.0 kg) Where F = -GMm/r2 ; then,
F=
(1.0 m)2
F = 1.3 x 10-10 N
g = GM/r2

Source:http://campus.kcu.edu/faculty/bhaynie/ips/ch03.ppt Section 3.5 13 Source:http://campus.kcu.edu/faculty/bhaynie/ips/ch03.ppt Section 3.5 14

6.2 Gravitational Field Variation of g with Altitude

Gravitational field strength = Force of Gravity on For a mass, m on the m
Earth surface of the Earth,
GME m mg0 = GMm/R2
F= [force of gravity on object of mass m] r h
R2E g0 = GM/R2
ME and RE are the mass and radius of Earth GM = g0R2
weight (w = mg) If r > R R
surface),
M
GME m
w = mg =
RE2 mg = GMm/r2
GME g = GM/r2
g=
R2E g = gR2/r2 (1)
m cancels out g is independent of mass 2 2
g = (R /r ) g0 r = R + h, h = altitude
Source:http://campus.kcu.edu/faculty/bhaynie/ips/ch03.ppt Section 3.5 15 16
 Variation of g with Altitude g-r Graph
g = (R2/r2) g0 m For r > R: g 1/(R + h)2 and for r < R: g r
g = g0R2/(R + h)2
g 1/(R + h)2 r h Acceleration due to gravity, g
If r < R
surface), the gravitational g0
pull is due to the sphere of R
radius r1 ; M = (4/3) R3 M
g 1/r2
from go = GM/R2 ; r1
g0 = (4/3) GR ; thus m
g/g0 = r1/R ; or 0 r
g r r = R + h, h = altitude R
17 18

6.3 Gravitational Potential Energy 6.3 G. potential Energy -Proof

As before, the gravitational potential energy Let a baseball, starting from rest at a
decreases when the separation decreases.
great (infinite) distance from Earth, fall
We assume that the gravitational potential
energy Ep is zero for r = , where r is the
toward point P. The potential energy of
separation distance. the baseball-Earth system is initially
The potential energy is negative for any finite zero.
separation and becomes progressively more When the baseball reaches P, the
negative as the particles move closer together.
potential energy is the negative of the
We take the gravitational potential energy of
the two-particle system to be Ep = - GMm / r work W done by the gravitational force
as the baseball moves to P from its
19
distant position. 20

Thus
F dx R
x Ep W F dx
M P m R
Fdx
R R GMm
dx
A baseball of mass m falls towards Earth x2
from infinity, along a radial line (an x R
R GMm GMm GMm
axis) passing through point P at a dx
distance R from th ecenter of Earth. x2 x R
21 22

Acceleration due to Gravity for Earth Orbit - Centripetal Force

a Spherical Uniform Object
1) Proper Tangential
GM Velocity
g=
r2 2) Centripetal Force
g = acceleration due to gravity Fc = mac = mv2/r
M = mass of any spherical uniform object (since ac = v2/r)
The proper
combination will
keep the moon or an
artificial satellite in
stable orbit
Source:http://campus.kcu.edu/faculty/bhaynie/ips/ch03.ppt Section 3.5 23 Source:http://campus.kcu.edu/faculty/bhaynie/ips/ch03.ppt Section 3.5 24
 Earth as the same rate

Tycho Brahe/Tyge Ottesen

Brahe de Knudstrup
(1546-1601) Johannes Kepler
(1571-1630)
Source:http://campus.kcu.edu/faculty/bhaynie/ips/ch03.ppt Section 3.5 25 26

Elliptical orbits of
planets are
The law of orbits: All planets move in
described by a
elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus semimajor axis a
The law of areas: A line that connects the and an
planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas eccentricity e
equal For most planets,
time intervals the eccentricities
are very small
The law of periods: The square of the (Earth's e is
period of any planet is proportional to the 0.00167)
cube of the semimajor axis of its orbit
27 28

The law of orbits The law of orbits

The orbit in the figure is described by given its An eccentricity of zero corresponds to a
semimajor axis a and its eccentricity e, the latter
defined so that ea is the distance from the center of circle, in which the two foci merge to a single
central point.
The sum of the perihelion (nearest the Sun) distance The eccentricities of the planetary orbits are
Rp and the aphelion (farthest from the Sun) distance
Ra is 2a.
not large, so the orbits look circular.
The sum of the distance from any position in the The eccentricity of Earth's orbit is only 0.0167.
orbit to two foci is 2a.
The equation of any position (x, y) in the orbit is

29 30

Second law
For a star-planet system, the total angular For a circular
momentum is constant (no external torques) GMm GM
2 2
L rp (r )(mv ) const (r )(m r ) mr 2 F ma (m)(r )
r2 r3
For the elementary area swept by vector r
1 From the definition of a period
dA ( r )(rd ) dA r 2 d r2 2
2 2 2 4 2 4 2 3
dt 2 dt 2 T T 2
T r
GM
dA L For elliptic orbits

dt 2m 2 4 2 3
T a
GM
31 32
6.4 Satellite motion in circular orbits 6.4 Satellite motion in circular orbits
For a circular

F ma GMm v2
( m)
r2 r
Kinetic energy of a satellite U
2
K
mv GMm U 2
K
2 2r 2 Etotal K U
Total mechanical energy of a satellite 1
K U
GMm GMm GMm 2
E K U K
2r r 2r
33 34

6.4 Satellite motion in circular orbits The Law of Areas

For an elliptic orbit it can be shown The planet will move most slowly when it
GMm is farthest from the Sun and most rapidly
E
2a when it is nearest to the Sun.
Orbits with different e but the same a have The law of areas is a direct consequence of
the same total mechanical energy the idea that all of the forces are directed
exactly toward the sun.

35 36

The Law of Periods Example 1

Consider a circular orbit with A satellite in circular orbit at an altitude h of
radius r. See figure. m 230 km above Earth's surface has a period T of
Applying Newton's second r
89 min. What mass of Earth follows from these
law, F = ma, to the orbiting data?
planet yield M Sol: From Kepler's law of periods we have
GMm
2
( m )( 2 r ) The radius r of the satellite orbit is
r r = R + h = 6.37 X 106 m + 230 X 103 m
If is replaced with 2 /T, 2 4 2 3
where T is the period of the T r = 6.60 X 106 m, where R = radius of Earth.
GM
motion, yield
4 2r3 4 2 (6.60 106 ) 3
The law holds also for elliptical orbits, provided we M 6.0 10 24 kg
replace r with a, the semimajor axis of the ellipse. 37
GT 2 ( 6.67 10 11 )( 89 60) 2 38

Example 2
Comet Halley orbits about the Sun with a period of Ra = 2a Rp = 5.3 X 1012
76 years and, in 1986, had a distance of closest
approach to the Sun, its perihelion distance Rp, of
8.9 £ 1010 m. (a) What is the comet's farthest distance Since ea = a Rp
from the Sun, its aphelion distance Ra? (b) What is We have e = (a Rp) / a = 1 Rp / a
the eccentricity of the orbit of comet Halley?
= 1 (8.9 X 1010) / (2.7 X 1012)
Sol:(a) From Kepler's law of period we have
1
1/ 3 = 0.97
GMT 2 3 (6.67 10 11 )(1.99 1030 )( 2.4 109 ) 2
a
4 2 4 2
2.7 1012 m

39 40
6.4 Satellite motion in a circular orbit 6.4 Satellite motion in a circular orbit
The mechanical energy KE + PE of the The kinetic energy of a satellite is
satellite remains constant. 1 2 GMm GMm mv 2
KE mv
We first assume that the orbit of the satellite 2 2r r2 r
is circular. The total mechanical energy is
GMm
The potential energy is PE r GMm GMm GMm
where r is the radius of the orbit. KE PE
2r r 2r
By Newton's second law, a = v2/r For a satellite in an elliptical orbit of
GMm mv 2 v 2 =v semimajor axis a, we have
Where =r 2
r2 r r
KE PE
GMm
is the centripetal acceleration of the satellite. 41
2a 42

6.4 Satellite motion in a circular orbit 6.5 Escape velocity

For a satellite orbiting Earth, the gravitational Accounting for the shape of Earth, projectile
pull of Earth upon the satellite, motion has to be modified:
2 v2
GMm 2 2 ac g v gR
F 2
mr mr R
r T
T 2
4 2 T12 T32
constant or
r3 GM r3
3
r33

43 44

6.5 Escape Speed 6.5 Escape velocity

There is a certain minimum initial speed that Escape speed: speed required for a
will cause a projectile to move upward particle to escape from the planet into
forever, theoretically coming to rest only at infinity (and stop there)
infinity. This initial speed is called the escape Ki U i Kf Uf
speed.
Consider a projectile of mass m, leaving the m1v 2 Gm1m planet
0 0
surface of a planet with escape speed v. When 2 Rplanet
the projectile reaches infinity, it stops and
thus has no kinetic energy. It also has no 2Gmplanet
vescape
potential energy because this is our zero- R planet
potential energy configuration.
45 46

6.5 Escape velocity 6.5 Escape velocity

If for some astronomical object From the principle of conservation of energy,
Nothing (even light) can escape from the we have
surface of this object a black hole 1 2 GMm
Ek Ep mv 0
2 R
2Gmobject Where M is the mass of the planet and R is its
vescape 3 108 m / s c radius. Thus
Robject
2GM
v
R
47 48
 Example
An asteroid headed directly toward earth,
has a speed of 12000 m/sec relative to the
planet when it is at a distance of 10 Earth
radii from Earth's center.
Ignoring the effects of the terrestrial
atmosphere on the asteroid, find the
asteroid's speed when it reaches Earth's
surface.
Answer
Because the mass of an asteroid is much less
than that of Earth, we can assign the
gravitational potential energy of the asteroid-
Earth system to the asteroid alone, and we can
neglect any change in the speed of Earth
relative to the asteroid during the asteroid's fall.

49 50

Thus,
Ekf E pf Eki E pi 2GM 1
vf2 vi 2 1
Let m represent the mass of the asteroid, M R 10
the mass of the earth (=5.98X1024kg), and R 2(6.67 10 11
)( 5.98 1024 )
the radius of Earth (= 6.37X106 m), Thus (12 103 ) 2 0 .9
6.37 106
1 GMm 1 GMm 2.567 108 m 2s 2

mv f 2 mvi 2
2 R 2 10R
vf 1.60 104 ms-1
51 52

Summary: Gravitation
Gravitational Gravitational Escape
Law of Satellite
Field Potential Velocity
Gravitation

V = -GM/r
v=
(GM/r)1/2

F= U=- v=
G = GM/r2
Gm1m 2/r2 GMm/r (2GM/R)1/2

T2 r3
g = -dV/dr

53