Outline

11.1 Conduction
11.2 Convection
11. Heat Transfer 11.3 Radiation
11.4 Global warming
By Liew Sau Poh

1 2

Objectives
a) explain the mechanism of heat
conduction through solids, and hence,
distinguish between conduction through
metals and non-metals
b) define thermal conductivity
c) use the equation Q
kA 2 1
t x
for heat conduction in one dimension
3 4
Objectives
d) describe and calculate heat conduction
through a cross-sectional area of layers of
different materials
e) compare heat conduction through
insulated and non-insulated rods
f) describe heat transfer by convection
g) distinguish between natural and forced
convection

Objectives 11 Heat Transfer

h) describe heat transfer by radiation Internal energy may be transferred from
i) use Stefan-Boltzmann equation dQ/dt = one body to another.
e AT4 These occur in 3 modes:
j) define a black body
k) explain the greenhouse effect and
thermal pollution Conduction Convection Radiation
l) suggest ways to reduce global warming

(http://docushare.harford.edu/dsweb/Get/Document-239986/Physical%20Science%20105%20Chapter%2007.ppt)
5 6

11.1 Conduction
The type of energy transfer that is due to
atoms transferring vibrations to
11.1 Conduction neighboring atoms is called thermal
conduction.
The rate of thermal conduction
depends on the substance.

7 8
11.1 Conduction
A metal rod heated at one end will transfer
thermal energy to the other end by
conduction.
In this method, some of the electrons in the
metal (called conduction electrons) are free to
roam and collide with other electrons.
Metals like copper are good conductors.
Water is not a good conductor, rather it is
considered to be an insulator, a poor
conductor.
9 10
11.1 Conduction
Ions in the lattice structure of a solid can also
vibrate, causing their neighbors to vibrate.
The neighbors then cause their neighbors to
shake, and the process spreads until the solid
approaches thermal equilibrium.
This spreads more slowly then electron
collisions so that materials that do not have
many free electrons are not good thermal
conductors.

11.1 Conduction 11.1 Conduction

Copper Cookware
Copper has a high thermal conductivity.
When you heat from below, the flame
or element concentrates heat. A good
copper bottom will conduct heat evenly
across the bottom for better heat
distribution in the pot.
11
Good insulators are poor conductors
Double Pane Windows with Air
Insulation
The superior insulating properties of
air (poor thermal conductivity)
provide insulation for windows. The
air is sandwiched between two panes
of glass and sealed.
Down is a good insulator. 12

Relative Thermal Conductivities 11.1 Conduction

Silver 1.01 The process of heat conduction is visualized as
resulting from molecular interactions
Copper 0.99 (interactions/collisions between electrons and
Aluminum 0.50 molecules):
Ice 0.005 Molecules in one part of a body at higher
Water 0.0014 temperature vibrate faster. They collide
Snow 0.00026 with and transfer some of their energy to
less energetic molecules located toward
Fiberglass 0.00015 the cooler part of the body. In this way
Cork 0.00011 energy is conductively transferred from a
Wool 0.0001 higher-temperature region to a lower-
Wood 0.0001 temperature region - transfer as a result of
a temperature difference.
Air 0.000057 13 14

11.1 Conduction 11.1 Conduction

Thermal conductors are materials that are good Thermal insulators are materials that are
conductors of heat. poor conductors of heat.
Metals (a type of solid) are thermal conductors.
Why? Non-metals such as wood or cloth are
A metal has a large number of electrons thermal insulators. Why?
that are free to move around (conduction
electrons), and are not permanently bound
to any particular atom or molecule. The
free electrons are believed to be primarily
responsible for the heat conduction of
metals.
15 16
11.1 Conduction
In general, the ability of a substance to conduct
heat depends on its phase.
Gases are poor thermal conductors because
their molecules are relatively far apart, and
collisions are therefore infrequent.
Liquids are better thermal conductors than
gases because their molecules are closer
together and can interact more readily.
Non-metals have relatively few free
electrons.
17
11.1 Conduction
Heat flow through a uniform slab of
material is directly proportional to its
surface area, , and inversely proportional
to its thickness, (Fourier's law of
conduction): Q kA T ,
t d
T
where d is called the thermal
gradient (the change in temperature per
unit length), and the constant, k is called
the thermal conductivity
19
11.1 Conduction
Thermal Resistance to Conduction: R-
Value: If you are interested in insulating
your house or in keeping coke cans cold
on a picnic, you are more concerned with
poor heat conductors than with good
ones. For this reason, the concept of
thermal resistance has been introduced
into engineering practice. The value of a
slab of thickness is defined as R d .
k 21
11.1 Conduction
Heat: Q = C T (internal energy transferred)
Q = amount of heat that must be supplied
to raise the temperature by an amount
T.
[Q] = Joules or calories. (1 Cal = 4.186 J, 1
kcal = 1 Cal = 4186 J)
Energy to raise 1 g of water from 14.5 to
15.5 °C
(James Prescott Joule found the
mechanical equivalent of heat.)
C Heat capacity (in J/ K) 23
11.1 Conduction
Can we describe heat conduction quantitatively?
Heat conduction is the time rate of heat flow
(Q/ t) in a material for a given temperature
difference ( t).
Experiments have established that the rate of
heat flow through a substance depends on the
temperature difference between its boundaries.
Heat conduction also depends on the size and
shape of the object.
18
11.1 Conduction
The thermal conductivity characterizes
the heat-conducting ability of a material:
the greater the value of k for a material,
the more rapidly it will conduct heat.
The SI units of thermal conductivity k are:
J/(m s K).
The thermal conductivity varies slightly
over different temperature ranges, but
can be considered constant over the usual
temperature ranges and differences
20
11.1 Conduction
Thus, the lower the thermal conductivity
of the material of which a slab is made,
the higher the R-value of the slab. Note
that is a property attributed to a slab of a
specified thickness, not to a material.
22
11.1 Conduction
Q=cm T
c: specific heat (heat capacity per
units of mass)
amount of heat to raise T of 1 kg by 1
°C
[c] = J/(kg °C)
Sign convention: +Q : heat gained, -
Q : heat lost
24
Latent Heat Latent Heat
Latent heat: amount of internal energy
needed to add or to remove from a
substance to change the state of that
substance.
Phase change: T remains constant but
internal energy changes
Heat does not result in change in T

25 26

Latent Heat Energy transfer mechanisms

e.g. : solid liquid or liquid gas (heat Thermal conduction (or
goes to breaking chemical bonds) conduction):
L=Q/m Energy transferred by
Heat per unit mass direct contact. A
Th Tc
[L] = J/kg e.g.: energy enters the
Q= mL water through the Energy
+ if heat needed (boiling) bottom of the pan by flow
- if heat given up (freezing) thermal conduction. x
Lf : Latent heat of fusion: solid liquid Important: home
Lv : Latent heat of vaporization: liquid gas insulation, etc.
27 28

Energy transfer mechanisms Thermal Conductivity

Rate of energy transfer ( J /
s or W) Matter J/s Matter J/s Matter J/s
Through a slab of area A m C m C m C
and thickness Dx, with Aluminum 238 Air 0.0234 Asbestos 0.25
opposite faces at Copper 397 Helium 0.138 Concrete 1.3
different temperatures, Gold 314 Hydrogen 0.172 Glass 0.84
Tc and Th Iron 79.5 Nitrogen 0.0234 Ice 1.6
Lead 34.7 Oxygen 0.0238 Water 0.60
P = Q / t = k A (Th - Tc
Silver 427 Rubber 0.2 Wood 0.10
) / x k :Thermal
conductivity (J/s m °C)
29 30

11.1 Conduction 11.1 Conduction

Two identically shaped bars (one blue
and one green) are placed between two
different thermal reservoirs . The
thermal conductivity coefficient k is
twice as large for the blue as the green.
Tjoint
100 C 300 C
P = Q / t = k A (Th - Tc ) / x
Top: Pgreen = Pblue = Q / t = 2 k A (Thigh - Tj
) / x= k A (Tj - Tlow ) / x
2 (Thigh - Tj ) = (Tj - Tlow )
3 Tj(top) = 2 Thigh + Tlow

By analogy for the bottom (comparing eq.1):

3 Tj(bottom) = 2 Tlow + Thigh
31 32
11.1 Conduction 11.1 Conduction
3 Tj(top) = 2 Thigh + Tlow Conduction through a composite slab
3 Tj(bottom) = 2 Tlow + Thigh The energy transferred through one
Eq.1 Eq.2: material in a certain time must be
3 (Tj(top) - Tj(bottom) )= Thigh Tlow = 300-100 equal to that transferred through the
other material in the same time. i.e.
> 0 (positive) Tjoint
300 C P1,cond = P2,cond
100 C
The joint at upper
bar has highier Temp
then lower bar.
33 34

11.1 Conduction 11.1 Conduction

For n layers

solve for TX then

(Equation for heat

flow)
-

35 your body in the winter. 36

Temperature Distribution for a Rod Temperature Distribution for a Rod

Insulated rod Insulated rod
No heat escapes from the sides of the rod.
Temperature
Same quantity of heat flux flows passed a cross-
section in every second.
Since dQ/dt is constant where dQ/dt = - 2
/dx, then the temperature gradient /dx
must be also constant, (same at any point along
the length of the rod). Hence the line in the
1
temperature distribution graph is a straight
line that slants downwards. x
37 38

Temperature Distribution for a Rod Temperature Distribution for a Rod

Non-insulated rod
Heat escapes from the sides of the rod.
Heat flux passing through one cross-section
nearer at the cold end of the rod is less then
passing through another cross-section slightly
further apart from the cold end.
The quantity of heat flowing from the hot wnd
through a cross-section per second gets lesser
and lesser as moving along the rod towards the
cold end.
39
Non-insulated rod
dQ/dt become smaller and smaller as the
heat moving towards the cold end, as
same as the /dt.
A curve is observed in the temperature
distribution graph whose gradient
decreases towards the cold end.
40
 Temperature Distribution for Composite
Temperature Distribution for a Rod
Rod
Non-insulated rod Insulated composite rod
Temperature No heat escapes from the sides of the
rods.
Therefore dQ/dt = -k1A( /dx)1 = -
2
k2A(
If k1 > k2, then ( /dx)1 < ( /dx)2 and
get line (i) in the temperature distribution
1
graph shown in figure (a). If k1 > k2, then
x we get line (ii).
41 42

Temperature Distribution for Composite Temperature Distribution for Composite

Rod Rod
Insulated composite rod Non-insulated composite rods
Temperature If the rods are not insulated, the graph of
temperature distribution gives a curve as
3
shown in figure (b).
(i)
(ii)
1

x
3 k1 k2 1
2
(a) 43 44

Temperature Distribution for Composite

Determination of thermal conductivity
Rod
Non-insulated composite rods Thermal conductivity, k = dQ/dt, where
Temperature A = 1 m2 2 1 = 1 K and x = 1 m.
The unit of k is W m-1 K-1.
3 Thermal conductivity of a solid is
defined as the rate at which heat flows
perpendicularly through unit cross-
1 sectional area of a solid under steady
x condition, per unit temperature
gradient along the direction of heat
1
3 k1 2 k2 flow.
(b) 45 46

Determination of Thermal Conductivity of Determination of Thermal Conductivity of

Good Conductors (Searle's Method) Good Conductors (Searle's Method)
Figure above shows the apparatus used in
Searle's method which is used to determine the
thermal conductivity of a good conductor, such
as a metal.
The special feature of the apparatus is that the
sample is in the form of a thick, long insulated
rod.
Although the rod is insulated, a little heat is
lost from the sides of the rod. The rod is of
large cross-sectional area, so that the rate of
heat lost from the sides is negligible compared
to the rate of heat flow along the rod.
47 48
Determination of Thermal Conductivity of
Good Conductors (Searle's Method)
A long rod is used, so that the larger
temperature dropped across the long length of
the rod can be measured accurately. A bigger
temperature differences reduces the
percentage error in the measurement of the
temperature difference.
Since the rod is insulated, the rate of heat flow
and the temperature gradient are constant
along the rod. Hence, the temperature gradient
can be measured along one section of the rod,
and the rate of heat flow along another section.
49
Determination of Thermal Conductivity of
Good Conductors (Searle's Method)
The temperature gradient,
where l = distance between the
thermometers T1, and T2.
lf m = mass of water collected in time
interval l, then rate of heat flow
, where c = specific heat capacity of water
51
Determination of Thermal Conductivity of a
Poor Conductor (Lees' Method)
53
Determination of Thermal Conductivity of a
Poor Conductor (Lees' Method)
Since the sample is a poor conductor, for
the steady state to be achieved in a short
time, the sample must be thin. Heat will
require a very long time to flow through a
thick sample.
On top of the sample is placed a steam
chest which has a thick brass base with a
hole holding a thermometer T1.
55
Determination of Thermal Conductivity of
Good Conductors (Searle's Method)
The end M of the rod is heated in a steam
chest. Water from a constant pressure
apparatus flows in a coil around the end
N of the rod.
When the steady state is attained, the
thermometers T1, T1, T1 and T4
resoectivelv are nolec.
50
Determination of Thermal Conductivity of
Good Conductors (Searle's Method)
Using is 
, d = diameter of rod
measured using a venire calipers
Thermal conductivity
52
Determination of Thermal Conductivity of a
Poor Conductor (Lees' Method)
A thick brass disc B with a hole holding a
thermometer Z, is hung using thin suspension
wires.
The sample, in the form of a thin circular disc
with the same diameter as the disc B, is placed
on B.
No lagging is required because the rate of heat
loss from the sides of the thin sample is
negligible. The surface area of the sides of the
sample is small compared to the large cross-
sectional area of the sample.
54
Determination of Thermal Conductivity of a
Poor Conductor (Lees' Method)
Steam is allowed into the steam chest.
When the readings of the thermometers
T1 and T2 do not increase further but stay
constant, steady state has been achieved.
Heat flows from the steam in the steam
chest through the brass base C the
sample, the thick brass disc B and out
from the base of disc B.
56
Determination of Thermal Conductivity of a
Poor Conductor (Lees' Method)
Brass is a good conductor of heat. Hence,
the temperature 0, at the upper surface of
the circular sample is recorded by the
thermometer T1. Thermometer T, records
the temperature 0, of the lower surface of
the sample.
The thickness, x of the sample is
measured using a micrometer screw
gauge. Hence, temperature gradient
across the sample = 57
Determination of Thermal Conductivity of a
Poor Conductor (Lees' Method)
59
Determination of Thermal Conductivity of a
Poor Conductor (Lees' Method)
The sample is placed on top of disc B and
recorded every 20 seconds until the
plotted.
The gradient of the graph when
is calculated
61
Determination of Thermal Conductivity of a
Poor Conductor (Lees' Method)
Thermal conductivity,
63
Determination of Thermal Conductivity of a
Poor Conductor (Lees' Method)
58
Determination of Thermal Conductivity of a
Poor Conductor (Lees' Method)
The second part of the experiment is to
measure the rate of heat flow achieved
The steam chest and sample are removed.
The brass disc B is slowly heated using a
Bunsen burner until its temperature is a
the experiment.
60
Determination of Thermal Conductivity of a
Poor Conductor (Lees' Method)
Using the equation Q = mcQ
When the lower surface of the
temperature is 0r, the rate of heat flow
through the sample is
where D = diameter of sample
62
11.2 Convection
64
11.2 Convection
Convection is heat flow by the movement
of a fluid
Convection involves the movement of
cold and hot matter, such as hot air rising
upward over a flame.
This effect is the combined effects of
pressure differences, conduction, and
buoyancy.
65
11.2 Convection
When the movement results from
differences in density, it is called natural
convection (fluid currents are due to
gravity)
Air currents at the beach
Water currents in a saucepan while
heating Hot water is lighter
and flow upward
67
11.3 Radiation
69
11.3 Radiation
Example, a car in the winter is hot inside
because electromagnetic radiation,
sunlight, gets trapped inside as heat.
All objects radiate energy continuously in
the form of electromagnetic waves due to
thermal vibrations of the molecules
71
11.2 Convection
The air is heated through conduction
(particle collision), causing the air to
expand, and its density to decrease.
The warm air is displaced by denser
colder air.
66
11.2 Convection
When the movement is forced by a fan or
a pump, it is called forced convection
(fluid is pushed around by mechanical
means fan or pump)
Forced-air heating systems
Hot-water baseboard heating
Blood circulation in the body
68
11.3 Radiation
Thermal radiation transfers energy
through emission of electromagnetic
waves does not require physical contact
Electromagnetic radiation does not
involve the transfer of matter.
Objects reduce their internal energy by
giving off electromagnetic radiation of
particular wavelengths or are heated by
electromagnetic radiation.
70
11.3 Radiation
All objects radiate energy continuously in the form of
electromagnetic waves due to thermal vibrations of the
molecules
At ordinary temperatures (~20 C) nearly all
the radiation is in the infrared (wavelengths
longer than visible light)
At 800 C a body emits enough visible
radiation to be self-luminous and appears
-
At 3000 C (incandescent lamp filament) the
radiation contains enough visible light so the
- 72
 Black body: intensity vs wavelength at
11.3 Radiation
different temperature
An ideal emitter and absorber of radiation As temperature
is called a blackbody. decreases, the
peak of the black
An ideal black body will absorb totally all body radiation
radiation of any wavelength which fall on curve move to the
it (would appear black). lower intensities
and longer
The radiation emitted by a black-body is wavelength
known as black body radiation.

73 74

Black-body Spectrum 11.3 Radiation

The Stefan Boltzmann law (or Stefan's
law), states that the total energy radiated
per unit surface area of a black body per
unit time (or the black-body irradiance or
emissive power), is directly proportional
to the fourth power of the black body's
thermodynamic temperature T (or
absolute temperature).
E (m-2 s-1) = T4
75 76

11.3 Radiation 11.3 Radiation

The rate at which energy is radiated is given by Object absorb radiation as well.
Stefan-Boltzmann Law: dQ 4 Thus, a body that is not in thermodynamic
P AeT
dt equilibrium, the net power radiated is the
P is the rate of energy transfer (power), in Watts different between the power emitted and the
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10 8 W/m2 K4 power absorbed.
A is the surface area of the object Pnet = Pemit - Pabsorb
e is a constant called the emissivity, and ranges from Net rate of energy gained or lost given by:
0 to 1
surface; e = 1 for a black-body Pnet Ae T 4 T04
T is the temperature in Kelvin T0 = temperature of environment
77 78

Applications of Thermal Radiation Applications

Choice of clothing Thermography as medical
diagnostic tool
Black fabric acts as a
good absorber, so about Measurement of emitted
thermal energy using infrared
half of the emitted
detectors, producing a visual
energy radiates toward display
the body Areas of high temperature are
White fabric reflects indicated, showing regions of
thermal radiation well abnormal cellular activity
79 80
Applications
Measuring body temperature
Radiation thermometer
measures the intensity of the
infrared radiation from the
11.4 Global Warming
eardrum
Eardrum is good location to
measure temperature since it

temperature control center)

81 82

Greenhouse Effects 11.4 Global Warming

Greenhouse Effects
Visible light and short-wavelength infrared
radiation are absorbed by contents of
greenhouse, resulting in the emission of
longer-wavelength infrared radiation (IR)
Longer-wavelength IR absorbed by glass
Glass emits IR, half of which is emitted back
inside the greenhouse
Convection currents are inhibited by the

83
atmosphere) 85

11.4 Global Warming GREENHOUSE GASES

in greenhouse
2 are
particularly good absorbers of IR
More greenhouse gasses in the CARBON
atmosphere means more IR is absorbed DIOXIDE AND
METHANE

THE BURNING
OF FOSSIL
86 FUELS 87

88 89
Causes Of Global Warming Causes Of Global Warming
Way It Increases Way It
Gas: Source: Use:
Global Warming: Increases
Gas: Source: Use:
Water vapour and Global
Oceans, lakes, Absorbs Warming:
Water clouds are
rivers, reservoirs. limited
Vapour responsible for nearly Much from break down of Absorption
Humans have little outgoing
(Steam) 98% of the natural Methane organic matter by bacteria of long Approximately
impact upon levels. radiation.
greenhouse effect. (CH4) (rice paddy fields) cows, wave 18%.
Burning of fossil swamps marshes. radiation.
fuels, and forests, Naturally from some
Absorption
breathing animals, oxygen atoms. Ozone in Filters
Carbon of long
less produced by Approximately 50%. the troposphere is due to short wave Difficult to
Dioxide wave Ozone
southern chemical reactions between UV estimate.
radiation.
hemisphere (less sunlight and agents of radiation.
land). 90 pollution. 91

Causes Of Global Warming Positive And Negative Effects

Way It Increases Impact
Gas Source Use: Effect: Consequence (-): Consequence (+):
Global Warming on:
25%, but Malaria and More money
increasing due to cholera needed to fight
Fridges and ability to survive Health increase, due disease, strain on
CFCs to temperature medical services,
aerosols. within the
increase. rise in death rate.
atmosphere for
100 years. Canadian Prairies
Shifting flora Spread of pests
could become major
Nitrate fertilisers, and fauna to and disease,
Absorption wheat growing belt.
Nitrous transport and Approximately Vegetat different alteration in crop
of long wave Areas able to grow
Oxide power stations 6%. ion areas. yields, may
different crops, for
radiation. Extinction of increase food
(combustion). example, citrus
some species. shortages.
92 fruits in the UK. 93

Positive And Negative Effects Positive And Negative Effects

Impact Consequence Consequence Conseque
Effect: Impact on: Effect: Consequence (+):
on: (-): (+): nce (-):
More extreme Reduced snow Extended summer
climates in inland season in some
cover in some Rise in sea
Landscape landscapes due to
locations. More Unknown at Unknown at areas. Glaciers levels. higher temperatures,
Weather
frequent and present. present. melt in Antarctica. increasing revenue.
devastating
Reduction of
hurricanes. Great
wetland areas, as pressure on Increased
Changes in precipitation is water awareness of water
Sea temperatures number of fish Hydrology reduced. In some supplies. conservation
Increase in fish
increase, sea levels stocks and places river Problems for measures, less
Ocean stocks in HEP schemes
rise, shift in ocean their location flooding may water wastage.
certain areas. and irrigation.
currents. will impact the increase.
fish industry. 94 95

Positive And Negative Effects Action to Reduce Global Warming

Consequence
Impact on: Effect: Consequence (-):
(+): Challenge others about global
Forced warming.
Reduction of areas movement of
Increased population
suitable for human
densities increase
population from Broaden impact others with more facts to
Population habitation, for densely
example. lowland
possibility of disease
populated persuade people to make simple yet effective
and malnutrition.
Bangladesh. coastal areas, to changes in daily behavior.
interior locations.
Location of jet Better forecasting Energy-saving techniques are initially
stream may alter. needed to warn More accurate
Depressions may people of approaching weather
expensive (like solar power) or take extra time
Climate
shift south, causing storms. Insurance forecasting (like recycling), so people need to be convinced
them to be more premiums will developed
intense. increase. that their efforts matter via education.
96 97
Action to Reduce Global Warming
Vote and influence your government with
telephone calls, e-mails, letters, and
meetings to government.
Choose vegetarian or vegan meals
Livestock emit more greenhouse gas than
transportation is.
petroleum used in creating ammonium
nitrate fertilizer.
agricultural water consumption and land use
Action to Reduce Global Warming
Use energy-efficient product.
Use compact fluorescent bulbs. Replace
three frequently used light bulbs with
compact fluorescent bulbs.
LED lightbulbs are even more efficient.
Fill the dishwasher. Run the dishwasher
only with a full load.
Buy locally made and locally grown
products, reducing energy for transport.
Action to Reduce Global Warming
Plant and Grow fast growing plants. Plants
like bamboo grow faster and produce 35%
more oxygen than trees like oak or birch, and
require fewer chemicals and care.
Use public transportation. Taking the bus,
the train, the subway or other forms of
public transportation lessens the load on
the roads and reduces one's individual
greenhouse gas emissions
Summary: Heat transfer
Mechanism of thermal conduction
Conduction Thermal conductivity
dQ/dt = -kA d /dx
Natural and forced
Convection
convection
P = dQ/dt = e AT4
Radiation
Black body radiation
Global Greenhouse effect
Warming Thermal pollution
Action to Reduce Global Warming
Recycle more by using recycling bins,
composting, etc.
Encourage neighbors, supervisors,
colleagues, and businesses to do
likewise (15-25% of people do not
recycle).
Reuse recycled paper
Reduce waste
98 99
Action to Reduce Global Warming
Buy minimally packaged goods. Less
packaging could reduce your garbage
significantly.
Unplug unused electronics. Even when
electronic devices are turned off, they use
energy. Unplugging them or switching
them off. Get into the habit of switching
the power off before you go to bed.
100 101
Action to Reduce Global Warming
Ride a bicycle. Taking the bike instead of
the car is a very simple solution.
Use refills. Try using refills instead of
buying new jars or bottles each time. This
reduces your consumption and is usually
cheaper, too.
102 103
End of Chapter
104 105