Matrices and Determinants

M O D U L A R S Y S T E M
MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS
Ali Lafçýoðlu
http://book.zambak.com
Copyright © Sürat Basým Reklamcýlýk
ve Eðitim Araçlarý San. Tic. A.Þ.
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Sürat Basým Reklamcýlýk ve Eðitim
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To the Teacher
This book provides an introduction to the theory of matrices and determinants at high school level, and prepares
students for the study of linear algebra at university level. Before studying this book, students should have a basic
knowledge of linear systems of equations and solution strategies. By the end of the course they will be well
prepared to approach a variety of problems in linear algebra with confidence.
The book is divided into two chapters, structured as follows:
• Chapter 1 begins with a section on linear equations and reviews
basic methods for solving them. This material assumes that
students have some knowledge of solving systems from their
previous studies. The second half of the chapter introduces the
basic concept of matrix and describes common matrix
operations. It includes sections on the transpose and inverse of
a matrix.
• Chapter 2 looks at determinants and their properties, and
covers some applications of determinants. Students learn
Cramer’s rule for solving a system of linear equations, and
study simple applications such as calculating the area of a
triangle and determining the collinearity of points using
determinants.
• This book has been designed to be an effective teaching aid and includes all the features of the Zambak Modular
Systems mathematics series, as described below. Each chapter includes in-depth solved examples and a good
selection of graded exercises, meaning that the text is also suitable for self-study and revision purposes.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank everybody who helped me at Zambak Publications, and in particular Mustafa Kýrýkçý and Ali
Çakmak for their support and encouragement while I was writing this book.
Many thanks also go to Serdal Yýldýrým, Þamil Keskinoðlu and Serdar Çam for their patient typesetting and design,
and to Zoe Barnett for her careful proofreading of the main text.
Ali Lafçýoðlu
To the Student: Using This Book
This book is designed so that you can use it effectively. Different pieces of information are useful in different ways.
Look at the types of information, and how they appear in the book:
Definition boxes give formal definitions of new concepts, Theorem and Property
boxes contain propositions which are important for further understanding, and
Notes highlight important details.
A small notebook in the left margin of a page
contains material related to the topic, and warns you
about common mistakes. Notebook pages are the
same colour as the chapter.
Examples show problems related to the topic and their

solution, with explanations. They are numbered so
that you can find them easily.
Questions in Check Yourself sections help you check

your understanding of what you have just studied.
Solve these questions alone and then compare your
answers with the answer key provided. If your
answers are correct, you can move on to the next
section. If your answer is wrong, go through your
working again and check back through the examples
in the section.
Exercises at the end of each section cover the material

in the whole section. You should be able to solve all the
problems which do not have a star. Questions marked
() are more difficult. The answers to the exercises are
at the back of the book.
The Chapter Summary at the end of each chapter

summarizes all the important material that has been
covered in the chapter. The Concept Check section
contains oral questions that you should be able to
answer from reading the text, or by exploring the
topic in other books or on the Internet. Finally,
Chapter Review Tests contain multiple-choice
questions to help you prepare for exams. The answer
key for these tests is at the back of the book.
MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS CHAPTER SUMMARY ..............................................56
CONCEPT CHECK .....................................................58
CHAPTER 1: SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
AND MATRICES CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1A ....................................59
1. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS ................10 CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1B .....................................61
A. LINEAR EQUATIONS IN n VARIABLES ......10
B. SOLVING A SYSTEM OF A LINEAR CHAPTER 2: DETERMINANTS
EQUATIONS.............................................11 1. DETERMINANTS ............................................64
1. The Elimination Method....................11
A. THE DETERMINANT OF A MATRIX............64
2. The Substitution Method ..................14
1. Determinants of 1 × 1 and
C. ROW ECHELON FORM .............................15
2 × 2 Matrices..................................64
D. CONSISTENT AND INCONSISTENT
2. Minors, Cofactors and Cofactor
SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS ........................19
Matrices ...........................................66
The Geometry Behind Equations in Three
3. The Determinant of a 3 × 3 Matrix...68
Variables ...............................................................23
a. Finding the determinant with
EXERCISES 1.1 ............................................................24
2. MATRICES .....................................................26 cofactors ....................................................68
A. BASIC CONCEPTS ....................................26 b. The rule of Sarrus ......................................70
B. TYPES OF MATRIX ....................................28 4. The Determinant of an n x n Matrix....72

B. PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS..............75
1. Square Matrix ..................................28
2. Zero Matrix ......................................28 C. APPLICATIONS OF DETERMINANTS .........84
3. Identity Matrix .................................28 1. Finding the Inverse of a Matrix ........84
4. Diagonal Matrix................................28 2. Solving a System of Equations
5. Scalar Matrix ....................................28 (Cramer’s Rule) ...............................86
6. Symmetric Matrix.............................29
3. Finding the Area of a Triangle..........90
7. Antisymmetric Matrix.......................29
4. Lines in the Plane ............................91
8. Triangular Matrix .............................29
a. Testing for collinear points ......................91
9. Communication Matrix .....................29
b. Finding the equation of a line ..................92
C. EQUAL MATRICES ....................................31
Data Matrices .......................................................94
D. OPERATIONS ON MATRICES ....................32
EXERCISES 2 ................................................................96
1. Matrix Addition ................................32
2. Multiplying a Matrix and a Scalar .....33 CHAPTER SUMMARY ..............................................99
3. Matrix Multiplication ........................34 CONCEPT CHECK ...................................................100
E. THE TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX ................40 CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2A ..................................101
F. THE INVERSE OF A MATRIX......................44
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2B ..................................103
1. Definition .........................................44
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2C ..................................105
2. Finding the Inverse
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES ...........................107
of an n × n Matrix ............................47
Cryptography........................................................52 ANSWERS TO TESTS ..................................109
EXERCISES 1.2 ............................................................53 GLOSSARY ................................................110
The study of systems of linear equations, matrices and determinants forms part of a branch of mathematics
called linear algebra. Linear algebra is used today in disciplines such as engineering, physics, chemistry,
computer science and economics, for applications as varied as airline scheduling, resource management, the
study of population growth, and game and war strategies.
We can solve simple systems of linear equations in two or three variables (or unknowns) with the basic
methods of substitution and elimination that you have already studied in math. However, if there are more
than three equations in more unknowns then solving the system becomes complicated. Matrices help us to
solve these bigger systems more easily. Matrices also give us a useful way of simplifying and organizing
information such as the number of items sold in a store or the performance of football teams over a season.
Mathematicians, physicists and biologists all use matrices to study data in an efficient way.
The History of Matrices and Determinants

The study of linear algebra became popular in the 17th and 18th centuries, but matrices were first used much
earlier, in around the second century BC. The Babylonians studied problems which led to systems of linear
equations, but the Chinese came much closer to the modern idea of a matrix between 200 and 100 BC. An
important ancient Chinese text, Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, contains the first known examples of
matrix methods used to solve linear equations. The square tables and matrix
methods described in the text are similar to the methods we still use today.
Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art also described the concept of determinant as a number that
determined whether or not a system of equations had a unique solution. Much later in Europe, the Italian
mathematician Cardano (1501-1576) worked on 2 x 2 determinants, and Leibniz and the Japanese
mathematician Seki (1642-1708) continued this work for larger determinants. Leibniz called determinants
‘resultants’, and he knew how to expand a determinant along a row or column using a method called Laplace
expansion.
In 1750 the Swiss mathematician Gabriel Cramer described Cramer’s rule, a general method for finding the
determinant of an n x n matrix, in a paper called Introduction to the analysis of algebraic curves. Bézout and
Vandermonde also described methods of calculating determinants in 1764 and 1771. In 1772 Pierre-Simon
Laplace developed methods for solving systems of linear equations by using determinants.
The name ‘determinant’ first appeared at the beginning of the 19th century in a paper written by Carl
Friedrich Gauss called Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. Gauss introduced the determinant when he was
discussing quadratic forms. He described matrix multiplication and the inverse of a matrix, and also
described a method for solving linear equations which became known as Gaussian elimination. Following
this, Cauchy began using determinants in the modern sense in 1812.
The British mathematician Arthur Cayley (1821-1895) published the first English text on the theory of
matrices, but the actual name ‘matrix’ was introduced by James Sylvester in 1850. In 1858 Sylvester
published his Memoir on the Theory of Matrices, which contains the first abstract definition of matrix
theory.
Carl Friedrich Gauss Gottfried Leibniz
Augustin Louis Cauchy Arthur Cayley James Joseph Sylvester
Modern determinant and matrix theory became more important through the work of the mathematicians
Weierstrass and Kronecker at the end of the 19th century. Matrix theory led to new branches of
mathematics such as game theory (used for analysing war strategies) and cryptology (the study of codes),
which were both important in World War II. Matrices today have applications in fields as different as
quantum mechanics, the design of computer graphics, and business analysis. As we can see, since their
first appearance in ancient China over two thousand years ago, matrices and determinants have remained
an important topic of math.
A. LINEAR EQUATIONS IN n VARIABLES
Definition linear equation in n variables, coefficient, constant term, variable
A linear equation in the n variables x1, x2, x3, ..., xn is an equation that can be written in the
form a1x1 + a2x2 + a3x3 + ... + anxn = b, where a1, a2, ..., an and b are real numbers.
a1, ..., an are called coefficients, b is called the constant term, and x1, x2, x3, ..., xn are variables.
For example, the equation

Linear equations: 5x1 – 2x2 + x3 = 11
2x + 3y – z = 0,
is a linear equation in the three variables x1, x2 and x3. Notice that a linear equation does not
x + y = –2
contain any powers greater than 1: x2 + 1 = 0 and y2 – 2xy = 4 are not linear equations.
Nonlinear equations:
x2 + 1 = 0, xy + 5 = 3 A collection of linear equations is called a system of linear equations. A set of values for
y2 – y = 4 x1, x2, x3, ..., xn that makes each equation true is called a solution to the system.
EXAMPLE 1 Determine whether the following equations are linear or not.

a. 2x + 3y = 1 b. x2 + 2x + 1 = 0 c. 5x + xy = 1
Solution a. yes b. no c. no
Definition system of m linear equations in n variables

A set of m equations which are all linear in the same n variables is called a system of m linear
equations in n variables (or n unknowns):
a11x1 + a12x2 + a13x3 + ... + a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + a23x3 + ... + a2nxn = b2
.
.
.
am1x1 + am2x2 + am3x3 + ... + amnxn = bm.
For example, the system

3x + 5y – z = 1
2x + 3y + 2z = 2
x – y + 5z = 3
is a system of linear equations in three variables.
Matrices and Determinants

10
B. SOLVING A SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
Every system of linear equations has either one solution, no solution or infinitely many
solutions.
Consider this simple system of two equations:
x – 2y = 5 (E1)
x + y = 8 (E2).
To solve this system, we can multiply E2 by –1 and add the result to E1. This gives y = 1,
which we can substitute in E2 to get x = 7. So the solution to the system is (x, y) = (7, 1).
Notice that multiplying an equation in a system by a constant number does not change the
solution to the system, but it can help us to simplify it. This is one way of simplifying a
system. In fact, there are three ways of simplifying a linear system:
1. Interchange two equations.
2. Multiply an equation by a non-zero constant.
3. Add a multiple of an equation to another equation.
Each operation on a system of linear equations produces an equivalent system, and
equivalent systems have the same solution set.
Simplifying a system helps us to find its solution. There are two basic methods which we can
use to solve systems of linear equations: the elimination method and the substitution
method.
1. The Elimination Method

With this method, we try to eliminate one of the unknowns in a system by using basic
operations, and then we try to solve the simpler system.
Follow these basic steps to use the elimination method for a system of equations in two
variables:
1. Multiply an equation by an appropriate constant so that the coefficient of one variable in
the equation is the negative of its coefficient in another equation.
2. Add the two equations to eliminate one variable, then solve the result for the remaining
variable.
3. Substitute the value from Step 2 back into one of the original equations, and solve for the
remaining variable.
If a system of equations has more than two variables, we can use the elimination method
several times until we have eliminated the extra variables.
EXAMPLE 2 Solve the system of linear equations.

2x – y = 3 (E1)
–x + 3y = 1 (E2)
Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices

11
Solution Steps 1 and 2: We can eliminate the unknown variable y by multiplying E1 by 3 and adding
the result to E2:
3E1 : 6 x – 3y = 9
E2 : – x + 3y =1
5x =10 (3E1 + E2 )
x = 2.
Step 3: Now we back-substitute x = 2 into E1:

(2 ⋅ 2) – y = 3
The solution set of a system
of linear equations is an y = 1.
ordered set of numbers.
So the solution set of the system is (2, 1).
EXAMPLE 3 Find the value of y in the system of linear equations.

2x – 5y – 4z = 3 (E1)
–3x + 5y + 6z = 5 (E2)
Solution We can eliminate x from the equations by forming E = 3E1 + 2E2:

6x – 15y – 12z = 30 (3E1)
–6x + 10y + 12z = 10 (2E2)
5y = 40 (3E1 + 2E2)
y = 8.

x – 2y + z = –1 (E1)
2x + y – 3z = –12 (E2)
z=3 (E3)
Solution From E3 we know that z = 3. We can back-substitute this value into E1 and E2 to get
x – 2y = –4 (E4)
2x + y = –3. (E5)
Now we multiply E4 by –2, then add the resulting equation to E5:
–2x – 4y = 8 (–2E4)
2x + y = –3 (E5)
5y = 5 (–2E4 + E5)
y = 1.

12
Finally, back-substitute y = 1 and z = 3 into E1 and solve for x:
x – (2 ⋅ 1) + 3 = –1
x = –2.
So the solution set of the system is (–2, 1, 3).

x – y + 3z = 4 (E1)
x + 2y – 2z = 10 (E2)
3x – y + 5z = 14 (E3)
Solution We begin by eliminating x from E2 and E3:

–x + y – 3z = –4 (–E1)
x + 2y – 2z = 10 (E2)
3y – 5z = 6 (E4)
and
3x – 6y + 6z = –30 (–3E2)
3x – y + 5z = 14 (E3)
–7y + 11z = –16 (E5)
We now have a simpler system of two equations in terms of y and z:

3y – 5z = 6 (E4)
–7y + 11z = –16. (E5)
We now eliminate the variable y by adding 7E4 and 3E5:
21y – 35 z = 30 (7 E4 )
–21y + 33 z = –48 (3E5 )
– 2 z = –6
z = 3.
Now we back-substitute z = 3 into E4 (3y – 5z = 6) and solve for y:

3y –(5 ⋅ 3) = 6
3y = 21
y = 7.
Finally, we back-substitute the values y = 7 and z = 3 into E1 and solve for x:
x – 7 + (3 ⋅ 3) = 4
x = 2.
So the solution set of the system is (2, 7, 3)

13
Check Yourself 1
Solve the systems of linear equations.
a. 4x + 2 y = –1 b. x – 2 y – z =1 c. x – 2 y + 3z =1
5x – 3y = 7 y + 2z = 5 x + 2 y – z =13
z=2 3x + 2 y – 5 z = 3
Answers
1 3
a. ( , – ) b. (5, 1, 2) c. (3, 7, 4)
2 2
2. The Substitution Method

In some cases it is more convenient to use the substitution method to solve a system of linear
equations. With this method we rewrite one equation in terms of one of the variables and
substitute the value we obtain into another equation. This eliminates one of the variables,
giving us an equation in fewer unknowns.
Follow these basic steps to use the substitution method for a system in two variables:
1. Choose one equation and rewrite it in terms of a variable.
2. Substitute the result into the other equation to get an equation in one variable, then solve
for that variable.
3. Substitute the result to solve the system for the remaining variable.
If a system has more than two variables, we can use the substitution method repeatedly to
get a simpler system.

2x – y = 4 (E1)
3x + 2y = 5 (E2)
Solution If we rewrite E1 in terms of y we get y = 2x – 4. Substituting this into E2 gives us
3x + 2(2x – 4) = 13
3x + 4x – 8 = 13
x = 3.
For x = 3 we get y = (2 ⋅ 3) – 4 ⇒ y = 2.
So the solution set of the system is (3, 2).

2x + y + z = 0 (E1)
x – y + 5z = 0 (E2)
y–z=4 (E3)

14
Solution From equation E3 we can write y = z + 4.
Substitute this into E2:
x – (z + 4) + 5z = 0
x = –4z + 4.
Substitute y = z + 4 and x = –4z + 4 into E1:
2(–4z + 4) + (z + 4) + z = 0
–8z + 8 + z + 4 + z = 0
6z = 12
z = 2.
Finally, y = z + 4 = 2 + 4 = 6 (from E3) and x = –4z + 4 = (–4 ⋅ 2) + 4 = –4 (from above).
So the solution set of the system is (–4, 6, 2).
Check Yourself 2
Solve the systems.
a. x – 2 y = –1 b. 2 x + y – 3z = 0 c. x – 2y+ z = 3
2 x + 3y =19 3y – z = 2 3x + y + 2 z = 4
z =1 –2 x + 4 y = 4
Answers
a. (5, 3) b. (1, 1, 1) c. (–2, 0, 5)
C. ROW ECHELON FORM

Definition row echelon form, reduced row echelon form
A system of linear equations is in row echelon form if the leading coefficient (i.e. the first
non-zero coefficient from the left) of each equation is always strictly to the right of the
leading coefficient of the equation above it.
For example, the system x + y + 2z = 1
y–z=4
z=2
is in row echelon form.
A system of linear equations is in reduced row echelon form if in addition every leading
coefficient is 1, and this is the only non-zero coefficient for that variable.
For example, the system x + 0 ⋅ y + 0 ⋅ z = 1
y+0⋅z=3
z = –1
is in reduced row echelon form.
Row echelon form is basically a ‘step pattern’ of equations. When a system is in row echelon
form, back-substitution is very easy. For example, in a system of three variables, the bottom row
gives the value of z. We back-substitute this value into the second equation and y is found.
Then we back-substitute both y and z into the first equation and x is found.

15
As an example, consider the system
x – y + 2z = –1
y–z=4
z=2
in row echelon form. The bottom equation gives us z = 2. Plugging z = 2 into the second
equation gives y – 2 = 4 and so y = 6 . Plugging y = 6 and z = 2 into the first equation gives
x – 6 + 4 = –1. This gives x = 1, so the solution of the system is (1, 6, 2 ).
We can write this solution as a system in reduced row echelon form as follows:
x=1
y=6
z = 2.
EXAMPLE 8 Use back-substitution to solve the following system in row echelon form.
x – 2y + 3z = 9 (E1)
y + 3z = 5 (E2)
z=2 (E3)
Solution From E3, z = 2. Substituting z = 2 into E2 gives y = –1. Finally, substitute z = 2 and y = –1
into E1 to obtain x:
x – 2 ⋅ (–1) + 3 ⋅ 2 = 9
x + 8 = 9 ⇒ x = 1.
So the solution of the system is (1, –1, 2).
To solve a system that is not in row-echelon form, we can first change it to an equivalent
system that is in row echelon form by either interchanging two equations, multiplying an
equation by a non-zero constant, or adding a multiple of an equation to another equation.

x – 3y + z = 10 (E1)
2x + y – z = 1 (E2)
x – 2y + 4z = 21 (E3)
Solution Let us change the system to row echelon form by using elementary operations. We begin by
eliminating the x terms from E2 and E3:
–2 x +6 y – 2 z = –20 (–2 E1 )
2 x + y – z =1 ( E2 )
7 y – 3 z = –19 ( E4 = –2 E1 + E2 )
– x + 3y – z = –10 (– E1 )
x – 2 y + 4 z = 21 ( E3 )
y + 3 z =11. ( E5 = – E1 + E3 )

16
Now interchange E4 and E5:
x – 3y + z = 10 (E1)
y + 3z = 11 (E5)
7y – 3z = –19. (E4)
To eliminate y from the third equation we multiply the second equation by –7 and add the
third equation:
–7y – 21z = –77 (–7E5)
7y – 3y = –19 (E4)
–24z = –96
z = 4.
Now the system is in row echelon form. Substitate z = 4 into E5:
y + 3z = 11 (E5)
y + (3 ⋅ 4) = 11 ⇒ y = –1.
Using back-substitution again to solve the system gives us (3, –1, 4) as the solution.

x + y – 2z = 3 (E1)
2x – 3y + 6z = 8 (E2)
3x – 2y + 4z = 2 (E3)
Solution x + y – 2z = 3 (E1)
–5y + 10z = 2 (E2' = –2E1 + E2)
3x – 2y + 4z = 1 (E3)
x + y – 2z = 3 (E1)
–5y + 10z = 2 (E2')
–5y + 10z = –8 (E3' = –3E1 + E3)
x + y – 2z = 3 (E2)
–5y + 10z = 2 (E2')
0 = –10 (E3'' = E2' + E3')
The third equation is now false, which means that the system has no solution.

17
EXAMPLE 11 Solve the system of equations.
x + y – 10z = –4 (E1)
3x + 5y + 36z = –10 (E2)
–x + 7z = 5 (E3)
Solution x + y – 10z = –4 (E1)

2y – 6z = 2 (E2' = –3E1 + E2)
–x + 7z = 5 (E3)
x + y – 10z = –4 (E1)
1
y – 3z = 1 (E2'' = E2 )
2
y – 3z = 1 (E3' = E1 + E3)
x + y – 10z = –4 (E1)
y – 3z = 1 (E2'')
0=0 (E3''=E3'–E2'')
The third equation is 0 = 0. This equation is always true, no matter what values are used for
x, y and z. We can conclude that this system has infinitely many solutions. To obtain the
complete solution, we let t represent any real number and we express x, y and z in terms of t:
z=t
y = 3t + 1
x = 7t – 5.
So the solution is (7t – 5, 3t + 1, t), where t ∈ \.
Check Yourself 3
Solve the systems.
a. x – y – z = 2 b. 2 y + 3z = 8 c. x – 2 y + 3z = 5 d. x – 2 y +5 z = 2
y + 3z = 5 2 x + 3y + z = 5 2 x – 4 y +6 z = 3 3x + 2 y – z = –2
z=2 x – y – 2 z = –5 2 x – 3y + z = 9
Answers
a. (3, –1, 2) b. (0, 1, 2) c. no solution
d. infinitely many solutions: (–t, 2t –1, t), where t ∈ \

18
D. CONSISTENT AND INCONSISTENT SYSTEMS
OF EQUATIONS
As we have seen, a system of linear equations can have no solution, exactly one solution, or
infinitely many solutions.
Definition consistent system, inconsistent system
We say that a linear system is consistent if it has either one solution or infinitely many
solutions. A system is inconsistent if it has no solution.
systems of equations
inconsistent consistent
no solution many solutions unique solution

(empty or null set) (parametric solution) (ordered n-tuple)
Definition homogeneous linear system, trivial solution

A linear system of the form
a11x1 + a12x2 + a13x3 + ... + a1nxn = 0
a21x1 + a22x2 + a23x3 + ... + a2nxn = 0
.
.
.
an1x1 + an2x2 + an3x3 + ... + annxn = 0
(with constant terms all equal to zero) is called a homogeneous linear system.
A homogeneous linear system is always consistent, since all the equations are
satisfied simultaneously when we set x1 = x2 = ... = xn = 0. This solution (0, ..., 0) is called
the trivial solution of the system.
EXAMPLE 12 For which values of the real number k is the system

x+y=1
kx + y = k
consistent? Describe the solution set when the system is consistent.
Solution Look at the system.

If k ≠ 1, the system has a unique solution given by x = 1, y = 0.
If k = 1, the system is defined by one equation, and it has infinitely many solutions given by
x = t, y = 1 – t, t ∈ \.
In conclusion, the system is consistent for every value of k.

19
EXAMPLE 13 For which values of the real number k is the system of two equations
7x + 4y = kx
6x + 2y = ky
consistent? Describe the solution set when the system is consistent.
Solution Collect the like terms, then the system becomes

(7 – k)x + 4y = 0 (E1)
6x + (2 – k)y = 0. (E2)
Since this system is homogeneous, it is consistent for any real value of k and x = y = 0 is a
trivial solution.
Suppose (x, y) is a non-trivial solution, then at least one of x or y has a value different from
zero. We can proceed to solve the system with the elimination method.
Multiplying E1 by –(2 – k) and E2 by 4 and adding them together eliminates y and gives us
(k2 – 9k –10)x = 0.
But x ≠ 0. Hence k2 – 9k – 10 = 0, and solving for k we get k = 10 and k = –1. This means
that if k ≠ 10 and k ≠ –1 then the system has only a trivial solution.
If k = 10 then E1 or E2 will lead to one equation: –3x + 4y = 0. This equation has infinitely
many solutions given by x = 4t and y = 3t. So the solution is (4t, 3t), where t ∈ \.
If k = –1 then E1 or E2 will lead to one equation: 2x + y = 0. This equation has infinitely
many solutions given by x = t and y = –2t. So the solution is (t, –2t) where t ∈ \.
EXAMPLE 14 Given the system of equations

2x + ky + z = 1 (E1)
4x + 2y + 2z = 2 (E2)
–2x –2y + z = 7, (E3)
describe the solution set when the system is consistent.
Solution First rewrite the system to eliminate x from E2 and E3.

2x + ky + z = 1 (E1)
(–2k + 2)y = 0 (E2' = –2E1 + E2)
(k – 2)y + 2z = 8. (E3' = E1 + E3)
Now consider the equation (–2k + 2)y = 0.
–3
If k ≠ –1 then y = 0, z = 4 and x = , i.e. the system is consistent and has the unique
2
–3
solution ( , 0, 4) .
2

20
If k = –1 then the system reduces to two equations:
2x – y + z = 1
–3y + 2z = 8.
This system has infinitely many solutions: x = t, y = –6 – 4t and z = –5 – 6t.
So the solution is (t, –6 –4t, –5 –6t), where t is a real number.
EXAMPLE 15 For which values of the real number k is the system of equations
2x – y – z = kx
–3x + 2y + z = ky
–3x + y + 2z = kz
a. consistent? b. inconsistent?
Describe the solution set when the system is consistent.
Solution a. Let us rewrite the system.

(2 – k)x – y – z = 0 (E1')
–3x + (2 – k)y + z = 0 (E2')
–3x + y + (2 – k)z = 0 (E3')
Since the system is homogeneous, it is consistent for any value of k.
b. Suppose (x, y, z) is a non-trivial solution and let us try to solve the system by elimination.
Eliminate x from equation E3' above:
(2 – k)x – y – z = 0 (E1')
–3x + (2 – k)y + z = 0 (E2')
(k – 1)y + (1 – k)z = 0 (E3''=E2'+E3')
We can rewrite (k – 1)y + (1 – k)z = 0 as (k – 1)(y – z) = 0. So k = 1 or y = z.
If k = 1 then the system reduces to two equations:
x–y–z=0 (E4)
–3x + y + z = 0. (E5)
This system has infinitely many solutions. Adding E4 and E5 gives us x = 0 and y = z.
So the solution is (0, –t, t), where t ∈ \.
(2 – k)x – 2 y = 0 (E6 )
If y = z and k ≠ 1 then
–3x +(3 – k)y = 0. (E7 )

21
(2 – k)x
Substitute the value of y obtained from E6 in E7: –3x +(3 – k)( ) = 0.
2
This simplifies to
–6x + (6 – 5k + k2)x = 0
k(k – 5)x = 0.
Since x ≠ 0, we have either k = 0 or k– 5 = 0 (i.e. k = 5).
If k = 0, from E6 we get the solution (t, t, t), where t ∈ \.
–2t
If k = 5, from E7, we get the solution ( , t, t) , where t ∈ \.
3
Check Yourself 4
For which values of the real number k is each system consistent? Describe the solution when
the system is consistent.
a. 4x +5 y = kx b. 3x + ky + z = 2
3x + 2 y = ky 6x + 2y + 2z = 4
–3x – 2 y + z = –10
Answers
a. consistent for any value of k: (0,0) is the trivial solution
For x ≠ 0,
5t
if k = 7 then the solution is ( , t ).
3
if k = –1 then the solution is (–t, t) where t is a real number.
b. If k ≠ 1, the system is consistent and has the unique solution (2, 0, –1)
If k = 1, the system has infinitely many solutions. The solution is (t, 12 – 6t, 14 – 9t)
where t is a real number.

22
The Geometry Behind Equations in Three Variables
In your previous studies, you probably learned that any equation of the form ax + by + cz = p describes a plane.
This means that any system of linear equations in three variables describes a set of planes. The solution to the
system corresponds to the intersection of the planes.
One point of intersection = one solution

If the planes intersect as shown at the right then the corresponding linear system
has a single solution which corresponds to the unique point of intersection.
P(x, y, z)
planes intersect at one point:

one solution
Intersection along a line = infinitely many solutions
If all the planes intersect along a single line l then the three-variable system has
infinitely many solutions, and any point on l is a solution to the
system.
planes intersect in a line:

No common point = no solution infinitely many solutions
Planes which represent systems of three-variable equations that have no solution are shown below. In these cases,
the three planes have no point in common, i.e. there is no point at which all three planes meet. Therefore the
corresponding systems of equations have no solution.
planes have no point in common: no solution

EXERCISES 1. 1
A. Linear Equations in n Variables C. Row Echelon Form
1. Determine whether the given equations are linear 5. Solve the systems of linear equations.
or not.
a. 3x1 + x2 = 4 b. x + 3y = 4
a. x – 2y = 1 b. 4x – xy = 0 – x + 2y = 6
x1 – x2 = 4
3 2 1 1
c. + – 1= 0 d. x2 + y2 = 5 c. x – y= 2 d. x – y =1
y x 2 3
e. –4sin(x – y) = 11 f. cos(2x) – y = 9 –2 x + 2 y = 7
4
–2 x + y = –4
3
e. x1 – x2 = 0 f. 3x + 2 y = 2
B. Solving a System of Linear Equations 3x1 – 5 x2 = –2 6 x + 4y =13
g. x+ y+ z = 7 h. x + y + z =1
2. Use back-substitution to solve each system.
3x – y + z = 5 – x + 2 y + 3z = 0
a. x1 – x2 =1 b. 3x1 – 5 x2 =1 2x – z = 0 4x + y = 3
x2 =1 3x2 =1 i. j. 2 x + 3y = –3
4x + 2 y – z = 5
c. – x + y – z =1 d. 2 x – y = 3 3x + 2 y + 2 z =13 x +5z = 8
y+ x = 0 2y+ z = 5 x+ y+ z = 6 y + 4z =1
1 3z = 9
z=0
2
k. 3x + 3 y – z = 0
e. 4x + y = 0 f. x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
5x +5 y + 2 z = 0
–2 y = 0 x2 = 0
5x +10 y + 2 z = 0
l. 10 x +5 y + z = 0
5x + 4y – z = 0
3. Use the substitution method to solve each system.

m. x1 + 2 x3 = 3
a. x+ y = 9 b. 2 x + y =11 x2 – 2 x3 + x4 = –4
x – 2y = 0 3x – y = –1 3x2 – 2 x4 = –6
x1 + 2 x2 + 3x3 = 0
n. x+ y+ z+ w = 2
2x + 2y – w = 0
4. Use the elimination method to solve each system. –3x + 4 y + 2 z + w = −3
x + 2 y – 2 z + 2 w = −5
a. 3x + 2 y = 2 b. 4x – 2 y = 7
5 x + 3y = 6 9x + 4y = 3

24
D. Consistent and Inconsistent 8. Find the values of a, b, and c which give the
Systems of Equations following system of linear equations
6. Determine the value(s) of k which mean that the a. exactly one solution.
given system of linear equations has the indicated b. an infinite number of solutions.
number of solutions.
c. no solution.
a. exactly one solution: x + 5y + z = 0
3x + ky = 5, kx + y = 0 x + 6y – z = 0
2x + ay + bz = c
b. an infinite number of solutions:
kx + y = 0, 2x – 3y = 10
c. exactly one solution:
x + ky = 0, kx + y = 0
d. no solution:
2x + ky = 3, kx + 2y = 2
e. no solution:
2x + y + kz = 5
kx + 2ky + 3kz = 4k
6x + 3y + 8z = 2
f. exactly one solution:

kx + y + z = 0
2x – y + z =0
7. For which value(s) of k does the following system

of linear equations not have a unique solution?
x + y + kz = 3
x + ky + z = 2
kx + y + z = 1

25
A. BASIC CONCEPTS
Three car dealers each sell three models of a car. The table below shows the number of cars
each dealer sold in a given month.
Dealer 1 Dealer 2 Dealer 3

Model A 5 7 4
Model B 3 4 9
Model C 2 0 1
We can organize data like this in a matrix. The matrix for our car dealer data is
D1 D2 D3
Model A ⎡5 7 4⎤
A = Model B ⎢3 4 9 ⎥⎥ .
⎢
Model C ⎢⎣ 2 0 1 ⎥⎦
Two large square brackets contain the numbers in the matrix. This matrix has three rows and
The plural form of matrix three columns.
is matrices, pronounced
‘may-trih-sees’. ⎡5 ⎤
The column ⎢ 3 ⎥ represents the cars sold by the first dealer. The row [5 7 4] represents all
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣2 ⎥⎦
the model A cars sold by the three dealers.
Matrices give us an effective way of organizing and manipulating data in different problems.
We can begin our study of matrices with a more formal definition.
Definition matrix
A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers in rows and columns.
⎡ a11 a12 a13 ... a1n ⎤ ⎫
⎢a ⎥⎪
⎢ 21 a22 a23 ... a2 n ⎥ ⎪
⎢ a31 a32 a33 ... a3 n ⎥ ⎪⎬ m rows
⎢ . . . . ⎥⎪
⎢ .. .
.
.
.
.
. ⎥⎪
⎢ ⎥
am1 am 2 am 3 ... amn ⎦ ⎪⎭
⎣
n columns

26
The horizontal lines of numbers in a matrix are called rows and the vertical lines are called
columns. The number of rows and the number of columns determine the dimensions (also
called the order) of the matrix. A matrix with m rows and n columns has dimensions m × n and
is called an m × n (read as ‘m by n’) matrix. Notice that the number of rows is always given first.
Each number in a matrix is called an entry of the matrix. aij means the entry in the ith row
and jth column of the matrix A.
m × n 3 columns
rows × columns ⎡2 5 4⎤
A= ⎢ ⎥ 2 rows Matrix A is a 2 × 3 (‘two by three’) matrix.
⎣6 3 0⎦
a13
⎡2 5 4⎤ a13 is the entry in the first row
A= ⎢ ⎥ and the third column: a13 = 4.
1st row 3rd column
⎣6 3 0⎦
EXAMPLE 16 Write the dimensions of each real matrix.
⎡0.5 ⎤ ⎡2 0 4 1⎤
⎡1 2 ⎤ ⎡ 1⎤ ⎢ ⎥
a. A = ⎢ ⎥ b. B = ⎢π –1 c. C = ⎢ –2 ⎥ d. D = ⎢5 9 0 7 ⎥
⎣4 7 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 7 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 0 4 9 ⎥⎦
If each entry of a matrix
is a real number then the
matrix is called a real
matrix.
Solution a. [A]2×2 is a 2×2 matrix b. [B]1×3 is a 1×3 matrix

c. [C]3×1 is a 3×1 matrix d. [D]3×4 is a 3×4 matrix
[A]m×n means a matrix A
with m rows and n columns.
⎡2 0 4 1 ⎤
EXAMPLE 17 A = ⎢⎢5 9 0 7 ⎥⎥ is given. Write each matrix entry.
⎢⎣ 1 0 4 9 ⎥⎦
a. a31 b. a23 c. a34 d. a22
Solution a. 1 b. 0 c. 9 d. 9
⎡ –3 0 5 ⎤
EXAMPLE 18 Given A = ⎢
⎢ 3 1 3⎥
⎥ , find 2a – 3a2 – 4a .
13 21 23
⎢⎣ 2⎦⎥
3
Solution We have a13 = 5, a21 = 3 and a23 = , so the expression becomes
2
2 3
(2 ⋅ 5) − 3( 3) – (4 ⋅ ) =10 – 9 – 6 = –5.
2
27
B. TYPES OF MATRIX
1. Square Matrix
A square matrix is a matrix which has the same number of rows and columns.
⎡0 0 0⎤
⎡0 0 ⎤ ⎢ 0 0 ⎥⎥ are all square matrices. We say that a square matrix has order n if
A matrix with only one
row, such as [1 3 2], is [2], ⎢ ⎥ and ⎢0
⎣0 0 ⎦ ⎢⎣0
called a row matrix. 6 0 ⎥⎦
Likewise, a column
it has n rows and n columns.
⎡ 1⎤
matrix such as ⎢ 3⎥ has
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣4 ⎥⎦
only one column. 2. Zero Matrix
A zero matrix is a matrix whose entries are all zeros. We write 0 to mean a zero matrix.
⎡0 0 ⎤ ⎡0 0 0 ⎤
[0], ⎢ ⎥ and ⎢ ⎥ are all zero matrices.
⎣0 0 ⎦ ⎣0 0 0 ⎦
3. Identity Matrix
A square matrix whose main diagonal elements (from top left to bottom right) are 1 and whose
other entries are all zero is called an identity matrix. We write I to mean the identity matrix.
The main diagonal of a
square matrix always ⎡ 1 0 0⎤
⎡ 1 0⎤ ⎡0 1⎤
runs from top left to [1], ⎢ ⎥ and ⎢0 1 0 ⎥ are all identity matrices. ⎢ ⎥ is not an identity matrix.
⎢ ⎥
bottom right. ⎣0 1⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 1⎥⎦ ⎣ 1 0⎦
⎡ a11 ⎤
⎢ a ⎥
⎣ nn ⎦
main diagonal 4. Diagonal Matrix

A square matrix in which all the entries except the main diagonal entries are zero is called a
diagonal matrix.
⎡2 0 0 ⎤
⎡ –1 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 8 ⎥ and ⎢0 5 0 ⎥ are diagonal matrices.
⎣ ⎦
⎣⎢0 0 0 ⎦⎥
5. Scalar Matrix
A square matrix whose main diagonal elements are all equal (a11 = a22 = a33 = ...) and whose
other entries are all zero is called a scalar matrix.
⎡7 0 0 ⎤
⎡ –5 0 ⎤
[8], ⎢ ⎥ and ⎢0 7 0 ⎥ are all scalar matrices.
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 –5 ⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 7 ⎥⎦
Notice that a scalar matrix is a type of diagonal matrix.

28
6. Symmetric Matrix
If all the entries in a square matrix are symmetric with respect to the main diagonal
(i.e. aij = aji for all possible i and j) then the matrix is called a symmetric matrix.
⎡ 1 2 0⎤
⎡ –5 2 ⎤ ⎢2 3 5 ⎥ are symmetric matrices.
⎢ 2 0⎥ and
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣0 5 9 ⎥⎦
7. Antisymmetric Matrix
If the entries on the main diagonal of a square matrix are all zero and the sums of the
symmetric entries with respect to the main diagonal are zero then this matrix is called an
antisymmetric matrix.
⎡ 0 –1 3 ⎤
⎡ 0 2⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ –2 0 ⎥ and ⎢ 1 0 –5 ⎥ are antisymmetric matrices.
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ –3 5 0 ⎥⎦
8. Triangular Matrix
If all the entries either above or below the main diagonal of a square matrix are zero then the
⎡ 0⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥ matrix is called a triangular matrix.
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡2 –1 3⎤ ⎡ –2 0 0 ⎤
lower upper ⎢0 5 –1⎥ and ⎢ 8 1 0 ⎥ are triangular matrices.
triangular triangular ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
matrix matrix ⎢⎣0 0 7 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ –3 4 6 ⎥⎦
9. Communication Matrix
A matrix which shows the paths of communication between different things, places or points is
called a communication matrix.
EXAMPLE 19 The arrows in the figure at the right show the

directions of communication in a network of
computers. Write a matrix to show the communication Computer A
paths in the network.
Solution When writing the matrix for this network, we can use Computer B Computer C
use a 1 to indicate that direct communication from
one computer to another is possible, and a 0 to
indicate that direct communication is not possible.
For example, Computer A cannot send data to itself Computer D
directly, so a 0 goes into the entry in the first row
and first column of the matrix. Similarly, Computer
A can send data to Computer B directly, so a 1 goes
in the first row and second column of the matrix.

29
The final matrix is
To computer
A B C D
A ⎡0 1 1 0⎤
From B ⎢0 0 1 1⎥⎥
⎢ = X.
computer C ⎢1 1 0 1⎥
⎢ ⎥
D ⎣0 1 0 0⎦
Matrix X is one example of a communication matrix. By convention, the rows in a
communication matrix show that communication is possible from the corresponding row entity.
EXAMPLE 20 Write a communication matrix P to represent the following network.

A
B C
D E
Solution A B C D E Notice how we show one-way communication: a45 = 1, which

A ⎡0 1 1 0 0⎤ means that D can communicate directly with E. However,
B ⎢0 0 0 1 1⎥⎥ a54 = 0 because E cannot communicate directly with D.
⎢
P= C ⎢1 1 0 1 1⎥
⎢ ⎥
D ⎢0 1 0 0 1⎥
E ⎢⎣0 0 1 0 0 ⎥⎦
Check Yourself 5
1. State the dimensions and type of each matrix.
⎡ 1 0
2⎤ –1
⎡5 ⎤ ⎡2 0 0 ⎤ ⎢ –1 1 –3 ⎥⎥
1
a. ⎢ 3 ⎥ b. ⎢0 2 0 ⎥ c. ⎢
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 1 1 –1 1⎥
⎢⎣2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 3 2 –3 4 ⎦
⎡5 7 4 8 ⎤
2. Find the entries a14, a22 and a34 in the matrix A = ⎢0 3 6 9 ⎥.
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 8 5 1⎥⎦
3. Write the communication matrix P for the network shown.
A
B D

30
Answers
1. a. 3 × 1, column matrix b. 3 × 3, square matrix, diagonal matrix, scalar matrix
c. 4 × 4, square matrix
⎡0 1 0 1⎤
⎢1 0 0 0 ⎥⎥
2. a14 = 8, a22 = 3, a34 = 1 3. P = ⎢
⎢0 1 0 1⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣1 1 0 0⎦
C. EQUAL MATRICES
Definition equal matrices
Two matrices are called equal matrices if they have the same dimension and their corresponding
entries are all equal. We write A = B to mean that two matrices A and B are equal.
⎡ 1⎤
Notice that [1 2 3] ≠ ⎢2 ⎥ , because these matrices do not have the same dimension:
⎢ 3⎥
⎣ ⎦
(1×3) ≠ (3×1).
EXAMPLE 21 Find a11, a12, a21 and a22 in the matrix equation.
⎡ a11 a12 ⎤ ⎡ 2 –1⎤
⎢a =
⎣ 21 a22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ –3 0 ⎥⎦
Solution Since the two matrices are equal, their corresponding entries are equal, and so
a11 = 2, a12 = –1,
a21 = –3, a22 = 0.
⎡ x + y –3 ⎤ ⎡2 –3 ⎤
EXAMPLE 22 ⎢ 3
⎣
=⎢
x – y ⎦ ⎣3 2 x + 3y ⎥⎦
⎥ is given. Find x, y and z.
Solution Since the two matrices are equal, their corresponding entries are equal. So
x + y = 2 (1)
x – y = 2 x + 3y ⇒ x + 4 y = 0. (2)
8 2
Solving (1) and (2) for x and y gives us x = , y = – .
3 3
Check Yourself 6
⎡4x +5 9 15 ⎤ ⎡21 9 15 ⎤
Solve ⎢ =⎢ for x and y.
⎣ 7 –2 y + 3 –1 ⎦ ⎣ 7 y – 12 –1 ⎥⎦
⎥
Answers
x = 4, y = 5

31
D. OPERATIONS ON MATRICES
1. Matrix Addition
Although we can always add two real numbers together, we cannot always add two matrices.
Adddition and subtraction
In fact, we can only perform matrix addition on matrices with equal dimensions. To add or
are not defined for subtract two matrices A and B, we simply add or subtract corresponding entries.
matrices with different
dimensions.
A + B
⎡ a b ⎤ ⎡ e f ⎤ ⎡( a + e ) (b + f )⎤
⎢ c d ⎥ + ⎢ g h ⎥ = ⎢( c + g) ( d + h) ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣
⎡5 0 4⎤ ⎡2 2 1⎤ ⎡1 5 ⎤
EXAMPLE 23 A=⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 3 –1⎦
, B= ⎢ ⎥ and C =
⎣5 3 7 ⎦
⎢3 0 ⎥ are given. Write the matrices.
⎣ ⎦
a. A + B b. A – B c. A + C
Solution a. Since the matrices have the same dimensions, we can add them.
⎡ 5 0 4 ⎤ ⎡2 2 1⎤ ⎡5+ 2 0+ 2 4+1 ⎤ ⎡7 2 5 ⎤
⎢2 3 –1⎥ + ⎢5 3 7 ⎥ = ⎢2+5 3+ 3 –1+7 ⎥ = ⎢7 6 6 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
b. Since the matrices have the same dimensions, we can subtract them.
A–B≠B–A
⎡ 5 0 4 ⎤ ⎡2 2 1⎤ ⎡5 – 2 0 – 2 4 – 1 ⎤ ⎡ 3 –2 3 ⎤
⎢2 3 –1⎥ – ⎢5 3 7 ⎥ = ⎢2 – 5 3 – 3 –1 – 7 ⎥ = ⎢–3 0 –8 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Notice that A – B ≠ B – A.
c. A + C is undefined, since A and B have different dimensions.
EXAMPLE 24 Find each matrix sum or difference.

⎡ 1 2 ⎤ ⎡ –1 –2 ⎤ ⎡ 1 2 ⎤ ⎡0 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1 2 ⎤ ⎡2 –1⎤
a. ⎢ ⎥+ ⎢ ⎥ b. ⎢ ⎥+ ⎢ ⎥ c. ⎢ ⎥–⎢ ⎥
⎣4 3 ⎦ ⎣ –4 –3 ⎦ ⎣4 3 ⎦ ⎣0 0 ⎦ ⎣3 –5 ⎦ ⎣ 1 3 ⎦
⎡ 1 2 ⎤ ⎡ –1 –2 ⎤ ⎡0 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1 2 ⎤ ⎡0 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1 2 ⎤
Solution a. ⎢ ⎥+ ⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥ b. ⎢ ⎥+ ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎣4 3 ⎦ ⎣ –4 –3 ⎦ ⎣0 0 ⎦ ⎣4 3⎦ ⎣0 0 ⎦ ⎣4 3 ⎦
⎡ 1 2 ⎤ ⎡2 –1⎤ ⎡–1 3 ⎤
c. ⎢ ⎥–⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥
⎣3 –5 ⎦ ⎣ 1 3 ⎦ ⎣ 2 –8 ⎦
PROPERTIES OF MATRIX ADDITION

For any three real m × n matrices A, B and C, the following properties hold.
Closure property : A + B is also an m × n matrix.
Remember! Commutative property : A + B = B + A
0 is the m × n matrix Associative property : A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
whose elements are all Additive identity :A+0=A
zero.
Additive inverse : A + (–A) = (–A) + A = 0
32
2. Multiplying a Matrix and a Scalar
In matrix algebra, a real number is often called a scalar. To multiply a matrix by a scalar, we
multiply each entry in the matrix by the scalar. This operation is called scalar multiplication.
⎡ a b ⎤ ⎡c ⋅ a c ⋅ b ⎤
c⋅⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎣ b d⎦ ⎣c ⋅ b c ⋅ d ⎦
⎡ 1 2 4⎤ ⎡ 2 0 0⎤
EXAMPLE 25 The matrices A = ⎢ –3 0 –1⎥ and B =
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 –4 3 ⎥ are given. Perform the matrix operations.
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 1 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣–1 3 2 ⎥⎦
a. 3A b. –B c. 3A – B
⎡ 1 2 4⎤ ⎡ 3 ⋅1 3 ⋅2 3 ⋅4 ⎤ ⎡ 3 6 12 ⎤
Solution a. 3 A = 3 ⋅ ⎢ –3 0 –1⎥ = ⎢3 ⋅(–3) 3 ⋅0 3 ⋅(–1) ⎥= ⎢–9 0 –3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 1 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 ⋅ 2 3 ⋅1 3 ⋅ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 6 3 6 ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 0 0 ⎤ ⎡–2 0 0 ⎤
b. – B = (–1) ⎢ 1 –4 3 ⎥ = ⎢ –1 4 –3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ –1 3 2 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ 1 –3 –2 ⎥⎦
⎡ 3 6 12 ⎤ ⎡–2 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1 6 12 ⎤
c. 3 A – B = 3 A +(– B) = ⎢–9 0 –3 ⎥+ ⎢ –1 4 –3 ⎥= ⎢–10 4 –6 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 6 3 6 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 –3 –2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 7 0 4 ⎥⎦

from a from b
EXAMPLE 26 ⎛ ⎡ 3 2 x ⎤ ⎡ –3 5 ⎤ ⎞ ⎡0 18 ⎤
Solve the matrix equation for x and y. 2 ⎜ ⎢ ⎥+ ⎢ ⎥⎟= ⎢
⎝ ⎣6 4 ⎦ ⎣–3 y 3 ⎦ ⎠ ⎣6 14 ⎦
⎥
Solution Simplify the left side of the equation:

⎛ ⎡ 3 2 x⎤ ⎡ –3 5 ⎤ ⎞ ⎡0 18 ⎤
2⎜ ⎢ ⎥+ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟= ⎢ ⎥
⎝ ⎣6 4 ⎦ ⎣ –3y 3 ⎦ ⎠ ⎣6 14 ⎦
It is often useful to
rewrite a matrix as a scalar ⎡ 3 – 3 2 x +5 ⎤ ⎡0 18 ⎤
multiple of a simpler 2⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥
matrix. For instance, in
⎣6 – 3y 4+ 3 ⎦ ⎣6 14 ⎦
the following example
⎡ 0 4x +10 ⎤ ⎡0 18 ⎤
the scalar 1 has been ⎢12 − 6 y = .
2
factored out of the ⎣ 14 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣6 14 ⎥⎦
matrix: Equate corresponding entries and solve the two resulting equations:
⎡1 3⎤ 4x + 10 =18 12 – 6y = 6
⎢2 – ⎥
2 1 ⎡ 1 –3⎤
⎢ ⎥=
⎢5 1 ⎥ 2 ⎢⎣5 1⎥⎦ . 4x = 8 6y = 6
⎢⎣ 2 2⎦⎥
x=2 y = 1.

33
Check Yourself 7
⎡6 –1 4 ⎤ ⎡ 1 4 2⎤
Given the matrices A = ⎢ ⎥ and B = ⎢ ⎥, find
⎣2 4 3 ⎦ ⎣–1 5 0 ⎦
a. –A. b. 2A – 3B. c. 5A + B.
Answers
⎡ –6 1 –4 ⎤ ⎡9 –14 2 ⎤ ⎡31 –1 22 ⎤
a. ⎢ ⎥ b. ⎢ c. ⎢
⎣ –2 –4 –3 ⎦ ⎣7 –7 6 ⎥⎦ ⎥
⎣ 9 25 15 ⎦
3. Matrix Multiplication
It is important to check the dimensions of two matrices before we start to multiply them. If
matrix A has dimension m × n and matrix B has dimension p × q, then the product AB only
exists if n = p. Furthermore, the product will have dimension m × q.
If A is an m × n matrix
and B is an n × p matrix (n = p)
then the product AB is
an m × p matrix.
A ⋅ B = AB
m×n n×p m×p
m×n p×q
equal
dimensions of AB
dimension of product (m × q)
We obtain each entry in the matrix AB (the product of A and B) from a row of A and a column
of B as follows: multiply the entries in the ith row of A by the entries in the jth column of B
and add the results to get aij in AB.
jth column of B
ith row of A aij = (1 ⋅ 1) + (3 ⋅ 4) + (2 ⋅ 2) = 17
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢1 3 2 ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ 4 ⎥=⎢ 17 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 –1 5 ⎤
⎡ 2 1 –2 ⎤
EXAMPLE 27 A=⎢
⎣3 1 5⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎥ and B = ⎢–2 0 6 ⎥ are given. Find the products.
⎣⎢ 3 2 4 ⎦⎥
a. AB b. BA

34
Solution a. The product AB is defined because A has dimension 2 × 3 and B has dimension 3 × 3.
Moreover, the product AB will have dimension 2 × 3. Look at the procedure for calculating
the product:
2 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ (–2) + (–2) ⋅ 3 = –6
⎡ 1 –1 5 ⎤
⎡2 1 –2 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡–6 ⎤
1st row, 1st column ⎢ 3 1 5 ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ –2 0 6 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ ⎣ ⎦
⎣ 3 2 4 ⎥⎦
2 ⋅ (–1) + 1 ⋅ 0 + (–2) ⋅ 2 = –6
⎡ 1 –1 5 ⎤
⎡2 1 –2 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡–6 –6 ⎤
1st row, 2nd column ⎢ 3 1 5 ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ –2 0 6 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ ⎣ ⎦
⎣ 3 2 4 ⎥⎦
2 ⋅ 5 + 1 ⋅ 6 + (–2) ⋅ 4 = 8
⎡ 1 –1 5 ⎤
⎡2 1 –2 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡–6 –6 8 ⎤
1st row, 3rd column ⎢ 3 1 5 ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ –2 0 6 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎣ 3 2 4 ⎦
⎡ 1 –1 5 ⎤
⎡2 1 –2 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡–6 –6 8 ⎤
2nd row, 1st column ⎢ 3 1 5 ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ –2 0 6 ⎥ = ⎢16 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ ⎣ ⎦
⎣ 3 2 4 ⎥⎦
3 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ (–2) + 5 ⋅ 3 = 16
⎡ 1 –1 5 ⎤
⎡2 1 –2 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡–6 –6 8 ⎤
2nd row, 2nd column ⎢ 3 1 5 ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ –2 0 6 ⎥ = ⎢16 7 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ ⎣ ⎦
⎣ 3 2 4 ⎥⎦
3 ⋅ (–1) + 1 ⋅ 0 + 5 ⋅ 2 = 7
⎡ 1 –1 5 ⎤
⎡2 1 –2 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡–6 –6 8 ⎤
2nd row, 3rd column ⎢ 3 1 5 ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ –2 0 6 ⎥ = ⎢16 7 41 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ ⎣ ⎦
⎣ 3 2 4 ⎥⎦
3 ⋅ 5 + 1 ⋅ 6 + 5 ⋅ 4 =41
⎡ 1 –1 5 ⎤
⎡2 1 –2 ⎤ ⎢ ⎡–6 –6 8 ⎤
So the product is ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ –2 0 6 ⎥⎥ = ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ 3 1 5 ⎦ ⎢ 3 2 4 ⎥ ⎣16 7 41 ⎦
⎣ ⎦
b. Since the dimensions of B and A are 2 × 2 and 3 × 2 respectively, the product BA is not
defined. This shows us that matrix multiplication is not always commutative: AB ≠ BA.

35
Check Yourself 8
Find the products.
⎡ –2 4 2 ⎤
⎡ 1 0 3⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 3 4⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡1 2 ⎤ ⎡ –1 2 ⎤
a. ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 1 0 0⎥ b. ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ c. ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 –1 –2 ⎦ ⎢ –1 1 –1⎥ ⎣ –2 5 ⎦ ⎣0 1⎦ ⎣1 1⎦ ⎣ 1 –1⎦
⎣ ⎦
Answers
⎡ –5 7 –1⎤ ⎡ 3 4⎤ ⎡ 1 0⎤
a. ⎢ ⎥ b. ⎢ ⎥ c. ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –3 6 6 ⎦ ⎣ –2 5 ⎦ ⎣0 1⎦
⎡ 0 3⎤ ⎡–1 7 ⎤
EXAMPLE 28 Given the matrices A = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –2 6 ⎦
and B = ⎢
⎣ 2 4⎦
⎥, show that AB ≠ BA.
Solution Using the definition of the product of two matrices, we get

⎡ 0 3⎤ ⎡ –1 7 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⋅ (–1)+ 3 ⋅ 2 0 ⋅7+ 3 ⋅4 ⎤ ⎡ 6 12 ⎤
AB = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2 4 ⎥ = ⎢(–2) ⋅ (–1)+6 ⋅ 2 (–2) ⋅7+6 ⋅4 ⎥ = ⎢14 10 ⎥
⎣ –2 6 ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Matrix multiplication is not ⎡ –1 7 ⎤ ⎡ 0 3 ⎤ ⎡(–1) ⋅ 0+7 ⋅(–2) (–1) ⋅3+7 ⋅6 ⎤ ⎡–14 39 ⎤
BA = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ = .
in general commutative:
⎣ 2 4 ⎦ ⎣ –2 6 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⋅ 0+ 4 ⋅(–2) 2 ⋅ 3+ 4 ⋅6 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ –8 30 ⎥⎦
AB ≠ BA.
Thus AB ≠ BA.
The figure shows the computer network from Example 19. Find the matrix that represents
EXAMPLE 29 the number of ways that data can be sent from one computer to another through exactly one
computer.
Computer A
Computer B Computer C
Computer D

36
Solution This example shows how the product of twe matrices can be useful. The product of matrix X
with itself (or the square of matrix X) gives us the number of ways that data can be sent from
one computer to another through exactly one computer.
⎡0 1 1 0 ⎤ ⎡0 1 1 0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 2⎤
⎢0 0 1 1 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢0 0 1 1 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢1 2 0 1 ⎥⎥
X2 = X ⋅ X = ⎢ =
⎢1 1 0 1 ⎥ ⎢1 1 0 1 ⎥ ⎢0 2 2 1⎥
(to) ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 1 0 0 ⎦ ⎣0 1 0 0 ⎦ ⎣0 0 1 1⎦
A B C D
A The 1 in the first row, first column of X2 means that Computer A can send data to itself in
⎡1 1 1 2⎤
(from) B ⎢1 2 0 1 ⎥⎥
one way (via Computer C). Likewise, the 2 in the first row, fourth column means that
⎢
C ⎢0 2 2 1⎥
Computer A can send data to Computer D in two ways (via either Computer B or Computer
⎢ ⎥ C). Notice that, for example, B cannot send data to C through any other computer, so the
D ⎣0 0 1 1⎦
corresponding matrix entry is 0.
EXAMPLE 30 The following table shows the probabilities of a taxi ride ending at each of three destinations
for taxis traveling among three sections of a city. For example, the probability of picking up
a rider southside and dropping him off downtown is 30%.
Destination
Pickup
Northside Downtown Southside
Northside 50% 20% 30%
Downtown 10% 40% 50%
Southside 30% 30% 40%
What is the probability of starting downtown and being downtown again after two taxi rides?
Solution Let us represent the information we are given in a matrix:

N D S
N ⎡0.5 0.2 0.3 ⎤
D ⎢⎢ 0.1 0.4 0.5 ⎥⎥ = P.
S ⎢⎣0.3 0.3 0.4 ⎥⎦
⎡0.5 0.2 0.3 ⎤ ⎡0.5 0.2 0.3 ⎤ ⎡0.36 0.27 0.37 ⎤

Then P2 = P ⋅ P = ⎢⎢ 0.1 0.4 0.5 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢0.1 0.4 0.5 ⎥⎥= ⎢
⎢0.24 0.33 0.43 ⎥
⎥
Remember!
⎢⎣ 0.3 0.3 0.4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.3 0.3 0.4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0.3 0.3 0.4 ⎥⎦
If E1 and E2 are independent
events then the probability
The second column of the product matrix P2 shows the probability of ending up downtown
of events E1 and E2 both
happening is after two trips, given the original starting point of either N, D or S. The Downtown to
P(E1 ∩ E2) = P(E1) ⋅ P(E2). Downtown probability is in the middle: 0.33, or 33%.

37
PROPERTIES OF MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
If A, B, C are any three matrices whose products are defined and k is any real number, then
the following properties hold.
1. A(BC) = (AB)C (associative)
2. A(B + C) = AB + AC and (A + B)C = AC + BC (distributive)
3. k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB)
Remark 1. In general, AB ≠ BA.
2. If AB = 0, we cannot conclude (in general) that either A = 0 or B = 0.
3. If AB = AC then it is not true in general that B = C. In other words, the cancellation laws
do not hold for matrix multiplication.
We can verify 2 and 3 as follows:
⎡1 2 ⎤ ⎡ 2 2⎤ ⎡0 0 ⎤
A=⎢ ⎥ , B= ⎢ ⎥ but AB = ⎢ ⎥.
⎣1 2 ⎦ ⎣ –1 –1⎦ ⎣0 0 ⎦
⎡ 1 0⎤ ⎡0 0 ⎤ ⎡0 0 ⎤
Also, for A = ⎢ ⎥ , B= ⎢ ⎥ and C = ⎢ ⎥ we have
⎣0 0 ⎦ ⎣0 2 ⎦ ⎣0 3 ⎦
⎡0 0 ⎤ ⎡0 0 ⎤
A⋅ B= ⎢ ⎥ and A ⋅ C = ⎢0 0 ⎥ but B ≠ C.
⎣ 0 0 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
4. If A is a square matrix and n ∈ ` then A0 = I, A1 = A, A2 = AA, A3 =AA2, ..., An = AAn – 1.
5. In = I
6. AI = IA
AI = A
I⋅I=I
⎡2 0 ⎤ ⎡0 1 ⎤
EXAMPLE 31 Given X = ⎢
⎣ 1 –1⎥
⎦
and Y = ⎢
⎣2 –3 ⎥ , find XY, YX, X and Y .
⎦
2 2
⎡ 2 0 ⎤ ⎡0 1⎤ ⎡ 2 ⋅ 0+0 ⋅ 2 2 ⋅1+0 ⋅(–3) ⎤ ⎡ 0 2⎤

Solution XY = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢2 –3 ⎥ = ⎢1 ⋅ 0+(–1) ⋅ 2 1 ⋅1+(–1) ⋅(–3) ⎥ = ⎢–2 4 ⎥
⎣ 1 –1⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡0 1⎤ ⎡ 2 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⋅ 2+1 ⋅1 0 ⋅ 0+1 ⋅(–1) ⎤ ⎡1 –1 ⎤
YX = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 –3⎦ ⎣ 1 –1⎦ ⎣2 ⋅ 2+(–3) ⋅1 2 ⋅0+(–3) ⋅(–1) ⎦ ⎣1 3 ⎦
⎡2 0 ⎤ ⎡2 0 ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⋅ 2+0 ⋅1 2 ⋅ 0+0 ⋅(–1) ⎤ ⎡4 0 ⎤
X2 = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 –1⎦ ⎣ 1 –1⎦ ⎣1 ⋅ 2+(–1) ⋅1 1 ⋅0+(–1) ⋅(–1) ⎦ ⎣1 1 ⎦
⎡0 1⎤ ⎡ 0 1⎤ ⎡ 0 ⋅ 0+1 ⋅ 2 0 ⋅1+1 ⋅(–3) ⎤ ⎡ 2 –3 ⎤
Y2 = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢2 –3 ⎥ = ⎢2 ⋅ 0+(–3) ⋅ 2 2 ⋅1+(–3) ⋅(–3) ⎥ = ⎢–6 11 ⎥
⎣ 2 –3 ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

38
⎡0 3⎤
EXAMPLE 32 A=⎢ ⎥ is given. Find A .
⎣2 0 ⎦
206
Solution First we calculate A2:
⎡0 3 ⎤ ⎡0 3 ⎤ ⎡6 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤
A 2 = AA = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ =6⎢ ⎥ = 6I.
Remember! ⎣2 0 ⎦ ⎣2 0 ⎦ ⎣0 6 ⎦ ⎣0 1⎦
⎡ 1 0⎤
1. I = ⎢ ⎥ is the Now A206 = (A2)103, and substituting A2 = 6I gives us (6I)103 = 6103 ⋅ I103.
⎣0 1⎦
identity matrix. ⎡6103 0 ⎤
2. I = I
n Finally, since I103 = I, we get 6103 ⋅ I = ⎢ 103 ⎥ . This is the required matrix.
⎣0 6 ⎦
⎡3 2 ⎤
EXAMPLE 33 Let A = ⎢ ⎥ . Find A .
⎣0 –3⎦
1986
Solution First we calculate A2:
⎡ 3 2 ⎤ ⎡3 2 ⎤ ⎡9 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤
A 2 = AA = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ =9⎢ ⎥ = 9I.
⎣0 –3 ⎦ ⎣0 –3 ⎦ ⎣0 9 ⎦ ⎣0 1⎦
Also, A1986 = (A2)993, and substituting A2 = 9I gives us (9I)993 = 9993 ⋅ I993.
⎡9993 0 ⎤
Since I993 = I, we get 9993 ⋅ I = ⎢ ⎥.
993
⎣0 9 ⎦
2
⎡ –4 x⎤ ⎡ –1 0 ⎤
EXAMPLE 34 Solve ⎢
⎣–x 4⎦
⎥ =⎢
⎣ 0 –1⎦
⎥.
Solution First expand the left-hand side:

2
⎡ –4 x⎤ ⎡ –4 x ⎤ ⎡ –4 x ⎤ ⎡16 – x2 0 ⎤
⎢–x 4⎥ = ⎢ – x 4 ⎥ ⎢– x 4 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 0 16 – x2 ⎦
Now equate corresponding entries:

16 – x2 = –1
x2 = 17
x = ±ò17. This is the solution.

39
Check Yourself 9
1. Calculate the products.
⎡ 1 –1 1⎤ ⎡2 ⎤
⎡ 3 1⎤ ⎡3 –6 ⎤
a. ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ b. ⎢ 1 1 1⎥ ⎢2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ –1 2 ⎦ ⎣5 7 ⎦ ⎢⎣ –1 1 –1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣2 ⎥⎦
⎡2 0 3 ⎤
2. Given ⎢ 1 0 1⎥ , find A2 and A3.
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 2 0 ⎥⎦
3. Given the function f(x) = x2 – 5x + 2I where I is the identity matrix,
⎡2 0⎤
calculate f(A) for A = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 4 5⎦ .
Answers
⎡ 2⎤
⎡14 –11⎤ ⎢ ⎥
1. a. ⎢ ⎥ b. ⎢ 6 ⎥
Remember! ⎣ 7 20 ⎦ ⎢ –2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡a b⎤
p⋅
⎢⎣ c d ⎥⎦ ⎡4 6 6 ⎤ ⎡14 12 18 ⎤
⎡ pa pb ⎤
2. A = 2 2 3 , A = ⎢ 6 6 8 ⎥
2⎢ ⎥ 3
=
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ pc pd ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ 2 0 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ 4 4 6 ⎦⎥
⎡ –4 0 ⎤
3. ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 8 2⎦
E. THE TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX

Definition transpose of a matrix
The transpose of a matrix is formed by writing its columns as rows. For example, if A is the
m × n matrix given by
⎡ a11 a12 a13 ... a1n ⎤
⎢a a22 a23 ... a2 n ⎥⎥
⎢ 21
⎢a a32 a33 ... a3 n ⎥
A = ⎢ 31 ⎥ (dimension m × n)
⎢ . . . . ⎥
⎢ . . . . ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ am1 am 2 am 3 ... amn ⎥⎦
then its transpose, written as A , is the n × m matrix given by
T
⎡ a11 a21 a31 ... am1 ⎤

⎢a a22 a32 ... am2 ⎥⎥
⎢ 12
⎢a a23 a33 ... am3 ⎥
A = ⎢ 13
T
⎥ (dimension n × m).
⎢ . . . . ⎥
⎢ . . . . ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ a1n a2 n a3 n ... amn ⎦⎥
40
Here is another example:
–5
7
1
⎡ –5 3 ⎤
⎡ –5 7 1⎤
A=⎢ ⎥ ⇒ A T = ⎢⎢ 7 6 ⎥⎥ .
⎣ 3 6 –2 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 –2 ⎥⎦
EXAMPLE 35 Write the transpose of each matrix.
⎡ 1 2 0⎤ ⎡ 0 1⎤
⎡2 ⎤
a. A = ⎢ ⎥ b. B = ⎢2 1 0 ⎥ c. C = ⎢2 4 ⎥
⎣8 ⎦ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 –1⎥⎦
⎡ 1 2 0⎤
⎡0 2 1⎤
Solution a. AT = [2 8] b. BT = ⎢2 1 0 ⎥ c. C T = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 1⎥⎦ ⎣ 1 4 –1⎦
Remark Notice that the square matrix in part b of this example is symmetric and its transpose is equal
to itself. This is true in general for all symmetric matrices. Conversely, we can say that a matrix
A is symmetric if A = AT. From this definition, it is clear that a symmetric matrix must be a
square matrix.
A = AT
symmetric matrix
A = –AT
antisymmetric matrix
⎡ cos θ sin θ ⎤
EXAMPLE 36 Given A = ⎢ ⎥ , find A ⋅ A .
⎣ – sin θ cos θ ⎦
T
Solution ⎡cos θ – sin θ ⎤ ⎡ cos θ sin θ ⎤ ⎡cos θ – sin θ ⎤

AT = ⎢ T
⎥ , so A ⋅ A = ⎢– sin θ cos θ ⎥ ⎢sin θ cos θ ⎥
⎣ sin θ cos θ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦
⎡ cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ – cos θ ⋅ sin θ+ sin θ ⋅cos θ ⎤
=⎢ ⎥.
⎣sin θ ⋅ cos θ – cos θ ⋅ sin θ sin 2 θ+ cos 2 θ ⎦
Since sin θ + cos θ = 1, we get
2 2
⎡ 1 0⎤
A ⋅ AT = ⎢ ⎥ = I.
⎣0 1⎦

41
PROPERTIES OF MATRIX TRANSPOSITION
1. If A and B are two matrices that can be added then
(A + B)T = AT + BT.
2. For any matrix A,
(AT)T = A.
3. For any matrix A and any real number c,
(cA)T = cAT.
4. If A and B are two matrices that can be multiplied then
(AB)T = BTAT.
Remark We can generalize properties 1 and 4 to cover the sum and product of any finite number of
matrices. For instance, the transpose of the sum of three matrices is given by
(A + B + C)T = AT + BT + CT,
and the transpose of the product of three matrices is given by
(ABC)T = CTBTAT.
EXAMPLE 37 Show that (AB)T = BTAT for the matrices

⎡ 2 1 –2 ⎤ ⎡3 1 ⎤
A = ⎢⎢ –1 0 3 ⎥⎥ and B= ⎢⎢2 –1 ⎥⎥ .
⎢⎣ 0 –2 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣3 0 ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 1 –2 ⎤ ⎡ 3 1⎤ ⎡ 2 1⎤
Solution AB = ⎢ –1 0 3 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢2 –1⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ 6 –1 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ 0 –2 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣–1 2 ⎥⎦
⎡2 6 –1⎤
( AB)T = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 –1 2 ⎦
⎡ 2 –1 0 ⎤
⎡3 2 3 ⎤ ⎢ ⎡2 6 –1 ⎤
T T
B A =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 1 0 2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ 1 –1 0 ⎦ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ 1 –1 2 ⎦
⎣ –2 3 1⎦
So (AB)T = BTAT as required.
EXAMPLE 38 Given the matrix

⎡ 1 3⎤
A = ⎢⎢ 0 –2 ⎥⎥ ,
⎢⎣ –2 –1⎥⎦
find the product AAT and show that it is symmetric.

42
Solution ⎡ 1 3⎤ ⎡10 –6 –5 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 1 0 –2 ⎤ ⎢
T
AA = ⎢ 0 –2 ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢–6 4 2 ⎥⎥.
3 –2 –1⎦
⎢⎣ –2 –1⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎢⎣–5 2 5 ⎥⎦
AAT is symmetric by the definition of a symmetric matrix.
⎡ 4 x+ 2⎤
EXAMPLE 39 If the matrix A = ⎢ ⎥ is a symmetric matrix, find x.
⎣2 x – 3 x +1 ⎦
Solution Since A is a symmetric matrix, AT = A. So

T
⎡ 4 x+ 2 ⎤ ⎡ 4 2x – 3 ⎤
⎢2 x – 3 x +1 ⎥ = ⎢ x + 2 x +1 ⎥ = A, i.e.
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
x + 2 = 2x – 3
x = 5.
EXAMPLE 40 Show that ABA is a symmetric matrix if A and B are both symmetric.
Solution Since A and B are symmetric matrices, AT = A and BT = B. So

(ABA)T = ATBTAT = ABA.
So ABA is a symmetric matrix.
Check Yourself 10
1. Find the transpose of each matrix.
⎡ 1⎤
⎡ 1 1⎤ ⎢–2 ⎥
⎡6 –1 4 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0⎤
A=⎢ ⎥ , B= ⎢ ⎥ , C = ⎢⎢ 2 –3 ⎥⎥ , D = ⎢ ⎥
⎣2 4 3 ⎦ ⎣–1 5 ⎦ ⎢ 1⎥
⎢⎣ –2 –1⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0⎦
⎡ –2 3 ⎤ ⎡3 0 ⎤ ⎡2 x – 1 3 ⎤
2. Given A = ⎢ ⎥ , B= ⎢ ⎥ and (A + B)T = ⎢ , find x and y.
⎣ 1 –3⎦ ⎣2 1⎦ ⎣ 3 y – 5 ⎥⎦
Answers
⎡ 6 2⎤
⎢ T ⎥ T ⎡ 1 –1⎤ ⎡1 2 –2 ⎤
1. A = ⎢ –1 4 ⎥ , B = ⎢ ⎥ , CT = ⎢ ⎥ , DT =[1 –2 1 0]
⎢⎣ 4 3 ⎥⎦ ⎣0 5 ⎦ ⎣1 –3 –1⎦
2. x = 1, y = 3

43
F. THE INVERSE OF A MATRIX
1. Definition
So far we have looked at some of the similarities between the algebra of real numbers and
the algebra of matrices. In this section we will extend the algebra of matrices to include the
solution of equations.
To begin, consider the real number equation ax = b. To solve this equation for x, we can
multiply both sides of the equation by
1
a –1 = (provided that a ≠ 0).
a
ax = b
(a ⋅ a) ⋅ x = a–1 ⋅ b
–1
1 ⋅ x = a–1 ⋅ b
x = a–1 ⋅ b.
The number a is called the multiplicative inverse of a, because, a–1a = 1 (the identity element
–1
for real number multiplication). We can define the multiplicative inverse of a matrix in a
similar way.
Definition inverse matrix, invertible matrix, singular matrix

Let A and B be two square matrices with dimension n × n. Then B is called the inverse of A if
AB = BA = In,
where In is the identity matrix of order n. We write A–1 to mean the inverse of a matrix A.
A matrix which has an inverse is called an invertible matrix. A matrix which does not have
an inverse is called a noninvertible (or singular) matrix.
Only square matrices have invenses: non-square matrices do not have inverses. To see this,
1
notice that if A is of dimension m × n and B is of dimension n × m (where n ≠ m), then the
A –1 ≠
A products AB and BA are of different dimensions and therefore could not be equal to each
other.
⎡ –1 2 ⎤ ⎡1 –2 ⎤
EXAMPLE 41 Given A = ⎢
⎣ –1 1⎦
⎥ and B = ⎢
⎣1 –1⎦
⎥, show that A and B are inverses of one another.
Solution First calculate the products:

⎡ –1 2 ⎤ ⎡1 –2 ⎤ ⎡–1+ 2 2 – 2 ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤
AB = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –1 1⎦ ⎣1 –1⎦ ⎣ –1+1 2 – 1 ⎦ ⎣0 1 ⎦
⎡1 –2 ⎤ ⎡ –1 2 ⎤ ⎡–1+ 2 2 – 2 ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤
BA = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥.
⎣1 –1⎦ ⎣ –1 1⎦ ⎣ –1+1 2 – 1 ⎦ ⎣0 1 ⎦
Both product matrices are the 2 × 2 identity matrix for multiplication, so AB = BA = I2 and
therefore A and B are inverses of one another.

44
⎡ 1 4⎤
EXAMPLE 42 Find the inverse of the matrix A = ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ –1 –3 ⎦
Solution To find the inverse of A, we need to solve the matrix equation AX = I for X.
⎡ 1 4⎤ ⎡a b⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤
⎢ –1 –3 ⎥ ⎢ c d ⎥ = ⎢0 1⎥ .
⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Multiplying A and X gives us
⎡ a + 4c b + 4d ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤
⎢ – a – 3c – b – 3d ⎥ = ⎢0 1⎥ .
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Equating the corresponding entries gives
a + 4c = 1 b + 4d = 0
and
–a – 3c = 0 –b – 3d = 1.
Solving these two systems, we find that a = –3, b = –3, c = 1 and d = 1.
So the inverse of A is
⎡ –3 –3 ⎤
X = A –1 = ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ 1 1⎦
As an exercise, check this result using matrix multiplication.
The following rule provides a simple way of calculating the inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix when it exists.
⎡a b⎤ ⎡x y ⎤
⎢ z t ⎥ be two matrices which satisfy A ⋅ A = I.
–1
Let A = ⎢ ⎥ and A =
–1
⎣ c d ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Multiplying these two matrices gives us
⎡ a b ⎤ ⎡ x y ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎡ax + bz ay + bt ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤
⎢ c d ⎥ ⎢ z t ⎥ = ⎢0 1 ⎥ , ⎢ cx + dz cy + dt ⎥ = ⎢0 1 ⎥.
⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
So ax + bz = 1 ay + bt = 0
,
cx + dz = 0 cy + dt = 1.
Solving these two systems gives us
d –b −c a
x= , y= , z= , t= , i.e.
ad – bc ad – bc ad − bc ad – bc
⎡ d –b ⎤
⎢ ad – bc ad – bc ⎥ Factor out 1
–1
A =⎢ ⎥. (ad – bc ≠ 0) to get
⎢ –c a ⎥ ad – bc
⎢⎣ ad – bc ad – bc ⎥⎦
1 ⎡ d – b⎤
A –1 = . This is the form of the inverse of [A]2×2.
ad – bc ⎢⎣ – c a ⎥⎦

45
Rule inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix
⎡a b⎤
A matrix A = ⎢ ⎥ is invertible if and only if ad – bc ≠ 0. If the inverse exists, it is given by
⎣ c d⎦
1 ⎡ d – b⎤
A –1 = ⋅⎢ .
ad – bc ⎣ – c a ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 5⎤
EXAMPLE 43 Find A–1 if A = ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ 2 3⎦
Solution Using the rule for the inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix, we get

⎡ 3 5⎤
–
–1 1 ⎡ 3 –5 ⎤ 1 ⎡ 3 –5 ⎤ ⎢ 7 7⎥
A = ⋅⎢ = ⋅ = ⎢ ⎥.
AA–1 = I = A–1A 1 ⋅ 3 – 5 ⋅ 2 ⎣ –2 1⎥⎦ –7 ⎢⎣–2 1⎥⎦ ⎢ 2 1⎥
–
⎢⎣ 7 7 ⎥⎦
⎡ 3x+1 6 ⎤
EXAMPLE 44 For which value of x does the matrix A = ⎢
⎣ 4 2 ⎥⎦
have no inverse?
Solution By the theorem for the inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix, A is singular when ad – bc = 0. So

(3x + 1) ⋅ 2 – (4 ⋅ 6) = 0
6x + 2 – 24 = 0
Remember! 6 x – 22 = 0
A singular matrix is a 11
matrix with no inverse. x= .
3
⎡ –3 m⎤
EXAMPLE 45 A=⎢
⎣ 2 – m 3 ⎥ is a matrix such that A = A . Find A.
⎦
–1
Solution Since A = A–1, AA–1 = AA = I.

⎡ –3 m ⎤ ⎡ –3 m ⎤ ⎡ 9+ 2m – m 2 –3m + 3m ⎤
So A ⋅ A = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 – m 3 ⎦⎣ 2 – m 3 2
⎦ ⎣ –6+ 3m +6 – 3 m 2 m – m +9 ⎦
⎡ – m2 + 2m +9 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0⎤
=⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥ , which gives us
⎣ 0 – m + 2 m +9 ⎦ ⎣0 1 ⎦
2
–m2 + 2m + 9 = 1, i.e, m2 – 2m – 8 = 0.
Solving the quadratic equation for m gives us m1 = 4 or m2 = –2.
⎡ –3 4 ⎤ ⎡ –3 –2 ⎤
If m1 = 4, A1 = ⎢ ⎥ . If m2 = –2, A2 = ⎢ ⎥ . So there are two possibilities for the matrix A.
⎣ –2 3 ⎦ ⎣ 4 3⎦
46
Check Yourself 11 ⎡ 1⎤
⎡4 6 ⎤ ⎢a 3⎥
1. Find A–1 if ⎢ ⎥ . 2. Let A = ⎢ ⎥ . Find a if A = A–1.
⎣ 1 2⎦ ⎢1 b⎥
⎢⎣ 12 ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 –4 ⎤
3. For which value of x does the matrix A = ⎢ have no inverse?
Answers ⎣ –3 log x ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 –3 ⎤
35
1. ⎢⎢ 1 ⎥ 2. ± 3. 106
– 2⎥ 6
There are three types of ⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥
elementary row
operation. Let Ri and Rj 2. Finding the Inverse of an n × n Matrix
be two rows of the Now we will look at a more general method for finding the inverse of an n × n matrix. If a
square matrices Ai and
Aj, respectively. Then square matrix has an inverse, we can calculate A–1 by using elementary row operations as
1. each element in a row follows.
can be changed with
Let A be an n × n (square) matrix.
another row:
R i ↔ R j. 1. Write the n × 2n matrix that consists of the given matrix A on the left and the identity
2. each element in a row matrix of dimension n on the right, to get ⎣⎡ A I ⎦⎤ .
n × 2n
can be multiplied by a
non-zero constant:
2. If possible, convert this new matrix into the form ⎡⎣I B ⎤⎦ by using elementary row
n × 2n
kRi ↔ Ri, where k ≠ 0. operations.

3. a row can be replaced 3. If it is not possible then A is not invertible. If it is possible then the new matrix is
by the sum of that row
⎡⎣I A −1 ⎤⎦ .
and a multiple of n × 2n
another row: 4. Check your working by multiplying to see that AA–1 = A–1A = I.
Ri + kRj ↔ Ri.
⎡ 1 –1 0 ⎤
EXAMPLE 46 ⎢
Find the inverse of the matrix A = ⎢ 1 0 –1⎥ .
⎥
⎢⎣ –6 2 3 ⎥⎦
Solution Let us use the method we have just seen.
⎡ 1 –1 0 1 0 0⎤ ⎡1 –1 0 1 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 0 –1 0 1 0 ⎥= ⎢0 1 –1 –1 1 0 ⎥ – R1 + R2 → R2
⎢⎣ –6 2 3 0 0 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 –4 3 6 0 1 ⎥⎦ 6 R1 + R3 → R3
⎡ 1 –1 0 1 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
= ⎢0 1 –1 –1 1 0 ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 –1 2 4 1⎥⎦ 4 R2 + R3 → R3
⎡1 –1 0 1 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
= ⎢0 1 0 –3 –3 –1 ⎥ – R3 + R2 → R2
⎢⎣0 0 –1 2 4 1⎥⎦
⎡1 0 0 –2 –3 –1 ⎤ R2 + R1 → R1
⎢ ⎥
= ⎢0 1 0 –3 –3 –1⎥
⎢⎣0 0 1 –2 –4 –1⎥⎦ – R3 → R3

47
⎡ –2 –3 –1⎤
–1⎢ ⎥
So A = ⎢ –3 –3 –1⎥
⎢⎣ –2 –4 –1⎥⎦
⎡ 1 –1 0 ⎤ ⎡–2 –3 –1 ⎤ ⎡1 0 0 ⎤
As an exercise, check that ⎢ 1 0 –1⎥ ⎢ –3 –3 –1 ⎥ = ⎢0 1 0 ⎥.
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ –6 2 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣–2 –4 –1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 4 3⎤
EXAMPLE 47 ⎢ ⎥
Find the inverse of the matrix A = ⎢ –1 –2 0 ⎥ .
⎢⎣ 2 2 3 ⎥⎦
Solution By the method we have seen,
⎡ 1 4 3 1 0 0⎤ ⎡1 4 3 1 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ –1 –2 0 0 1 0⎥= ⎢0 2 3 1 1 0⎥ R1 + R2 → R2
⎢⎣ 2 2 3 0 0 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 –6 –3 ⎥
–2 0 1 ⎦ (–2)R1 + R3 → R3
⎡1 4 3 1 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
= ⎢0 2 3 1 1 0⎥
⎢⎣0 0 6 1 3 1⎥⎦ 3R2 + R3 → R3
⎡ 1 3 1⎤ 1
⎢ – – ⎥ (– )R3 + R1 → R1
⎢1 4 0 2 2 2⎥ 2
⎢ 1 1 1⎥ 1
= ⎢0 2 0 – – ⎥. (– )R3 + R2 → R2
2 2 2 2
⎢0 0 6 ⎥
⎣⎢ 1 3 1⎦⎥
⎡ 1 1 1⎤
⎢ – – (–2)R2 + R1 → R1
⎢1 0 0 2 2 2 ⎥⎥
⎢ 1 1 1⎥
= ⎢0 2 0 – – ⎥
2 2 2
⎢0 0 6 ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 3 1⎥⎦
⎡ 1 1 1⎤
⎢ – –
⎢1 0 0 2 2 2 ⎥⎥
⎢ 1 1 1⎥ 1
= ⎢0 1 0 – – ⎥. ( )R2 → R2
4 4 4 2
⎢0 0 1 ⎥
⎢ 1 1 1⎥ 1
( )R3 → R3
⎣⎢ 6 2 6 ⎥⎦ 6

48
⎡ 1 1 1⎤
⎢– 2 –
2 2⎥
⎢ ⎥
1 1 1
After checking, we can see that A –1 = ⎢ – – ⎥.
⎢ 4 4 4⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 1 1⎥
⎣⎢ 6 2 6 ⎦⎥
3. Properties of Inverse Matrices

Let us now look at some important properties of inverse matrices.
Theorem
If A and B are two n × n invertible matrices then AB is invertible and (AB)–1 = B–1A–1.
Proof: (B–1A–1)(AB) = B–1(A–1A)B = B–1 ⋅ I ⋅ B = I

(AB)(B–1 A–1) = A(BB–1) A–1 = AIA–1 = I
Thus (AB)–1 = B–1A–1, as required.
⎡ 2 3⎤ ⎡ 1 –1⎤
EXAMPLE 48 Let A = ⎢ ⎥ and B =
⎣ 1 –1⎦
⎢0 –2 ⎥. Find (AB) .
⎣ ⎦
–1
1 ⎡ –2 1⎤ 1 ⎡–1 –3 ⎤
Solution Since (AB)–1 = B–1A–1, B–1 = and A –1 = . ⎢–1 2 ⎥ , we can calculate
–2 ⎢⎣ 0 1⎥⎦ –5 ⎣ ⎦
1 ⎡ –2 1⎤ ⎡ –1 –3 ⎤ 1 ⎡ 1 8⎤
B–1 A –1 = = =( AB)−1.
10 ⎣ 0 1⎦ ⎣ –1 2 ⎦ 10 ⎢⎣–1 2 ⎥⎦
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
PROPERTIES OF INVERSE MATRICES

If A is an invertible matrix, k is a positive integer and c is a scalar then the following
properties hold.
1
1. ( cA )–1 = A –1 , c ≠ 0 2. (A–1)–1 = A 3. (AT)–1 = (A–1)T
c
k –1
A –1 A–1
4. ( A ) = A–1 ... A
–1
k factors
1
Proof of 1 Since c is real number, the multiplicative inverse of c is ( c ≠ 0).
1 c
( c ⋅ A )–1 = c–1 ⋅ A –1 = A–1
c
1 –1
⋅ A = c ⋅ A = ( c ⋅ A )–1 .
–1 –1
Proof of 3 (A–1)T ⋅ ΑT = (A ⋅ A–1)T = IT= I

AT ⋅ (A–1)T =(A ⋅ A–1)T = IT = I
Proof of 4 (Ak)–1 = (A–1)k by property 3, and ( A −1 )k =

A −1 ⋅ A −1 ⋅
A −1 ... A
−1
.
k factors

49
⎡ 3 –1⎤
EXAMPLE 49 Verify the properties of inverse matrices for A = ⎢
⎣2 0 ⎦
⎥ , c = 2 and k = 2.
⎡ 3 –1⎤ 1 ⎡ 0 1⎤ 1 ⎡ 0 1 ⎤
Solution A=⎢ –1
⎥ and A = 3 ⋅ 0 – (–1) ⋅ 2 ⋅ ⎢–2 3 ⎥ = 2 ⋅ ⎢–2 3 ⎥.
⎣ 2 0 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
–1 –1
–1
⎛ ⎡ 3 –1⎤ ⎞ ⎡6 –2 ⎤ 1 ⎛ ⎡ 0 1⎤ ⎞ 1 –1
1. (2 A ) = ⎜ 2 ⎢ ⎥ ⎟ =⎢ ⎥ = ⎜⎢ ⎥ ⎟= A
⎝ ⎣2 0 ⎦ ⎠ ⎣4 0 ⎦ 4 ⎝ ⎣–2 3 ⎦ ⎠ 2
–1 –1
–1 –1
⎛ 1 ⎡ 0 1⎤ ⎞ ⎡ 0 1⎤ ⎛ 1 ⎡3 –1⎤ ⎞
2. ( A ) = ⎜ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟ =2⎢ ⎥ =2⎜ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟= A
⎝ 2 ⎣ –2 3 ⎦ ⎠ ⎣–2 3 ⎦ ⎝ 2 ⎣2 0 ⎦ ⎠
–1 –1
⎛ ⎡ 3 –1⎤ T ⎞ ⎛ ⎡ 3 2⎤⎞ 1 ⎡0 –2 ⎤ 1 ⎡0 –2 ⎤
3. ( A ) = ⎜ ⎢
⎜ –2 0 ⎥ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎢–1 0 ⎥ ⎟ = 0 – (–2) ⋅ ⎢1 3 ⎥ = 2 ⎢1 3 ⎥
T –1
⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎠ ⎝⎣ ⎦⎠ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
T
–1 T
⎛ 1 ⎡ 0 1⎤ ⎞ 1 ⎡0 –2 ⎤ T –1
(A ) = ⎜ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟ = ⎢ ⎥ =(A )
⎝ 2 ⎣ –2 3 ⎦ ⎠ 2 ⎣ 1 3 ⎦
–1
⎛ 3 –1⎤ 2 ⎞ ⎡7 –3 ⎤
–1
1 ⎡–2 3 ⎤
4. ( A2 )–1 = ⎜ ⎡⎢
⎜ 2 0 ⎥ ⎟⎟ = ⎢6 –2 ⎥ = 4 ⎢–6 7 ⎥
⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎠ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
2 2
⎛ ⎡ 3 –1⎤ –1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎡ 0 1⎤ ⎞ 1 ⎡–2 3 ⎤
( A ) = ⎜⎜ ⎢
–1 2
⎥ ⎟
⎟ = ⎜ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟ = ⎢ ⎥
⎝ ⎣2 0 ⎦ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎣–1 3 ⎦ ⎠ 4 ⎣–6 7 ⎦
Theorem
If C is an invertible matrix then the following properties hold:
1. If AC = BC then A = B (right cancellation property).
2. If CA = CB then A = B (left cancellation property).
Proof Multiplying AC by C–1 we have

1. (AC)C–1 = (BC)C–1
A(CC–1) = B(CC–1)
AI = BI
A = B, and
2. C (CA) = C–1(CB)
–1
(C–1C)A = (C–1C)B
IA = IB
A = B. This concludes the proof.

50
EXAMPLE 50 Solve the following system of equations by using matrices.
5m + 4n = 10
6m + 5n = 13
Solution Let us express the system as a matrix equation:

⎡5 4 ⎤ ⎡ m ⎤ ⎡10 ⎤
⎢6 5 ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ n ⎥ = ⎢13 ⎥ .
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
↓ ↓ ↓
A X B
Since (5 ⋅ 5) – (6 ⋅ 4) ≠ 0, A is invertible. Also, by the properties of matrix multiplication we have
AX = B
A–1A = I = AA–1 A–1(AX) = A–1B

AI = A = IA (A–1A)X = A–1B (multiplication is associative)
IX = A–1B
X = A–1B.
1 ⎡ 5 –4 ⎤ ⎡ 5 –4 ⎤
Finally, A –1 = = so
25 – 24 ⎢⎣ –6 5 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣–6 5 ⎥⎦
⎡ 5 –4 ⎤ ⎡10 ⎤ ⎡–2 ⎤ ⎡ m ⎤
X = A –1B = ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ –6 5 ⎦ ⎣13 ⎦ ⎣ 5 ⎦ ⎣ n ⎦
So the solution is m = –2 and n = 5.
Check Yourself 12
⎡3 7⎤ ⎡3 4 ⎤
1. Find the matrices (AB)–1 and B–1A–1 and show that (AB)–1=B–1A–1 for A = ⎢ ⎥ and B= ⎢2 3 ⎥.
⎣ 2 5 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
2. Solve the following system by using matrices.
x – 5y = 15
3x + 3y = 3
Answers
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ 10 7
1. ( AB)–1 = ⎢ 23 –33 ⎥ , B–1 A –1 = ⎢ 23 –33 ⎥ 2. x = , y= –
⎣ –16 23 ⎦ ⎣–16 23 ⎦ 3 3

51
CRYPTOGRAPHY
If you have ever tried to send a secret message to someone, you have probably used cryptography. Cryptography is the study
and use of special codes to send and receive messages. In the past, people used codes to communicate secret messages such
as information about battleships and soldiers in a war. Today, cryptography helps us to send messages around the world in
digital form, and also keeps private information about people and companies safe.
There are many different kinds of code. One kind involves the use of matrices and their inverse. For example, imagine that
you have a matrix B that contains a message you want to send in code. To encode the message, create a second invertible
matrix A so that the product AB exists, and then calculate AB. Make sure that the receiver of your message knows the inverse
matrix A–1, then you can send your message as AB. The receiver of the message then calculates the product of A–1 and your
message. Indeed, we have
A–1(AB) = B,
which is the original message.
The following table shows a simple code for sending messages. Each letter of the alphabet corresponds to a number: for
example, the letter R corresponds to 17 and N corresponds to 13. The space between two words corresponds to the number 26.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
P Q R S T U V W X Y Z – ? . ,
15 16 17 18 16 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Follow the steps to encode the word ESCAPE:

1) ESCAPE corresponds to the number sequence 4 18 2 0 15 4. We can write this as the 2 x 3 matrix B:
⎡4 18 2 ⎤
B= ⎢ ⎥.
⎣0 15 4 ⎦
⎡3 5⎤
2) Create an invertible matrix A such as A = ⎢ ⎥ to encode the message, then calculate the product AB:
⎣ 1 2⎦
⎡ 3 5 ⎤ ⎡4 18 2 ⎤ ⎡12 129 26 ⎤
AB = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥.
⎣ 1 2 ⎦ ⎣0 15 4 ⎦ ⎣ 4 48 10 ⎦
3) The encrypted message is 12 129 26 4 48 10.
To decode the message, repeat the steps but use the inverse of A. The inverse of our encoding matrix is
–1 1 ⎡ 2 –5 ⎤ ⎡ 2 –5 ⎤
A = = .
6 – 5 ⎢⎣ –1 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ –1 3 ⎥⎦
⎡12 129 26 ⎤
Write the encrypted message as the 2 x 3 matrix C = ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ 4 48 10 ⎦
Finally, multiply C by A–1 to get the original message:
–1 ⎡ 2 –5 ⎤ ⎡12 129 26 ⎤ ⎡4 18 2 ⎤
A C=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ –1 3 ⎦ ⎣ 4 48 10 ⎦ ⎣0 15 4 ⎦
The product gives the decoded message 4 18 2 0 15 4.
This product gives us the message 4 18 2 0 15 4, which corresponds to ESCAPE.
Notice that to make this process easy, both A and A–1 should contain only integers. We can use our knowledge of matrices to
generate A: if A is a matrix with determinant ±1 and only integer entries, then its inverse will also contain only integers.
Try encoding other short messages with matrices. Can you find any disadvantages of this encoding technique?
EXERCISES 1. 2
D. Operations on Matrices 6. Solve the matrix equations for a, b, c and d.
1. Calculate A + B, A – B, 2A and 2A – B for each ⎡ a – b 2b + c ⎤ ⎡5 1⎤
a. ⎢ ⎥= ⎢
pair of matrices. ⎣ c – 2b a + d ⎦ ⎣5 5 ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 2⎤ ⎡ –3 –2 ⎤ ⎡a + b b + c ⎤ ⎡ 0 3⎤
a. A = ⎢ , B= ⎢ b. ⎢ ⎥= ⎢
⎥
⎣ 2 1⎦ ⎣ 4 2⎦
⎥
⎣ a – c b – a ⎦ ⎣–3 2 ⎥⎦
⎡ 6 –1⎤ ⎡ 1 4⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 7. Calculate AB in each case.
b. A = ⎢ 2 4 ⎥ , B = ⎢ –1 5 ⎥
⎢⎣ –3 5 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 10 ⎥⎦ ⎡2 –1⎤ ⎡0 0 ⎤
a. A = ⎢ ⎥ , B= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 4⎦ ⎣3 –3 ⎦
⎡ 3⎤ ⎡ –4 ⎤ ⎡3 –1⎤ ⎡ 1 –3 ⎤
⎢ 2⎥ , B = ⎢ 6 ⎥ b. A = ⎢ ⎥ , B= ⎢
1⎥⎦
c. A = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ 1 3⎦ ⎣3
⎢⎣ –1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
⎡1 –1⎤ ⎡ 1 3⎤
c. A = ⎢ ⎥ , B = ⎢ –3 1⎥
⎣1 1⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 –1 7 ⎤ ⎡1 1 2 ⎤
2. Find c21 and c13 if C = 3A – 2B, ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
d. A = ⎢ 2 –1 8 ⎥ , B = ⎢2 1 1⎥⎥
⎡ 5 4 4⎤ ⎡ 1 2 –7 ⎤ ⎣⎢ 3 1 –1⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ 1 –3 2 ⎦⎥
A=⎢ ⎥ and B = ⎢ .
⎣ –3 1 2 ⎦ ⎣0 –5 1 ⎥⎦
⎡2 ⎤
e. A = [3 2 1], B = ⎢ 3⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢0 ⎦⎥
3. Find c23 and c32 if C = 2A + 5B,
⎡ 4 11 –9 ⎤ ⎡ 1 2 –7 ⎤ 8. Calculate AB in each case.
A = ⎢⎢ 0 3 2 ⎥⎥ and B = ⎢–4 6 11 ⎥.
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 2 1⎤ ⎡0 –1 0 ⎤
⎢⎣ –3 1 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣–6 4 9 ⎥⎦
a. A = ⎢ –2 4 ⎥ , B = ⎢⎢4 0 2 ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 6 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣8 –1 7 ⎥⎦
⎡0 –1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 2⎤
4. Solve the matrix equation for a, b and c. b. A = ⎢⎢4 0 2 ⎥⎥ , B = ⎢⎢–3 ⎥⎥
⎡a b⎤ ⎡ b c⎤ ⎡4 a⎤ ⎢⎣8 –1 7 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1⎥⎦
4⎢ ⎥ =2⎢ ⎥ +2 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ c –1⎦ ⎣ – a 1⎦ ⎣5 – a ⎦ ⎡ –1 3 ⎤
⎡ 1 2⎤
c. A = ⎢⎢ 4 –5 ⎥⎥ , B = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣0 7 ⎦
5. Find k, m and n if ⎡ 1 0 0⎤ ⎡3 0 0 ⎤
⎡ n k ⎤ ⎡ –4 3 ⎤ ⎡ 1 n⎤ d. A = ⎢0 4 0 ⎥ , B = ⎢⎢0 –1 0 ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 –3 ⎥ = ⎢ 2 –1⎥ + 2 ⎢ m k ⎥. ⎢⎣0 0 –2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 5 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

53
⎡0 0 –5 ⎤ ⎡6 –11 4 ⎤ E. The Transpose of a Matrix
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 12. Write the transpose of each matrix.
e. A = ⎢0 0 –3 ⎥ , B = ⎢8 16 4 ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 7 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 0 ⎥⎦ ⎡ 1⎤ ⎡ 3 2 1⎤
⎡ 6⎤ a. A = ⎢2 ⎥ b. B = ⎢0 1 5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ –2 ⎥ ⎢⎣ 3⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 –1 2 ⎥⎦
f. A = ⎢ ⎥ , B =[10 12]
⎢ 1⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 2 3⎤
⎣ 6⎦ ⎡7 0⎤
c. C = ⎢ 5 2 ⎥ d. D = ⎢ ⎥
⎡ –2 ⎤ ⎡1 6⎤ ⎢ ⎥
g. A = ⎢ 1 0 3 ⎢⎣ 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎣2 7⎦
⎥ , B = ⎢4 2 ⎥
⎣6 13 8 –17 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡x – 2 6 y ⎤
⎢ –6 0 –1⎥
13. If A = ⎢ ⎥ and A = –A, find y.
T
9. Compute the given power of A for the matrix ⎢⎣ x + 2 1 0 ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎤
A = ⎢ 1 0⎥ .
⎣0 –1⎦
a. A29 b. A30
⎡ –2 b ⎤
14. A is a matrix with A = ⎢ ⎥ , b > 0 and
⎣ a 1⎦
⎡8 6 ⎤
A ⋅ AT = ⎢ ⎥ . Find k.
⎣6 k ⎦
10. Solve each matrix equation for A.

⎡ 1 2⎤ ⎡1 0⎤ ⎡2 –1⎤ ⎡1 0⎤
a. ⎢ ⎥ A=⎢ ⎥ b. ⎢ ⎥ A=⎢ ⎥
⎣3 5 ⎦ ⎣0 1⎦ ⎣ 3 –2 ⎦ ⎣0 1⎦
⎡4 –2 ⎤ ⎡x 8 ⎤ ⎡1 3 ⎤
15. A = ⎢ ⎥ , B=⎢ ⎥ ,C=⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 3⎦ ⎣4 y⎦ ⎣2 1⎦
and A ⋅ C = B + CT are given. Find x + y.
11. Verify that AB = BA for the matrices

⎡ cos α – sin α ⎤ ⎡cos β – sin β ⎤ ⎡ 1 b⎤ ⎡ 1 4⎤
A=⎢ and B = ⎢ sin β cos β ⎥. 16. If A = ⎢ ⎥
T
and A = ⎢ ⎥ , find a – b.
⎣ sin α cos α ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ a 3⎦ ⎣ –1 3⎦

54
F. The Inverse of a Matrix 19. Find (AB)–1 and (AT)–1 for the given matrices.
17. Show that B is the inverse of A in each case. ⎡ 2 1⎤ ⎡2 1⎤
a. A –1 = ⎢ ⎥ , B–1 = ⎢ ⎥
⎡ –2 1⎤ ⎣ –1 2 ⎦ ⎣1 0⎦
⎡ 1 2⎤ ⎢ 3
a. A = ⎢ ⎥ , B =
⎢ 1⎥ ⎡ 2 1⎤ ⎡5 2⎤
⎣3 4⎦ – ⎥ ⎢– 7 ⎥ ⎢
⎣⎢ 2 2 ⎦⎥ –1 7 11 11 ⎥
b. A = ⎢ ⎥ , B–1 = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 3 2⎥ ⎢3 – 1⎥
⎡ 2 –17 11⎤ ⎡1 1 2 ⎤ ⎢⎣ 7 7 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣11 11 ⎥⎦
b. A = ⎢ –1 11 –7 ⎥ , B = ⎢⎢2 4 –3 ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎡ 1 –4 2 ⎤ ⎡ 6 5 –3 ⎤
⎢⎣ 0 3 –2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣3 6 –5 ⎥⎦ –1 ⎢0 ⎥ , B–1 = ⎢–2 4 –1 ⎥
c. A = ⎢ 1 3 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎡1 ⎤ ⎢⎣4 2 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 3 4 ⎥⎦
⎢2 0 0⎥
⎡ 2 0 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
1
c. A = ⎢ 0 –3 0 ⎥ , B = ⎢ 0 – 0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 3 ⎥
⎣⎢ 0 0 4 ⎦⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 1⎤
⎢0 0
1⎥ ⎢x – 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦ 20. A = ⎢ ⎥ and A = A–1. Find x + y.
⎢y 1⎥
⎡0 1 0⎤ ⎡ 3 1 2⎤ ⎢⎣ 5 ⎥⎦
d. A = ⎢ 1 1 2 ⎥ , B = ⎢⎢ 1 0 0 ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢0 −2 −1⎦⎥ ⎣⎢−2 0 −1⎦⎥

⎡ 2 – x⎤
21. A = ⎢ ⎥ and 5A = A . Find y.
–1 T
⎣ x y ⎦
⎡x 2⎤
22. A = ⎢ ⎥ and A ⋅ A = A . Find x ⋅ y.
–1 2
⎣ y –2 ⎦
⎡1 3 5 ⎤
⎢ 7 ⎥⎥ is not invertible. Find a.
23. A = ⎢ 3 0
⎣⎢ 1 3 a – 9 ⎦⎥
24. Show that if A is a square matrix that satisfies the

18. Find the inverse of each matrix, if it exists.
equation A2 – 2A + I = 0 then A–1 = 2I – A.
⎡ 1 2⎤ ⎡ 1 –2 ⎤ ⎡2 4 ⎤
a. ⎢ ⎥ b. ⎢ ⎥ c. ⎢ ⎥
⎣3 7 ⎦ ⎣2 –3 ⎦ ⎣4 8 ⎦
⎡ 1 1 1⎤ ⎡ 1 2 2⎤ 25. Given that A and B are square matrices of the
⎡11 1⎤ ⎢ 3 7 9⎥
d. ⎢ ⎥ e. ⎢3 5 4 ⎥ f.
same order, prove that
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –1 0 ⎦ ⎢⎣3 6 5 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ –1 –4 –7 ⎥⎦
(A + B)2 ≠ A2 + (2 ⋅ A ⋅ B) + B2.

55
CHAPTER SUMMARY
1. Systems of Linear Equations 2. Matrices
• A linear equation in the n variables x1, x2, x3, ..., xn is an • A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers in
equation that can be written in the form a1x1 + a2x2 + rows and columns.
a3x3 + ... + anxn = b, where a1, a2, a3, ..., an and b are real
⎡ a11 a12 a13 ... a1n ⎤ ⎫
numbers. a1, ..., an are called coefficients, b is called the ⎢a ⎥⎪
constant term, and x1, x2, x3, ..., xn are variables. ⎢ 21 a22 a23 ... a2 n ⎥ ⎪
⎢ a31 a32 a33 ... a3 n ⎥ ⎪⎬ m rows
• A system of linear equations can have no solution, exactly ⎢ . . . . ⎥⎪
one solution, or infinitely many solutions. ⎢ .. .
.
.
.
.
. ⎥⎪
⎢ ⎥
• A set of m equations which are all linear in the same n am1 am 2 am 3 ... amn ⎦ ⎪⎭
⎣
variables is called a system of m linear equations in n
variables (or n unknowns). n columns
a11x1 + a12x2 + a13x3 + ... + a1nxn = b1 • The horizontal lines of numbers in a matrix are called rows
and the vertical lines are called columns. The number of
a21x1 + a22x2 + a23x3 + ... + a2nxn = b2 rows and the number of columns determine the
..
. dimensions (also called the order) of the matrix. A matrix
am1x1 + am2x2 + am3x3 + ... + amnxn = bm with m rows and n columns has dimensions m × n and is
called an m × n (read as ‘m by n’) matrix. The number of
• There are three ways to simplify a linear system: rows is always given first. Each number in a matrix is
1. Interchange two equations. called an entry of the matrix. aij means the entry in the ith
2. Multiply an equation by a non-zero constant. row and jth column of the matrix A.
• If each entry of a matrix is a real number then the matrix
3. Add a multiple of an equation to another equation.
is called a real matrix.
Each operation on a system of linear equations produces • A square matrix is a matrix which has the same number
an equivalent system, and equivalent systems have the of rows and columns.
same solution set.
• A zero matrix is a matrix whose entries are all zeros. 0
• A system of linear equations is in row echelon form if the means a zero matrix.
leading coefficient (i.e. the first non-zero coefficient from • A square matrix whose main diagonal elements (from top
the left) of an equation is always strictly to the right of the left to bottom right) are 1 and whose other entries are all
leading coefficient of the equation above it. zero is called an identity matrix. I means the identity
• A system of linear equations is in reduced row echelon form matrix.
if in addition every leading coefficient is 1, and this is the • A square matrix in which all the entries except the main
only non-zero coefficient for that variable in the system. diagonal entries are zero is called a diagonal matrix.
• A linear system is consistent if it has either one solution • A square matrix whose main diagonal elements are all
or infinitely many solutions. A system is inconsistent if it equal (a11 = a22 = a33 ...) and whose other entries are all
has no solution. zero is called a scalar matrix.
• A linear system of the form • If all the entries in a square matrix are symmetric with
respect to the main diagonal then the matrix is called a
a11x1 + a12x2 + a13x3 + ... + a1nxn = 0
symmetric matrix.
a21x1 + a22x2 + a23x3 + ... + a2nxn = 0 • If the entries on the main diagonal of a square matrix are
..
. all zero and the sums of the symmetric entries with
an1x1 + an2x2 + an3x3 + ... + annxn = 0 respect to the main diagonal are zero then this matrix is
(with constant terms all equal to zero) is called a called an antisymmetric matrix.
homogeneous linear system. Every homogeneous linear • If all the entries either above or below the main diagonal of
system has at least one solution (0, 0, 0, ..., 0), called the a square matrix are zero then the matrix is called a
trivial solution. triangular matrix.
56
• A matrix which shows the paths of communication • Properties of Matrix Multiplication
between different things, places or points is called a
If A, B and C are any three matrices whose products are
communication matrix.
defined and k is any real number, then
• Two matrices are called equal matrices if they have the
1. A(BC) = (AB)C
same dimension and their corresponding entries are
equal. A = B means that A and B are equal. 2. A(B + C) = AB + AC and (A + B)C = AC + BC
• To add or subtract two matrices A and B, we simply add 3. k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB).
or subtract corresponding entries.
• In general, AB ≠ BA.
A + B
• If the product A ⋅ B = 0, we cannot conclude (in
general) that either A = 0 or B = 0.
⎡ a b ⎤ ⎡ e f ⎤ ⎡( a + e ) ( b + f ) ⎤ • If A ⋅B = A ⋅ C then it is not true in general that B = C.
⎢ c d ⎥ + ⎢ g h ⎥ = ⎢( c + g) ( d + h) ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ In other words, the cancellation laws do not hold for
matrix multiplication.
• Adddition and subtraction are not defined for matrices
with different dimensions. • If A is a square matrix and n ∈ ` then A0 = I, A1 = A, A2
= A ⋅ A, A3 = A ⋅ A2, ..., An =A ⋅ An – 1.
• Properties of Matrix Addition
For any three real m × n matrices A, B and C, the following • In = I
properties hold. • A⋅I=I⋅A
Closure property : A + B is also an m × n matrix.
• The transpose of a matrix is formed by writing its
Commutative property : A + B = B + A columns as rows.
Associative property : A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
• Properties of Matrix Transposition
Additive identity :A+0=A
Additive inverse : A + (–A) = (–A) + A = 0 1. If A and B are two matrices that can be added then
(A + B)T = AT + BT.
• To multiply a matrix by a real number (called a scalar),
we multiply each entry in the matrix by the scalar. This 2. For any matrix A, (AT)T = A.
operation is called scalar multiplication.
3. For any matrix A and any real number c, (cA)T = cAT.
⎡ a b ⎤ ⎡c ⋅ a c ⋅ b ⎤
c⋅ ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ 4. If A and B are two matrices that can be multiplied then
⎣ b d⎦ ⎣c ⋅ b c ⋅ d ⎦ (AB)T = BTAT.
• If A is an m × n matrix and B is an n × p matrix then the
product AB is an m × p matrix. • If A and B are two square matrices with dimension n × n
then B is called the inverse of A if
A ⋅ B = AB AB = BA = In,
m×n n×p m×p where In is the identity matrix of order n. We write A–1 to
mean the inverse of a matrix A.
equal
⎡a b⎤
dimensions of AB • If A = ⎢ ⎥ then A is invertible if and only if ad – bc ≠ 0.
⎣ c d⎦
jth column of B If the inverse exists, it is given by
ith row of A aij = (1 ⋅ 1)+(3 ⋅ 4)+(2 ⋅ 2) = 17
1 ⎡ d – b⎤
A –1 = ⎢ ⎥.
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ad − bc ⎣ – c a ⎦
⎢1 3 2 ⎥⋅⎢ 4 ⎥=⎢ 17 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Chapter Summary
57
• Finding the Inverse of a Matrix • What do we mean if we say that a system of linear
Let A be an n × n (square) matrix. equations is consistent?
1. Write the n × 2n matrix that consists of the given • Is the system given below in reduced row echelon form?
matrix A on the left and the identity matrix of
x + 2y – z = 1
dimension n on the right, to get [A|I]n × 2n.
y+z=3
2. If possible, convert this new matrix into the form
[I|B]n × 2n by using elementary row operations. z=1
3. If it is not possible, then A is not invertible. If it is • Does every system of linear equations have a solution?
possible then the new matrix is [I|A–1]n × 2n.
• What does the dimension of a matrix mean?
• Properties of Inverse Matrices • Is a zero matrix always square?
If A is an invertible matrix, k is a positive integer and c is
a scalar, then • Name nine basic types of matrix.
1 ⎡0 ⎤
1. (cA )–1 = A –1, c ≠ 0 • Is ⎢ ⎥ a zero matrix?
c
⎣0 ⎦
2. (A–1)–1 = A
⎡ 1 2⎤
3. (AT)–1 = (A–1)T • Is ⎢ ⎥ a square matrix?
⎣ –1 0 ⎦
k –1
A –1 A–1
4. (A ) = A–1...A
–1
.
k factors
• What is the difference between an upper triangular
matrix and a lower triangular matrix?
• If A and B are two n × n invertible matrices then AB is
also invertible and (AB)–1 = B–1A–1. • Can we add a 2 × 3 matrix to 3 × 2 matrix?
• If C is an invertible matrix then the following properties • Two matrices A and B have dimensions m × n and
hold:
m × p. If the product AB exists, what can you say about m
1. If AC = BC then A = B (right cancellation property). and n?
2. If CA = CB then A = B (left cancellation property). • Is AB = BA true for all matrices A and B?
⎡0 1⎤
• Is ⎢ ⎥ the identity matrix?
Concept Check ⎣ 1 0⎦
• Is (AB)T = ATBT true for all A and B?
• What is a linear equation?
• Is x + y + (x ⋅ y) = 1 a linear equation? • Is a matrix ever equal to its transpose? Give an example
to support your answer.
• At least how many linear equations do we need in order
to find the solution set of a system in p variables? • What is a symmetric matrix? What is an antisymmetric
• Name two key methods for solving a system of matrix?
linear equations.
• Does every matrix have an inverse?
• What is a homogeneous linear system? What is a trivial
solution?
⎡a b⎤
• What is the inverse of the matrix A = ⎢ ⎥?
• Can a non-homogeneous system have a trivial solution? ⎣ c d⎦
• What are the basic operations which we can use to • If A and B are both invertible matrices, is it true that
simplify a linear system? (AB)–1 = B–1A–1?
58
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1A
1. The following matrix shows the results of a recent ⎡a 0 ⎤
poll. 5. A = ⎢ ⎥ is a zero matrix. What is a + b?
⎣0 1 – b ⎦
For Against
A) –1 B) 0 C) 1 D) 2 E) 4
Proposition 1 ⎡1553 771 ⎤
Proposition 2 ⎢⎢ 689 1633 ⎥⎥
Proposition 3 ⎢⎣ 2088 229 ⎥⎦
Given these results, which conclusion is false?
A) There were 771 votes against Proposition 1.
B) More people voted against Proposition 1 than
voted for Proposition 2. ⎡ 1 2⎤ ⎡ b a⎤
6. A = ⎢ ⎥ and B = ⎢ ⎥ are equal. Find
⎣ –3 a ⎦ ⎣–3 c ⎦
C) Proposition 2 has little chance of passing.
a + b + c.
D) More people voted for Proposition 1 than for
Proposition 3. A) –1 B) 1 C) 2 D) 4 E) 5
E) There were 229 votes against Proposition 3.
⎡4 –1⎤ ⎡–6 5 ⎤
2. ⎢ + =?
⎣7 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ –3 –1⎥⎦
⎡ 1 –2 ⎤ ⎡ a 1 ⎤ ⎡2 –1⎤
⎡ –2 1⎤ ⎡4 –2 ⎤ ⎡ –2 4 ⎤ 7. If ⎢ + = , what is a + b?
A) ⎢ ⎥ B) ⎢ ⎥ C) ⎢ ⎥ ⎣0 b ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣3 –1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣3 3 ⎥⎦
⎣ 4 1⎦ ⎣4 1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 4⎦
A) 5 B) 1 C) 3 D) 4 E) 0
⎡ 4 1⎤ ⎡ –2 4 ⎤
D) ⎢ ⎥ E) ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –1 4 ⎦ ⎣ 4 1⎦
⎡2 –1⎤
3. If A = ⎢ ⎥ , what is (2 ⋅ a12) + (3 ⋅ a22)?
⎣1 3 ⎦
⎡ sin x ⎤
A) –4 B) –2 C) 3 D) 5 E) 7 8. What is [sin x cos x] ⋅ ⎢ ⎥?
⎣ cos x⎦
⎡ sin x ⎤
A) [cos x sin x] B) ⎢ ⎥ C) [1]
⎡ –2 1 –1⎤ ⎣cos x ⎦
4. If A = ⎢ ⎥ , what is a23 – (2 ⋅ a12) + a11?
⎣ 1 0 2⎦ ⎡1 1⎤
D) ⎢ ⎥ E) [–1]
A) 5 B) 3 C) 1 D) –2 E) –3 ⎣1 1⎦
Chapter Review Test 1A

59
⎡ 6 4⎤ ⎡ a⎤
⎡ 1 5 6⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢2⎥
9. What is ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ –2 0 ⎥ ?
⎣2 –4 0 ⎦ ⎢ 8 0 ⎥ 12. If [1 2 a 5]⋅ ⎢ ⎥ =[0], what is a?
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ 3⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎡ 44 4 ⎤ ⎡ 4 44 ⎤ ⎡44 4 ⎤ ⎣4⎦
A) ⎢ ⎥ B) ⎢ ⎥ C) ⎢ ⎥
⎣20 8 ⎦ ⎣20 8 ⎦ ⎣ 8 20 ⎦
A) –6 B) –4 C) 3 D) 4 E) 5
⎡20 8 ⎤ ⎡ 4 20 ⎤
D) ⎢ ⎥ E) ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 4 44 ⎦ ⎣44 4 ⎦
⎡ 1 2⎤ ⎡1 3 ⎤
13. A = ⎢ ⎥ , B= ⎢ ⎥ and C = A ⋅ B are given.
⎣ –1 0 ⎦ ⎣4 0 ⎦
What is CT?
⎡1 3⎤ ⎡9 –1⎤ ⎡ –2 4 ⎤
A) ⎢ ⎥ B) ⎢ ⎥ C) ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –1 –3 ⎦ ⎣3 –3 ⎦ ⎣ 1 4⎦
⎡ 9 –3 ⎤ ⎡ –2 4 ⎤
D) ⎢ ⎥ E) ⎢ ⎥
⎡ 1 1⎤ ⎣ –1 3 ⎦ ⎣ 4 1⎦
10. If A = ⎢ ⎥ , what is A ?
207
⎣0 1⎦
⎡0 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 1⎤ ⎡ 1 207 ⎤
A) ⎢ ⎥ B) ⎢ ⎥ C) ⎢
⎣1 0 ⎦ ⎣0 1⎦ ⎣0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎡3 a ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ ⎡–1⎤
14. If ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ , what is a?
⎡1 1 ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎣2 a +1⎦ ⎣ x ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
D) ⎢ ⎥ E) ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 207 ⎦ ⎣0 207 ⎦ A) –3 B) 1 C) 2 D) –1 E) 3
⎡ x 1⎤
15. A = ⎢ ⎥ and A ⋅ A = A . What is y – x?
–1 2
⎣ y 1⎦
A) –5 B) –4 C) –3 D) –2 E) –1
⎡5 –3 ⎤
11. What is the inverse of ⎢ ?
⎣ –2 1 ⎥⎦
3x + y = 3
⎡ –5 –3 ⎤ ⎡ –1 –3 ⎤ ⎡ –1 3⎤ 16. For which values of k does the system
A) ⎢ ⎥ B) ⎢ ⎥ C) ⎢ ⎥ kx + y = k
⎣ 2 –1⎦ ⎣ –2 –5 ⎦ ⎣ 2 –5 ⎦
have infinitely many solutions?
⎡ 1 3⎤ ⎡ 1 2⎤
D) ⎢ ⎥ E) ⎢ ⎥
⎣2 5 ⎦ ⎣3 4 ⎦ A) R B) R–{–3} C) R–{3} D) –3 E) 3

60
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1B
1. Which matrix has no inverse? ⎡a 0 ⎤
5. A = ⎢ ⎥ is an identity matrix. Find
⎣ b 2 – c⎦
⎡6 0 ⎤ ⎡4 6⎤ ⎡ –2 4 ⎤ a + b + c.
A) ⎢ ⎥ B) ⎢ ⎥ C) ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 5 ⎦ ⎣ –6 –9 ⎦ ⎣ 3 6⎦ A) –1 B) 0 C) 1 D) 2 E) 4
⎡ 1 1⎤ ⎡ –4 4 ⎤
D) ⎢ ⎥ E) ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 1⎦ ⎣ 2 1⎦
⎡2 –1⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤
2. Find ⎢ ⎥ +2 ⋅ ⎢ ⎥.
⎣1 2⎦ ⎣1 –1⎦
⎡ –2 1⎤ ⎡4 2 ⎤ ⎡ –2 4 ⎤
A) ⎢ ⎥ B) ⎢ ⎥ C) ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 4 1⎦ ⎣3 1⎦ ⎣ 1 4⎦ ⎡1 1⎤
6. If A = ⎢ ⎥ and f(x) = x + x – 2, what is f(A)?
2
⎣ 4 2 ⎦
⎡ 4 1⎤ ⎡4 –1⎤
D) ⎢ ⎥ E) ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –1 4 ⎦ ⎣3 0 ⎦
⎡1 4⎤ ⎡4 –2 ⎤ ⎡2 4 ⎤
A) ⎢ ⎥ B) ⎢ ⎥ C) ⎢ ⎥
⎣4 5 ⎦ ⎣4 1 ⎦ ⎣1 5 ⎦
⎡ 4 4⎤ ⎡1 2 ⎤
D) ⎢ ⎥ E) ⎢ ⎥
⎡ 4 2
1 0⎤ ⎣16 8 ⎦ ⎣2 3 ⎦
3. If ⎢ –5 2 0 8 ⎥⎥ , what is a11 ⋅ a23 – a13?
⎢
⎢⎣ 2 –3 8 1⎥⎦
A) 32 B) 24 C) –1 D) 0 E) –2
4. What are the values of x and y in this matrix

equation?
⎡3 –2 ⎤
⎡ –2 –1⎤ ⎡–16 –8 ⎤ 1 2 ⎢ 5 ⎥ , what is a?
2x ⋅ ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ 7. If A = ⎡⎢ ⎤
⎥ and A −1 = ⎢ 5 ⎥
⎣ –10 5 ⎦ ⎣ y 40 ⎦ ⎣ –1 a ⎦ ⎢1 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ 5 5 ⎥⎦
A) 4, –80 B) –4, –80 C) 4, 80
D) 8, –80 E) 2, –40 A) 5 B) 1 C) 3 D) 4 E) 0
Chapter Review Test 1B

61
⎡3 8⎤ ⎡a b ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤
8. If A = ⎢ ⎥ and A –1 = ⎢ ⎥, what is 12. If A = ⎢ ⎥ , what is A ?
2
⎣2 5 ⎦ ⎣c d ⎦ ⎣1 –1⎦
a + b + c + d?
⎡0 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 1⎤ ⎡1 2 ⎤
A) –18 B) –8 C) 2 D) 8 E) 18 A) ⎢ ⎥ B) ⎢ ⎥ C) ⎢ ⎥
⎣1 0 ⎦ ⎣0 1⎦ ⎣0 1 ⎦
⎡ –1 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤
D) ⎢ ⎥ E) ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 1⎦ ⎣0 1 ⎦
⎡1 –2 ⎤ ⎡4 –3 ⎤ ⎡ –1 –1⎤
9. What is ⎢ ? 13. If A = ⎢ ⎥ and A = k ⋅ A, what is k?
4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 2 ⎥⎦
2
⎣3 ⎣3 3⎦
A) –2 B) –1 C) 0 D) 1 E) 2
⎡1 2⎤ ⎡ 1 –7 ⎤ ⎡16 –7 ⎤
A) ⎢ ⎥ B) ⎢ ⎥ C) ⎢ ⎥
⎣16 –7 ⎦ ⎣2 16 ⎦ ⎣ 2 –1⎦
⎡ 2 –7 ⎤ ⎡ 4 20 ⎤ ⎡3 x 2⎤
D) ⎢ ⎥ E) ⎢ ⎥
⎣16 –1 ⎦ ⎣16 –1 ⎦ 14. If A = ⎢⎢ –1 5 4 ⎥⎥ and AT = A, what is (x, y, z)?
⎢⎣ y z 1 ⎥⎦
A) (1, –2, 4) B) (–1, 2, 4) C) (1, 2, 4)

D) (–1, 2, 0) E) (–1, 0, –1)
⎡ –1 0 ⎤
10. If A = ⎢ ⎥ , what is A ?
11
⎣ 1 1⎦
⎡ 4 a⎤
15. A = ⎢ ⎥ and A ⋅ A = A are given. What is
–1 2
⎡0 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 1⎤ ⎡1 2 ⎤ ⎣ −4 b ⎦
A) ⎢ ⎥ B) ⎢ ⎥ C) ⎢ ⎥ a + b?
⎣1 0 ⎦ ⎣0 1⎦ ⎣0 1 ⎦
1 1 1
⎡ –1 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤ A) – B) – C) –
D) ⎢ ⎥ E) ⎢ 8 4 2
⎥
⎣ 1 1⎦ ⎣0 1 ⎦ 31 21
D) E)
4 4
2x + ky + z = 11
⎡1 3⎤ ⎡8 –1⎤ 16. Find k if the system x – 2y + 2z = 3 has a
11. A = ⎢ ⎥ and A T + A –1 = ⎢ ⎥ are given.
⎣2 a⎦ ⎣1 8 ⎦ –2x + y – z = –3
What is a? unique solution.
A) 7 B) 6 C) 5 D) 4 E) 3 A) R B) R–{1} C) R–{–1} D) –1 E) 1

62
A. THE DETERMINANT OF A MATRIX
Every square matrix can be assigned a real number which is called the determinant of the
matrix. This number is useful when we are calculating the inverse of a matrix or solving
a system of linear equations. We write det A, |A|, D or ∆ to mean the determinant of a square
matrix A.
Only square matrices
have determinants.
1. Determinants of 1×1 and 2×2 Matrices
Definition determinant of a 1×1 matrix
The determinant of a 1×1 matrix [a] is a.
⎡1⎤ 1 1
For example, det [6] = |6| = 6, det [–5] = |5| = –5 and det ⎢ ⎥ = = .
[A] is a matrix. |A| is a ⎣3⎦ 3 3
determinant.
Definition determinant of a 2×2 matrix
⎡a b ⎤
The determinant of a 2×2 matrix ⎢ ⎥ is ad – bc.
⎣ c d⎦
We can remember this rule visually like this:
+ –
a b
= ad – bc.
c d
Look some examples of the determinants of 2×2 matrices:

⎡1 2⎤
A=⎢ , det A = |A| = (1 ⋅ 4) – (2 ⋅ 3) = –2
⎣3 4 ⎥⎦
⎡2 3⎤
B= ⎢ , det B = |B| = (2 ⋅ 7) – (3 ⋅ 5) = –1
⎣5 7 ⎥⎦
⎡5 –3 ⎤
C=⎢ , det C = |C| = [5 ⋅ (–2)] – [(–3) ⋅ 6] = 8.
⎣6 –2 ⎥⎦
Notice that the determinant of a matrix can be either positive or negative.

64
EXAMPLE 1 Evaluate the determinant of each matrix.
⎡1 2 ⎤ ⎡a 0 ⎤ ⎡2 – k –3 ⎤
a. ⎢ ⎥ b. ⎢ ⎥ c. ⎢
⎣4 7 ⎦ ⎣0 a ⎦ ⎣ k 3 ⎥⎦
⎡1 2 ⎤ ⎡a 0 ⎤ 2
Solution a. ⎢ ⎥ = (1 ⋅ 7) – (2 ⋅ 4) = –1 b. ⎢ ⎥ = ( a ⋅ a) – (0 ⋅ 0) = a
⎣4 7 ⎦ ⎣0 a ⎦
⎡2 – k –3 ⎤
c. ⎢ = (2 – k) ⋅ 3 – (–3) ⋅ k = 6 – 3 k+ 3 k = 6
⎣ k 3 ⎥⎦
⎡99876 99877 ⎤
EXAMPLE 2 Evaluate the determinant of the matrix ⎢ ⎥.
⎣99874 99875 ⎦
Solution Let x = 99874, then we can write

99876 99877 x+ 2 x+ 3
=
99874 99875 x x+1
= (x + 2)(x + 1) – x(x + 3)
= x2 + 3x + 2 – x2 – 3x
= 2.

⎡15 18 ⎤ ⎡2006 2002 ⎤
a. ⎢ ⎥ b. ⎢ ⎥
⎣18 15 ⎦ ⎣ 2005 1999 ⎦
15 18
Solution a. = (15 ⋅ 15) – (18 ⋅ 18) = 152 – 182
18 15
= (15 – 18) ⋅ (15 + 18) = (–3) ⋅ 33 = –99
2006 2002 a+7 a+ 3
b. Let a = 1999, then =
2005 1999 a+6 a
= (a + 7)a – (a + 3)(a + 6)
= a2 + 7a – (a2 + 9a + 18)
= –2a – 18
= –2(a + 9)
= –2 ⋅ 2008
= –4016.
Determinants
65
2. Minors, Cofactors and Cofactor Matrices
Definition minor
Let A be a square matrix. The minor of an entry aij, denoted by Mij, is the determinant of the
square matrix formed when we delete the ith row and jth column from A.
⎡1 2 3 4⎤
⎢2 2 2 4 ⎥⎥
For example, to find the minor of a24 in the matrix ⎢⎢ , we first cross out the row
4 5 6 4⎥
⎢ ⎥
An n × n matrix has n2 ⎣7 8 9 4⎦
minors.
and column that pass through entry a24 (i.e. delete the second row and the fourth column of
the matrix). The determinant of the new, smaller matrix is the minor M24.
cross out all entries sharing a

matrix A minor M24
row or column with entry a24
⎡1 2 3 4⎤ ⎡1 2 3 4⎤
⎢2 1 2 3
⎢ 2 2 4 ⎥⎥ ⎢2
⎢ 2 2 4 ⎥⎥
4 5 6 =0
The determinant ⎢4 5 6 4⎥ ⎢4 5 6 4⎥
(therefore a minor) is a ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 7 8 9
real number. ⎣7 8 9 4⎦ ⎣7 8 9 4⎦
⎡ 2 0 1⎤
EXAMPLE 4 ⎢ ⎥
Find all the minors of the matrix A = ⎢ 2 –1 3 ⎥ .
⎢⎣ 0 1 4 ⎥⎦
Solution The minors of the given matrix are M11, M12, M13, M21, M22, M23, M31, M32 and M33.
To find the minors, we eliminate each corresponding row and column and then calculate the
determinant of the remaining entries.
⎡2 0 1⎤ ⎡2 0 1⎤
–1 3 2 3
M11 = ⎢⎢2 –1 3 ⎥⎥ = = (–1) ⋅ 4 – 1 ⋅ 3 = –7 M12 = ⎢⎢2 –1 3 ⎥⎥ = = 2 ⋅ 4 – 0 ⋅3 = 8
1 4 0 4
⎢⎣0 1 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 1 4 ⎥⎦
⎡2 0 1⎤ ⎡2 0 1⎤
2 –1 0 1
M13 = ⎢⎢2 –1 3 ⎥⎥ = = 2 ⋅1 – 0 ⋅(–1) = 2 M21 = ⎢⎢2 –1 3 ⎥⎥ = = 0 ⋅ 4 – 1 ⋅1= –1
0 1 1 4
⎢⎣0 1 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 1 4 ⎥⎦
66
⎡2 0 1⎤ ⎡2 0 1⎤
2 1 2 0
M22 = ⎢⎢2 –1 3 ⎥⎥ = = 2 ⋅ 4 – 0 ⋅1= 8 M23 = ⎢⎢2 –1 3 ⎥⎥ = = 2 ⋅1 – 0 ⋅ 0 = 2
0 4 0 1
⎢⎣0 1 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 1 4 ⎥⎦
⎡2 0 1⎤ ⎡2 0 1⎤
0 1 2 1
M31 = ⎢⎢2 –1 3 ⎥⎥ = = 0 ⋅ 3 – (–1) ⋅1=1 M32 = ⎢⎢2 –1 3 ⎥⎥ = = 2 ⋅ 3 – 2 ⋅1= 4
–1 3 2 3
⎢⎣0 1 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 1 4 ⎥⎦
⎡2 0 1⎤
2 0
M33 = ⎢⎢2 –1 3 ⎥⎥ = = 2 ⋅ (–1) – 2 ⋅0 = –2
2 –1
⎢⎣0 1 4 ⎥⎦
Definition cofactor
A cofactor Cij is a real number defined in terms of the minor Mij as
Cij = (–1)i + j ⋅ Mij.
Notice that the sign of the cofactor Cij depends on i, j and the minor Mij. If the power of (–1)
is an even number then we leave the minor alone (multiply by 1). However, if the power of
(–1) is an odd number then we multiply the minor by (–1).
We can summarize this idea in the following sign matrix. We can see that C11 = M11, C12 = –M12,
C13 = M13, and so on.
⎡+ – + – + "⎤
⎢ – + – + – "⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢+ – + – + "⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ # # # # # #⎦
Definition cofactor matrix

Let A be an n × n matrix and let Cij be the cofactor of aij. Then the cofactor matrix of A is
⎡ C11 C12 " C1n ⎤
⎢C " C2 n ⎥⎥
⎢ 21 C22 .
⎢ # # % # ⎥
⎢ ⎥
C
⎣ n1 C n2 " Cnn ⎦
Determinants
67
⎡2 0 1⎤
EXAMPLE 5 Find the cofactors of the matrix A = ⎢2 –1 3 ⎥ from Example 4 and write the cofactor
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 1 4 ⎥⎦
matrix of A.
Solution The minors of the matrix A (from Example 4) are
M11 = –7, M12 = 8, M13 = 2,
M21 = –1, M22 = 8, M23 = 2,
M31 = 1, M32 = 4, M33 = –2.
Using the formula Cij = (–1)i + j ⋅ Mij, we get
C11 = (–1)1+1 ⋅ M11 = (–1)2 ⋅ (–7) = –7
We could also write the
minors in a matrix:
C12 = (–1)1+2 ⋅ M12 = (–1)3 ⋅ 8 = –8
⎡ –7 8 2 ⎤ C13 = (–1)1+3 ⋅ M13 = (–1)4 ⋅ 2 = 2

⎢ –1 8 2 ⎥ C21 = (–1)2+1 ⋅ M21 = (–1)3 ⋅ (–1) = 1
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ 1 4 –2 ⎥⎦ C22 = (–1)2+2 ⋅ M22 = (–1)4 ⋅ 8 = 8
and apply the signs
C23 = (–1)2+3 ⋅ M23 = (–1)5 ⋅ 2 = –2
⎡+ – +⎤
⎢ – + –⎥ C31 = (–1)3+1 ⋅ M31 = (–1)4 ⋅ 1 = 1
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢+ – +⎥⎦ C32 = (–1)3+2 ⋅ M32 = (–1)5 ⋅ 4 = –2
to get the same result. C33 = (–1)3+3 ⋅ M33 = (–1)6 ⋅ (–2) = –2.
⎡ –7 –8 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
So the cofactor matrix of A is ⎢ 1 8 –2 ⎥ .
⎣⎢ 1 –4 –2 ⎥⎦
3. The Determinant of a 3×3 Matrix

We have seen how to find the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix. In this section we will look at
two different methods for finding the determinant of a 3×3 matrix: first by using a process
called cofactor expansion, and second by using the rule of Sarrus.
a. Finding the determinant with cofactors
Definition cofactor expansion
⎡ a11 a12 a13 ⎤

⎢ a23 ⎥⎥ by multiplying the entries
We can calculate the determinant of a matrix A = ⎢a21 a22
⎣⎢ a31 a32 a33 ⎦⎥
in any row or column by the cofactors of their minors. The cofactor expansion along the ith row is
|A| = (ai1 ⋅ Ci1) + (ai2 ⋅ Ci2) + (ai3 ⋅ Ci3).
Similarly, the cofactor expansion of the jth column is
|A| = (a1j ⋅ C1j) + (a2j ⋅ C2j) + (a3j ⋅ C3j).

68
⎡ –1 2 4 ⎤
EXAMPLE 6 ⎢ ⎥
Find the determinant of the matrix A = ⎢ 2 1 3 ⎥ by cofactor expansion
⎢⎣ 3 2 1⎥⎦
a. along the first row.
b. along the second column.
Solution a. By the definition we have just seen,
–1 2 4
1 3 2 3 2 1
For a 3×3 determinant,
2 1 3 = (–1) ⋅ (–1)1+1 + 2 ⋅(–1)1+2 + 4 ⋅(–1)1+3
2 1 3 1 3 2
the sign matrix is 3 2 1
⎡+ – +⎤
⎢ ⎥ = –(1 – 6) – 2(2 – 9) + 4(4 – 3)
⎢– + – ⎥.
⎢⎣+ – +⎥⎦
= 5 + 14 + 4 = 23.
b. Again by the definition,
–1 2 4
2 3 –1 4 –1 4
2 1 3 = 2(–1)1+2 + 1(–1)2+2 + 2(–1) 3+2
3 1 3 1 2 3
3 2 1
= –2(2 – 9) + (–1 – 12) – 2(–3 – 8)
=14 – 13 + 22 = 23.
Notice that the determinant is the same in each case. Indeed, it doesn’t matter which row or
column we choose for cofactor expansion: the determinant of a matrix will always be the
same. In general, it is best to choose the row or column with the most zero entries, as this
makes the calculations easier.
⎡ 2 4 0⎤
EXAMPLE 7 Evaluate the determinant of the matrix A = ⎢ 1 4 3 ⎥ .
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ –2 3 5 ⎥⎦
Solution Let us expand the cofactors along the first row, since it contains a zero.
2 4 0
4 3 1 3 1 4
1 4 3 = 2 ⋅ (–1)1+1 + 4 ⋅(–1)1+2 + 0 ⋅(–1)1+3
3 5 –2 5 –2 3
–2 3 5
= 2(20 – 9) – 4(5+6)+0
= 22 – 44 = –22
Determinants
69
x 1 x
EXAMPLE 8 Solve for x: 2 3 4 = 16.
x 5 x
Solution Let us expand the cofactors along the first row.
x 1 x
3 4 2 4 2 3
2 3 4 = x⋅ – +x⋅
5 x x x x 5
x 5 x
= x(3x – 20) – (2 x – 4 x)+ x(10 – 3 x)
= 3x2 – 20 x + 2 x + 4 x +10 x – 3 x2
16 = –8 x
x = –2
Check Yourself 1
⎡ –3 4 2 ⎤
1. Find the minors for the entries –3, 1 and –8 in the matrix ⎢ 6 3 1⎥⎥ .
⎢
⎣⎢ 4 –1 –8 ⎦⎥
⎡ 1 –2 4 ⎤
2. Find the cofactors for the entries –2, 0 and 7 in the matrix ⎢3 0 –1⎥ .
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣5 7 2 ⎥⎦
3. Find the determinant of each matrix.
⎡ 1 1 2⎤ ⎡ –1 0 1⎤
⎡ 1 10 ⎤ ⎡ 19 20 ⎤
a. ⎢ ⎥ b. ⎢ ⎥ c. ⎢ 1 –2 3⎥ d. ⎢ 1 2 3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣5 8 ⎦ ⎣20 19 ⎦ ⎢⎣2 4 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 4 5 0 ⎥⎦
Answers
1. M11 = –23, M23 = –7, M33 = –29 2. C12 = –11, C22 = –18, C32 = 6
3. a. –42 b. –39 c. 7 d. 12
b. The rule of Sarrus

We can also find the determinant of a 3×3 matrix as shown in the figure below. First we copy
the first two rows or columns, then we add the products of one set of diagonals and subtract
the products of the other diagonals from the result.
–
⎡ a11 a12 a13 ⎤ a11 a12 a
⎡ 11 a12 a13 ⎤ –
⎢ ⎥
det A = ⎢ a21 a22 a23 ⎥ a21 a22 or ⎢ ⎥
det A = ⎢ a21 a22 a23 ⎥ –
⎢⎣ a31 a32 a33 ⎥⎦ a31 a32 ⎢⎣ a31 a32 a33 ⎥⎦
a11 a12 a13 +
– – – + + +
a21 a22 a23 +
We can define this rule more formally as follows: +

70
Definition rule of Sarrus
⎡ a11 a12 a13 ⎤

Let A = ⎢⎢ a21 a22 a23 ⎥⎥ . Then det A is defined as
⎢⎣ a31 a32 a33 ⎥⎦
det A = a11a22a33 + a21a32a13 + a31a12a23 – a31a22a13 – a32a23a11 – a33a21a12
= a11a22a33 + a21a32a13 + a31a12a23 – ( a31a22a13 + a32a23a11 + a33a21a12).
⎡ 1 3 4⎤
EXAMPLE 9 ⎢
Use the rule of Sarrus to evaluate the determinant of the matrix A = ⎢2 5 –1⎥ .
⎥
⎢⎣ 3 –2 3 ⎥⎦
Solution Let us write the first column and the second column of A after the third column:
⎡ 1 3 4⎤ 1 3
A = ⎢⎢2 5 –1⎥⎥ 2 5
⎢⎣ 3 –2 3 ⎥⎦ 3 –2
– +
– +
– +
So by the rule of Sarrus we have

det A = [(1 ⋅5 ⋅3) + (3 ⋅(–1) ⋅ 3) + (4 ⋅ 2 ⋅ (–2))] – [(4 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 3) + (1 ⋅ (–1) ⋅ (–2)) + (3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3)]
= (15 – 9 – 16) – (60 + 2 + 18)
= –10 – 80
= –90.
We can check this result by using cofactor expansion. Let us expand the cofactors along the
first row:
1 3 4
5 −1 2 −1 2 5
2 5 –1 =1 ⋅ −3 +4
−2 3 3 3 3 −2
3 −2 3
=1 ⋅ (15 − 2) − 3(6 + 3) + 4( −4 −15)
=13 − 27 − 76
= −90.
As we can see, the determinant is the same in each case.
⎡ 1 i i +1⎤
EXAMPLE 10 ⎢ ⎥
Use the rule of Sarrus to evaluate the determinant of the matrix A = ⎢0 1 i – 1⎥ , where i2 = –1.
⎢⎣0 i i ⎥⎦
Determinants
71
Solution Use the rule of Sarrus.
⎡1 i i +1⎤ det A = (i + 0 + 0) – (0 + i2 – i + 0)
A = ⎢⎢0 1 i – 1⎥⎥ = i – (–1 – i)
⎢⎣0 i i ⎥⎦ =i+1+i
– 1 i i +1 + = 2i + 1.
– 0 i i +
– +
Check Yourself 2
1. Find the determinant of each matrix by using the rule of Sarrus.
a. ⎡ b. ⎡
1 2 0⎤ 1 –2 3 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ –1 1 1⎥ ⎢ –1 1 0 ⎥
⎢ 0 2 1⎥ ⎢ 0 2 1⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Answers
1. a. 1 b. –7
4. The Determinant of an n×n Matrix

Definition determinant of an n × n matrix
⎡ a11 a12 " a1n ⎤

⎢a a22 " a2 n ⎥⎥
The determinant of a matrix A = ⎢
21
can be obtained by using cofactor
⎢ # # % # ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ an1 an 2 " ann ⎦
expansion along any row or column. The cofactor expansion along the ith row is
|A| = ai1 ⋅ Ci1 + ai2 ⋅ Ci2 + ... + ain ⋅ Cin.
The cofactor expansion along the jth column is
|A| = a1j ⋅ C1j + a2j ⋅ C2j + ... + anj ⋅ Cnj.
We calculate the Notice that the cofactor expansion of an n×n matrix is the determinant of an (n – 1) × (n – 1)
determinant of an n × n
matrix in terms of the
matrix. This means that for larger matrices, we usually have to repeat the process of cofactor
determinants of expansion several times to get the final determinant.
(n – 1) × (n – 1) matrices.
⎡1 0 0 0⎤
⎢3 2 4 7 ⎥⎥
EXAMPLE 11 Evaluate the determinant of the matrix A = ⎢
⎢2 0 5 1⎥
.
⎢ ⎥
⎣1 0 1 2⎦

72
Solution Since the first row contains three zeros, we expand the determinant along this row:
1 0 0 0
2 4 7 3 4 7 3 2 7 3 2 4 2 4 7
3 2 4 7
=1 ⋅ 0 5 1 –0⋅ 2 5 1 +0 ⋅ 2 0 1 –0 ⋅2 0 5 = 0 5 1.
Remember! 2 0 5 1
It is easier to expand 0 1 2 1 1 2 1 0 2 1 0 1 0 1 2
1 0 1 2
along the row or column
containing the most zeros, Expand the resulting determinant along the first column:
since the coefficients of
the resulting minors will 2 4 7
5 1 4 7 4 7 5 1
be zero. 0 5 1 =2⋅ –0⋅ +0 ⋅ =2⋅
1 2 1 2 5 1 1 2
0 1 2
5 1
2⋅ = 2(10 – 1) =18.
1 2
⎡0 0 1 0 0⎤
⎢2 4 2 5 3 ⎥⎥
⎢
EXAMPLE 12 Evaluate the determinant of the matrix A = ⎢ 1
⎢
0 3 0 0 ⎥.
⎥
⎢3 2 4 1 5⎥
⎢⎣ 4 0 5 2 0 ⎥⎦
Solution Since the first row has the most zero entries, we expand along this row.
0 0 1 0 0
2 4 5 3 2 4 5 3
2 4 2 5 3
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 3 0 0 = 0 – 0+1 ⋅ – 0+0 =
3 2 1 5 3 2 1 5
3 2 4 1 5
4 0 2 0 4 0 2 0
4 0 5 2 0
Now expand the result along the second row:

2 4 5 3
4 5 3 4 5 3
1 0 0 0
= –1 ⋅ 2 1 5 +0 – 0+0 = –1 ⋅ 2 1 5.
3 2 1 5
0 2 0 0 2 0
4 0 2 0
Finally, expand this determinant along the third row:
4 5 3
⎛ 4 3 ⎞
–1 ⋅ 2 1 5 = – ⎜0 – 2 ⋅ +0 ⎟ = 2(20 – 6) = 28. So det A= 28.
⎝ 2 5 ⎠
0 2 0
⎡ –1 0 0 0⎤
⎢ 5 2 0 0 ⎥⎥
⎢ 1 4 3 0⎥
.
⎢ ⎥
⎣ –1 2 7 –2 ⎦
Determinants
73
Solution Notice that A is a lower triangular matrix. Let us expand the determinant along the first row.
–1 0 0 0
2 0 0 2 0 0
5 2 0 0
Remember! det A = = –1 ⋅ 4 3 0 – 0+0 – 0 = (–1) ⋅ 4 3 0.
1 4 3 0
A triangular matrix is a 2 7 –2 2 7 –2
matrix which has all zero –1 2 7 –2
entries either above or
below the main diagonal. Expand the determinant along the first row again:
⎡ 0⎤ ⎡ ⎤ 2 0 0
⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥ 3 0
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ (–1) ⋅ 4 3 0 = (–1) ⋅ 2 ⋅ = –2(3 ⋅ (–2) – 0) = 12. So det A = 12.
7 –2
lower upper 2 7 −2
triangular triangular
matrix matrix
Property
If A is an n×n triangular matrix then its determinant is equal to the product of the entries
on its main diagonal, i.e.
|A| = a11 ⋅ a22 ⋅ a33 ... ann.
As an example, look at Example 13 again. By the property,
–1 0 0 0
5 2 0 0
= (–1) ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ (–2) =12, which is the result we found.
1 4 3 0
–5 2 7 –2

⎡ –1 0 0 0 0⎤
⎡ 2 0 0 0⎤ ⎢ 0
⎢ 4 –2 0 3 0 0 0 ⎥⎥
0 ⎥⎥ ⎢
Remember! a. A = ⎢ b. A = ⎢ 0 0 2 0 0⎥
A diagonal matrix is a ⎢ –5 6 1 0⎥ ⎢ ⎥
square matrix in which ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 4 0⎥
⎣ 1 5 3 3⎦
⎢⎣ 0
all the entries except the
0 0 0 –2 ⎥⎦
main diagonal entries are
zero.
Solution a. Since matrix A is a lower triangular matrix, det A = 2 ⋅ (–2) ⋅ 1 ⋅ 3 = –12 by the property
we have just seen.
b. Since matrix B is a diagonal matrix it is also triangular, and so
det B = (–1) ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ (–2) = 48.
2 –2 3
EXAMPLE 15 Given that 0 x – 2 1 =1, find x.
0 0 –1

74
Solution Since the matrix is a triangular matrix, by the property we have
2 ⋅ ( x – 2) ⋅ (–1) =1
–2 x + 4 =1
2x = 3
3
x= .
2
Check Yourself 3
1. Find the determinants of the matrices
⎡ 1 0 0 0⎤ ⎡3 0 0 0⎤
⎢ –1 1 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢0 5 0 0 ⎥⎥
A=⎢ and B = ⎢ .
⎢ 6 2 4 0⎥ ⎢0 0 4 0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 3 4 0 2⎦ ⎣0 0 0 2⎦
Answers
1. |A| = 8, |B| = 120
B. PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
Theorem
Let A be an n × n matrix. If the elements in any row or column are all zero then |A| = 0.
⎡0 0 " 0 ⎤
⎢a a22 " a2 n ⎥⎥
Let A = ⎢
21
Proof be a matrix with one zero row, and let us expand the determinant
⎢ # # % # ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ an1 an 2 " ann ⎦
along the zero row. Then
a22 " a2 n a21 " a2 n a21 " a2( n–1)
2n
det A = 0 ⋅ # % # – 0 ⋅ # % # + " +0 ⋅(–1) # % # = 0.
an2 " ann an1 " ann an1 " an( n –1)
It is easy to see that if the zero row or column is in another position the result will not change,
i.e. |A| will still be zero. This concludes the proof.
As an illustration, consider
–1 0 1 0
5 2 3 –1 0 1 –1 0 1 –1 0 1
5 2 3 0
A= = –0 ⋅ 1 4 3 +0 ⋅ 1 4 3 – 0 ⋅ 5 2 3 +0 ⋅ 5 2 3 = 0.
1 4 3 0
–1 2 7 –1 2 7 –1 2 7 1 4 3
–1 2 7 0
Determinants
75
⎡ –1 0 1 1⎤
⎢2 2 3 0 ⎥⎥
EXAMPLE 16 Calculate the determinant of the matrix A = ⎢
⎢0 0 0 0⎥
.
⎢ ⎥
⎣3 2 7 9⎦
Solution Since A has a zero row (the third row), |A| = 0 by the theorem we have just seen.
Property
Let A be an n × n matrix.
1. If A has two identical rows or columns then |A| = 0.
2. If A has two rows or columns which are multiples of each other then |A| = 0.
For example,
→1 3 4 1 3 –2 ⎡ 1⎤ ⎡ –2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
0 –1 5 = 0, and 3 4 –6 = 0 because – 2 ⋅ ⎢ 3 ⎥ = ⎢–6 ⎥.
→1 3 4 –2 5 4 ⎢ –2 ⎥ ⎢ 4⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
↑ ↑
first and third third column is a
rows are the same multiple of the
first column
⎡ 2 3 1⎤
⎢ ⎥
EXAMPLE 17 Evaluate the determinant of the matrix A = ⎢ 3 1 8 ⎥ .
⎢ 2 3 1⎥
⎣ ⎦
Solution The first row and the third row are the same, so by the property we have just seen,
2 3 1
det A = 3 1 8 = 0.
2 3 1
⎡ 1 –2 –4 0 ⎤
⎢2 –1 3 1⎥⎥
⎢0 3 7 –6 ⎥
.
⎢ ⎥
⎣6 –3 9 3 ⎦
Solution Since the fourth row is a multiple of the second row (i.e. [6 –3 9 3]= 3 ⋅[2 –1 3 1]),
|A| = 0 by the above property.

76
Property
Let A be an n × n matrix. If two rows (or two columns) of A are interchanged to get A′, then
det A′ = –det A.
⎡ 1 2 3⎤
⎢ ⎥
As an example, consider A = ⎢ 2 0 1⎥ . We have
⎢⎣ 1 –1 2 ⎥⎦
1 2 3
2 3 1 3 1 2
| A |= 2 0 1 = 2 ⋅ −0⋅ +1⋅ = –2(4 + 3) – 0 + (–3) = –11.
−1 2 1 2 1 −1
1 −1 2
However, if we interchange the second and third row of A to get A′ we have
1 2 3
2 3 ⎡1 3 ⎤ 1 2
det A′ = 1 –1 2 = 2 ⋅ – 0 ⋅⎢ ⎥ +1 ⋅ = 2(4+ 3) – 0+(–3) =11.
–1 2 ⎣1 2 ⎦ 1 –1
2 0 1
So det A′ = –det A.
Also, if we interchange the second and third columns of A we get
1 3 2
3 2 ⎡1 2 ⎤ 1 3
2 1 0 = –2 ⋅ +1 ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ –0⋅ = –2(–3 – 4)+1(–1 – 2) – 0 =11.
2 –1 ⎣1 –1⎦ 1 2
1 2 –1
So again, det A′ = –det A.
Property
If A is an n × n matrix then det AT = det A.
Here is an example of this property:

⎡ 3 –2 1⎤ ⎡ 3 –1 4 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Let A = ⎢ –1 5 2 ⎥ so A = ⎢⎢ –2 5 7 ⎥⎥, and let us evaluate the determinants:
T
⎢⎣ 4 7 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 2 1⎥⎦
3 –2 1
5 2 –1 2 –1 5
det A = –1 5 2 =3⋅ – (–2) ⋅ + = 3 ⋅(5 – 14)+ 2(–1 – 8)+(–7 – 20) = –72
7 1 4 1 4 7
4 7 1
⎡ 3 –1 4 ⎤
5 7 –2 7 –2 5
det A = ⎢⎢ –2 5 7 ⎥⎥=3 ⋅
T
– (–1) ⋅ +4 ⋅ =3 ⋅(5 – 14)+(–2 – 7)+ 4 ⋅(–4 – 5)=– 72 .
2 1 1 1 1 2
⎢⎣ 1 2 1⎥⎦
So det AT = det A, as expected.
Determinants
77
Theorem
Let A be an n × n matrix. If the elements of one row (or one column) of its determinant are
multiplied by a real number k then the value of the resulting determinant is k times the
original determinant.
⎡ a11 a12 " a1n ⎤

⎢a a22 " a2 n ⎥⎥
Let A = ⎢
21
Proof be an n × n matrix and let k be a real number. Then
⎢ # # % # ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ an1 an 2 " ann ⎦
a11 a12 " a1n

Be careful! a21 a22 " a2 n
= ( a11 ⋅ C11 ) – ( a12 ⋅ C12 )+ "+( ann ⋅(–1) 2 n Cnn ), and
det(3A) ≠ 3det A # # % #
an1 an 2 " ann
ka11 ka12 " ka1n
a21 a22 " a2 n
= ( ka11 ⋅ C11 ) – ( ka12 ⋅ C12 )+ "+( ka nn ⋅(–1) 2 n C nn )
# # % #
an1 an 2 " ann
= k( a11 ⋅ C11 – a12 ⋅ C12 + "+ ann ⋅(–1) 2 n Cnn )
= k⋅ | A |, as required.
As a result of this theorem, we have
a11 a12 a13 ka11 ka12 ka13 ka11 a12 a13
k ⋅ a21 a22 a23 = a21 a22 a23 = ka21 a22 a23 , and so on.
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 ka31 a32 a33
Here is an example that illustrates this result:
⎡ 1 2 3⎤
⎢ ⎥
For A = ⎢2 0 1⎥ we have
⎢⎣ 1 –1 2 ⎥⎦
1 2 3
2 3 1 3 1 2
det A = 2 0 1 =2⋅ –0⋅ +1 ⋅ = –2(4+ 3) – 0+(–3) = –11.
–1 2 1 2 1 –1
1 –1 2
Also, as above we can write
1 2 3 1 2 3
2 3 1 3 1 2
2⋅ 2 0 1= 4 0 2 = –4 ⋅ +0 ⋅ –2 ⋅ = –4(4+ 3) – 0 – 2 ⋅(–3) = –22.
–1 2 1 2 1 –1
1 –1 2 1 –1 2
1 2 3 1 2 3
Thus, 4 0 2 = 2 ⋅ 2 0 1 .
1 –1 2 1 –1 2

78
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
⎢ 2 1⎥
6
⎢ ⎥
EXAMPLE 19 Find the determinant of the matrix A = ⎢ –
⎢ 3
2 1
3
0 ⎥.
⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 –
1
0⎥
⎣⎢ 4 4 ⎥⎦
Solution Since the third column has two zeros, we can expand the determinant along the third
column. However, the fractions in the matrix will make the calculations complicated.
Therefore, before expanding let us see if we can get rid of the fractions inside the matrix.
1 3
Notice that = . We can write
2 6
1 1 3 1 6 1 1 1
1 ⋅3 ⋅1 ⋅6
2 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
2 1 2 1 1 1
– 0=– 0 = ⋅ (–2) 0 .
3 3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
– 0 – 0 – 0
4 4 4 4 4 4
1 1
So there is a common factor of in the first row. Likewise, we can factor out of the
6 3
1
second row and out of the third row. As a result, we have
4
1 1 1
⋅3 ⋅1 ⋅6
6 6 6 3 1 6
1 1 1 1 1
det A = ⋅ (–2) 0 = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ –2 1 0 .
3 3 6 3 4
1 –1 0
1 1
– 0
4 4
Now the calculations are easier. Expanding along the third column we get
3 1 6
1 1 1 1 –2 1 1
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ –2 1 0 = ⋅6 ⋅ = . This is the determinant.
6 3 4 72 1 –1 12
1 –1 0
Property
Let A be an n × n matrix. If each element in one row (or column) of its determinant is
multiplied by a real number k and the resulting elements are then added to the corresponding
elements of another row (or column), then the resulting determinant is the same as the
original one.
Determinants
79
⎡ 1 4 1⎤
EXAMPLE 20 Evaluate the determinant of the matrix A = ⎢ 2 –1 0 ⎥ .
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 18 4 ⎥⎦
Solution Add –2 times the first row to the second row:

1 4 1 1 4 1
det A = 2 –1 0 = 0 –9 –2
0 18 4 0 18 4
By the property we have just seen, this new determinant is equal to det A.
Notice that the third row is a multiple of the second row, i.e. [0 18 4]= –2[0 –9 –2].
So |A| = 0.
1 a a2
EXAMPLE 21 Prove that 1 b b2 = ( b – a)( c – a)( c – b).
1 c c2
Solution Subtract the first row from the second row and the third row:
1 a a2 1 a a2
1 b b2 = 0 b – a b2 – a2 .
1 c c2 0 c–a c2 – a 2
Expand the determinant by the first column:
1 a a2
b – a b2 – a2 b – a ( b – a)( b + a)
0 b – a b2 – a2 = = .
2
c–a c –a 2
c – a ( c – a)( c + a)
0 c – a c2 – a 2
Factor out (b – a) and (c – a):

1 ( b + a)
= ( b – a)( c – a)
1 ( c + a)
= (b – a)(c – a)(c – b), as required.
⎡ 2 –3 10 ⎤
EXAMPLE 22 ⎢ ⎥
Find the determinant of A = ⎢ 1 –2 –2 ⎥ .
⎢⎣ 0 1 –3 ⎥⎦

80
Solution Using the properties we have seen, we can rewrite |A| in triangular form as follows:
2 –3 10 1 2 –2
Interchange the
1 –2 –2 = – 2 –3 10 first two rows.
0 1 –3 0 1 –3
1 2 –2 Add –2 times the

first row to the
= – 0 –7 14
second row to get
0 1 –3 a new second row.
1 2 –2
Factor –7 out of
=7 0 1 –2 the second row.
0 1 –3
1 2 –2 Add –1 times the

second row to the
= 7 0 1 –2 . third row to get a
new third row.
0 0 –1
Now, because the final determinant is the determinant of a triangular matrix, we can
conclude that the determinant is |A| = 7 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1 ⋅ (–1) = –7.
Property
Let A and B be two square matrices of the same size, then the determinant of their matrix
product is the product of their determinants, i.e.
det(AB) = det A ⋅ det B.
EXAMPLE 23 Compute det (A2) if det A = 5.
Solution det (A2) = det (AA) = (det A) ⋅ (det A) = 5 ⋅ 5 = 25.
⎡ 1 2⎤ ⎡0 2 ⎤
EXAMPLE 24 Verify the theorem det (AB) = det A ⋅ det B for the matrices A = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –1 3 ⎦
and B = ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ 1 –1⎦
⎡ 1 2 ⎤ ⎡0 2 ⎤ ⎡2 0 ⎤
Solution A⋅ B= ⎢ ⎥⋅⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –1 3 ⎦ ⎣ 1 –1⎦ ⎣3 –5 ⎦
2 0
det ( A ⋅ B) = = –10. (1)
3 –5
1 2 0 2
Also, det A = = 3 – (–2) = 5 and det B= = –2, so
–1 3 1 –1
det A ⋅ det B = 5 ⋅ (–2) = –10. (2)
Combining (1) and (2) gives us det (AB) = det A ⋅ det B, as required.
Determinants
81
Theorem
Let A be an n × n matrix. If the elements of a row or column are expressed as binomials, the
determinant can be written as the sum of two determinants as follows:
a+ k b+l c+ m a b c k l m
d e f =d e f +d e f .
g h i g h i g h i
EXAMPLE 25 Evaluate the following determinants.

2004 2005 2006
165 187
a. b. 2003 2004 2005
167 188
2002 2003 2004
Solution 165 187 165 187 165 187 165 187

a. = = +
167 188 165+ 2 187+1 165 187 2 1
165 187
Since the rows are the same, = 0.
165 187
165 187 165 187
So = =165 ⋅1 – 187 ⋅ 2 = −209.
167 188 2 1
2004 2005 2006 2003+1 2004+1 2005+1
b. 2003 2004 2005 = 2003 2004 2005
2002 2003 2004 2002 2003 2004
2003 2004 2005 1 1 1

= 2003 2004 2005 + 2003 2004 2005
2002 2003 2004 2002 2003 2004

since the first row and the
second row are the same,
the determinant is zero
1 1 1
= 2002+1 2003+1 2004+1
2002 2003 2004
1 1 1 1 1 1
= 2002 2003 2004 + 1 1 1
2002 2003 2004 2002 2003 2004
= 0+0 = 0.

82
Check Yourself 4
1. Which property of determinants is illustrated by each equation?
2 3 5 1 –2 –3
1 2
a. =0 b. 0 0 0 = 0 c. 7 2 0 =0
–2 –4
4 2 –1 1 –2 –3
1 3 2 1 2 3 2 5 0 3 2 1
4 12 1 3
d. 2 5 4 = – 2 4 5 e. 1 7 2 = – 1 7 2 f. =4
–3 2 –3 2
0 2 1 0 1 2 3 2 1 2 5 0
3 6 0 1 2 0 2 5 0 3 2 1
g. 15 10 20 =15 ⋅ 3 2 4 h. 1 7 2 =– 1 7 2
1 0 0 1 0 0 3 2 1 2 5 0
2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 –2 3 –2
i. = 24 ⋅ j. =
0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 9 5 0 11
0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1
0 5 2 0 5 2
k. 2 –1 3 = – –2 1 –3
7 5 0 7 5 0
2. Compute det(A2) if det A = –3.

⎡ ⎤
3. A = ⎢ 1 3 ⎥ and det(AB) = 28 are given. Find det B.
⎣ 4 –2 ⎦
Answers
2. 9 3. –2
Determinants
83
C. APPLICATIONS OF DETERMINANTS
1.Finding the Inverse of a Matrix
Recall that the cofactor matrix of a matrix A is the matrix
⎡ C11 C12 " C1n ⎤
⎢C " C2 n ⎥⎥
⎢ 21 C22 , where Cxy is the cofactor of the entry axy of A.
⎢ # # % # ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣Cn1 Cn 2 " Cnn ⎦
Definition adjoint matrix

The transpose of a cofactor matrix is called an adjoint matrix, written adj A:
⎡ C11 C12 " C1n ⎤T ⎡C11 C21 " C n1 ⎤
⎢C C22 " C2 n ⎥⎥ ⎢C C22 " C n2 ⎥⎥ , where C = (–1)i+j ⋅ M ⋅
adj A = ⎢ 21 = ⎢ 12 ij ij
⎢ # # % # ⎥ ⎢ # # % # ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ Cn1 Cn 2 " Cnn ⎦ ⎣C1n C2 n " Cnn ⎦
⎡ 1 0 4⎤
EXAMPLE 26 ⎢ ⎥
Calculate the adjoint of the matrix A = ⎢ 2 1 –1⎥ .
⎢⎣ 1 0 1⎥⎦
1 –1 2 –1 2 1
Solution C11 = =1 C12 = – = –3 C13 = = –1
0 1 1 1 1 0
0 4 1 4 1 0
C21 = – =0 C22 = = –3 C23 = – =0
0 1 1 1 1 0
0 4 1 4 1 0
C31 = = –4 C32 = – =9 C33 = =1
1 –1 2 –1 2 1
⎡ 1 −3 –1⎤ ⎡ 1 0 –4 ⎤
So the cofactor matrix is ⎢⎢ 0 –3 0 ⎥⎥, and so adj A= ⎢–3 –3 9 ⎥.
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ –4 9 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ –1 0 1 ⎥⎦
Property
1
If A is an invertible matrix then A –1 = ⋅ adj A .
| A|
EXAMPLE 27 Use the adjoint matrix to compute the inverse of the following matrix.
⎡ 1 0 4⎤
A = ⎢⎢2 1 –1⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 1 0 1⎥⎦

84
1 0 4
2 −1 1 4 1 4
Solution | A |= 2 1 −1 = −0 ⋅ +1 −0⋅ = −3
1 1 1 1 2 −1
1 0 1
We already have adj A from Example 26. By the property we have just seen,
⎡1 4⎤
0
⎡ 1 0 –4 ⎤ ⎢ –3 3⎥
1 1 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
–1
A = ⋅ adj A = ⋅ –3 –3 9 ⎥ = ⎢ 1 1 –3 ⎥.
| A| –3 ⎢
⎢⎣ –1 0 1⎥⎦ ⎢ 1 –1 ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣3 3⎦
EXAMPLE 28 Use the adjoint matrix to compute the inverse of the following matrix.
⎡2 1 3 ⎤
A = ⎢⎢ 3 –1 –2 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣2 3 1⎥⎦
Solution First we find the determinant of A:

2 1 3
–1 –2 3 –2 3 –1
3 –1 –2 = 2 ⋅ – +3 ⋅ =10 – 7+ 33 = 36.
3 1 2 1 2 3
2 3 1
1
Since A –1 = ⋅ adj A, we need to find the adjoint matrix. The cofactors are
| A|
–1 –2 3 –2 3 –1
C11 = =5 C12 = – = –7 C13 = =11
3 1 2 1 2 3
1 3 2 3 2 1
C21 = – =8 C22 = = –4 C23 = – = –4
3 1 2 1 2 3
1 3 2 3 2 1
C31 = =1 C32 = – =13 C33 = = –5,
–1 –2 3 –2 3 –1
⎡ 5 8 1⎤
so adj A = ⎢ –7 –4 13 ⎥⎥. By the property,
⎢
⎣⎢ 11 –4 –5 ⎦⎥
⎡ 5 2 1 ⎤
⎢ 36 ⎥
⎡ 5 8 1⎤ ⎢ 36 9
⎥
1 1 ⎢ 7 1 13 ⎥
A –1 = ⋅ adj A = ⋅ –7 –4 13 ⎥⎥ = ⎢ – – .
| A| 36 ⎢ ⎢ 36 9 36 ⎥
⎢⎣ 11 –4 –5 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 11 –
1 –5 ⎥
⎣⎢ 36 9 36 ⎦⎥
Determinants
85
Check Yourself 5
⎡ –1 3 2 ⎤
⎢ 1⎥⎥ .
1. Find the adjoint of A = ⎢ 0 –2
⎢⎣ 1 0 –2 ⎥⎦
2. Use the adjoint matrix to compute the inverse of each matrix.
⎡ 2 2 –1⎤ ⎡2 4 6⎤
a. A = ⎢ 0 3 –1⎥ b. ⎢ 4 5 6 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ –1 –2 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣14 16 18 ⎥⎦
Answers
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ 2 0 0⎥
⎡4 6 7 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 1⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1. ⎢ 1 0 1⎥ 2. a. ⎢ 1 1 2 ⎥ b. ⎢ 2 –
1
0⎥
⎢ 3 3 ⎥
⎢⎣2 3 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣3 2 6 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎢– 1 1 1
– ⎥
⎣⎢ 12 3 12 ⎦⎥
2. Solving a System of Equations (Cramer's Rule)

In Chapter 1 we looked at two basic methods for solving a system of linear equations: the
substitution method and the elimination method. In this section we will look at another
method: Cramer’s rule. Cramer’s rule is a technique that uses determinants to solve a system
of equations.
Before we look at Cramer’s rule, consider
a11x1 + a12x2 + ... + a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + ... + a2nxn = b2
..
.
am1x1 + am2x2 + ... + amnxn = bm.
This is a system of linear equations with n unknowns. We can express it using the column
matrices
GABRIEL CRAMER ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ b1 ⎤
(1704-1
1752) ⎢x ⎥ ⎢b ⎥
Born in Geneva, X = ⎢ 2 ⎥ and B = ⎢ 2 ⎥ , since by matrix multiplication,
Switzerland, Cramer ⎢# ⎥ ⎢# ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
worked on geometry and
⎣ xn ⎦ ⎣bn ⎦
analysis. Cramer used
the rule named after
him in his text
⎡ a11 a12 " a1n ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ b1 ⎤
Introduction à l'analyse
⎢a a22 " a2 n ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢b2 ⎥⎥
⎢ 21 = , or AX = B.
des lignes courbes
⎢ # # % # ⎥⎢ # ⎥ ⎢ # ⎥
algèbriques, in which he ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
solved a system of ⎣ an1 an 2 " ann ⎦ ⎣ xn ⎦ ⎣ bn ⎦
equations with five
unknowns.
A is called the coefficient matrix in this matrix equation.

86
EXAMPLE 29 Write the following system of linear equations as a matrix equation.
2x – 3y + z = 1
x + 2z = –1
x – 2y + 3z = 0
⎡ 2 –3 1⎤ ⎡ x⎤ ⎡ 1⎤
Solution ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
The coefficient matrix is A = 1 0 2 , and X = ⎢ y⎥ and B = ⎢–1⎥.
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 –2 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ z⎥⎦ ⎢ 0⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡2 –3 1⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ 1⎤
So the equation is ⎢ 1 0 2 ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ y ⎥ = ⎢–1⎥ .
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 –2 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
Notice that the coefficient of y in the second equation is zero.
Cramer’s rule uses a matrix equation to solve a system of linear equations.
Rule Cramer’s rule

Given the system
a11 a12 " a1n
a11x1 + a12x2 + ... + a1nxn = b1
a21 a22 " a2 n
a21x1 + a22x2 + ... + a2nxn = b2 with | A |= ≠ 0,
.. # # % #
. an1 an 2 " ann
an1x1 + an2x2 + ... + annxn = bm
the solution to the matrix equation AX = B is given by

⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ b1 ⎤
⎢x ⎥ ⎢b ⎥
|A |
xi = i where X = ⎢ 2 ⎥ , B = ⎢ 2 ⎥ and
| A| ⎢# ⎥ ⎢# ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ xn ⎦ ⎣ bn ⎦
Ai is the matrix obtained from A by replacing the ith column with the column matrix B.
ith column
b1
b2
Ai =
#
bn
Determinants
87
CRAMER’S RULE FOR THREE VARIABLES
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
The solution of the system whose equations are a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2 is (x, y, z), where
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3
d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
d2 b2 c2 a2 d2 c2 a2 b2 d2
a1 b1 c1
d3 b3 c3 a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3
x= , y= ,z= and a2 b2 c2 ≠ 0.
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
a3 b3 c3
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
EXAMPLE 30 Solve the system of linear equations using Cramer’s rule.

2x + 3y + z = 2
–x + 2y + 3z = –1
–3x – 3y + z = 0
Solution Let us write the system as a matrix equation:

⎡ 2 3 1⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ –1 2 3 ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ y ⎥ = ⎢–1⎥ .
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ –3 –3 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
Now find the determinant of A:
It is easy to calculate a 2 3 1
and so by Cramer’s rule,
determinant if any row or –1 2 3 = 2 ⋅ (2+9) – 3 ⋅(–1+9)+(3+6) = 7,
column contains zeros.
–3 –3 1
2 3 1 2 2 1 2 3 2
–1 2 3 –1 –1 3 –1 2 –1
0 –3 1 –3 0 1 –3 –3 0
x= , y= , z= .
7 7 7
So
2 3 3 1
2 – (–1) +0
Ax –3 1 –3 1 (2 ⋅ 11)+6+0
x= x= = =4
A 7 7
2 1 2 2
Ay –3 +0+1
y= –1 3 –1 –1 (–3 ⋅ 7)+0+0
A y= = = –3
7 7
Az
z= –1 2 2 3
A 2 – (–1) +0
–3 –3 –3 –3
(2 ⋅ 9)+ 3+0
z= = = 3,
7 7
i.e. the solution of the system is (4, –3, 3).
88
x+y+z=0
2x – y + z = –1
–x + 3y – z = –8
Solution To use Cramer’s rule, we first evaluate the determinant of A.

Let us write the system as matrix equation:
⎡ 1 1 1⎤ ⎡x ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ 2 –1 1⎥ ⋅ ⎢ y ⎥ = ⎢ –1⎥ , so
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ –1 3 –1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣–8 ⎥⎦
1 1 1
A = 2 –1 1 = (1 – 3) – (–2+1)+(6 – 1) = 4.
–1 3 –1
By Cramer’s rule,
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
–1 –1 1 2 –1 1 2 –1 –1
–8 3 –1 –1 –8 –1 –1 3 –8
x= , y= , z= .
4 4 4
So
–1 ⋅ (1+8)+(–3 – 8)
x= = –5
4
(1+8)+(–16 – 1)
y= = –2
4
(8+ 3) – (–16 – 1)
z= = 7,
4
i.e. the solution is (–5, –2, 7).

5x + 4y + 11z = 3
6x – 4y + 2z = 1
x + 3y + 5z = 2
Determinants
89
Solution Let us write the system as a matrix equation:
⎡5 4 11⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡3 ⎤
⎢6 –4 2 ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ y ⎥ = ⎢ 1⎥ .
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 3 5 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣2 ⎥⎦
Now compute |A|:

5 4 11
Remember that Cramer’s
rule does not apply if the | A |= 6 −4 2 = 5 ⋅ (–20 – 6) – 4 ⋅ (30 – 2) + 11 ⋅ (18 + 4) = –130 – 112 + 242 = 0.
determinant of the
1 3 5
coefficient matrix is zero.
This means that the system of equations has no unique solution. The system may have no
solution or infinitely many solutions.
Check Yourself 6
Solve each system using Cramer’s rule.
a. 2x + y + z = 0 b. x + y – 3z = –3 c. 2x – y – 2z = 4
x – y + 5z = 0 4x + 2y – 6z = –2 x + 3y – z = –1
y–z=4 5x + 5y + 4z = 4 x + 2y + 3z = 5
Answers
20 –6 9
a. (–4, 6, 2) b. (2, –2, 1) c. ( , , )
7 7 7
(x, y) 3. Finding the Area of a Triangle

Consider a triangle with vertices at (x1, y1), (x2, y2), and (x3, y3). If the triangle is a right
triangle, it is quite easy to compute the area of the triangle by finding one-half the product of
the base and the height.
(0, 0) (x, 0)
However, if the triangle is not a right triangle then finding its area from its coordinates is not
1
Area = ⋅x⋅y so easy. There are different methods that we can use in this case. One of these methods uses
2
determinants.
Property
The area of a triangle with vertices at (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is
x1 y1 1 y
(x1, y1)
1
Area = ± x2 y2 1 ,
2
x3 y3 1 (x2, y2)
where the sign (+ or –) is chosen to (x3, y3)

make the area positive. 0 x

90
EXAMPLE 33 Find the area A of the triangle with vertices at (0, 0), (10, –25), and (28, –20).
Solution Using the formula we have just seen,

0 0 1
1 1
A = ± 10 −25 1 = ± [0 ⋅ (–25 + 20) – 0 ⋅ (–10 – 28) + 1 ⋅ (10 ⋅ (–20) + 28 ⋅ 25)]
2 2
28 −20 1
1
=± ⋅ 500 = 250.
2
EXAMPLE 34 Find the area A of the triangle with vertices at (–3, 5), (2, 6), and (3, –20).
Solution Using the formula,

−3 5 1
1 1 1
A=± 2 6 1 = ± [–3 ⋅ 11 – 5 ⋅ (–1) – 1 ⋅ 28] = ± ⋅ (–56) = 28.
2 2 2
3 −5 1
Check Yourself 7
Use a determinant to find the area of the triangle with each set of vertices.
a. (–2, 4), (1, 5), (3, –2) b. (–1, 4), (3, 6), (1, 2) c. (1, 2), (3, –4), (–2, 3)
Answers
23
a. b. 6 c. 8
2
Remember! 4. Lines in the Plane

D
C a. Testing for collinear points
B
A We have just learned one way to find the area of a triangle. If the area of a triangle is equal
to zero then there is no triangle and its vertices must be collinear. We can use this fact to
Collinear points are
points that all lie on the develop a test for collinear points: if the area of the corresponding triangle is zero, the points
same line. are collinear.
Property
x1 y1 1
Three points (x1, y2), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) are collinear if and only if x2 y2 1 = 0.
x3 y3 1
Notice that here we are not setting the determinant equal to zero. We are simply testing to
see if the determinant is zero. We have also removed the ± sign and the one-half from the
front of the determinant, because the area will be zero only if the determinant is zero.
Determinants
91
EXAMPLE 35 Determine whether the points (3, –1), (0, –3) and (12, 5) are collinear.
x1 y1 1 3 –1 1
x2 y2 1 = 0 –3 1 = 3 ⋅ (–8)+12 ⋅ 2 = 0.
x3 y3 1 12 5 1
Since the value of the determinant is zero, the three points are collinear.
EXAMPLE 36 Determine whether the points (2, –1), (2, 0) and (6, –2) are collinear.
2 –1 1
2 0 1 = –4+ 2 ⋅ 0 = –4.
6 –2 1
Since the value of the determinant is not zero, the three points are not collinear.
b. Finding the equation of a line

If we are given two points in a plane, we can use a determinant to find an equation of the
line which passes through these points.
Property
x y 1
The equation of the line which joins the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is x1 y1 1 = 0.
x2 y2 1
EXAMPLE 37 Find an equation for the line which passes through the points (2, 3) and (–3, 1).
Solution We can write the equation as
x y 1
2 3 1 = 0.
–3 1 1
Let us evaluate the determinant:

x y 1
2 3 1 = x ⋅ 2 – y ⋅ 5+11= 2 x − 5 y +11.
–3 1 1
Therefore an equation of the line which passes through the points (2, 3) and (–3, 1) is
2x – 5y + 11 = 0.

92
EXAMPLE 38 Find an equation for the line which contains the points (–5, 2) and (4, 5).
Solution Applying the property for these points, we can write
x y 1
–5 2 1 = 0, i.e.
4 5 1
x y 1
–5 2 1 = x ⋅ (–3) – y ⋅(–9) – 33 = 0.
4 5 1
So –3x + 9y – 33 = 0, which we can rewrite as 3x – 9y + 33 = 0.

Therefore an equation of the line is x – 3y + 11 = 0.
Check Yourself 8
1. Use a determinant to check whether each set of points is collinear.
a. (–2, 4), (1, 5), (3, –2)
b. (–1, 1.6), (1, 2.4), (0, 2)
c. (2, 3), (3, 1), (–2, 0)
2. Use a determinant to find an equation for the line which passes through each pair of
points.
a. (0, 1), (3, 2)
b. (10, 3), (–7, 2)
c. ( 2 , 1), (6, 12)

3
Answers
1. a. no b. yes c. no
2. a. –x + 3y – 3 = 0 b. x – 17y + 41 = 0 c. –33x + 16y + 6 = 0
Determinants
93
DATA MATRICES
If you visit any large supermarket today, the cashier will calculate your grocery bill using a bar code reader. The reader reads
a set of vertical lines called a bar code, which is printed on grocery packaging to uniquely identify each product. Linear bar
codes like this are used in many modern applications: they are printed on boxes, product labels, magazines and books, and
help companies to track their stock as it is manufactured, transported and sold.
However, linear bar codes (also called UPC bar codes) have some limitations. In particular, the vertical lines can only be read
accurately if they are printed in high contrast, which requires good quality printing and means that the bar code cannot be
very small. This makes linear bar codes unsuitable for some things, such as identifying small electronic components.
A data matrix is a different kind of bar code. Instead of using vertical lines, a data matrix stores information as a set of black
and white squares (called cells) which are arranged in a square or rectangle. Data matrices can be printed in low contrast
and can also be very small, which makes them appropriate for marking and tracing small parts. Data matrices are widely used
in the automotive, aerospace, electronics, semiconductor and pharmaceutical industries.
A data matrix has four main parts:
Ô an L-shaped solid border around two sides,
Ô an L-shaped dotted border along the other two sides,
Ô the data storage area inside the symbol, and
Ô a ‘quiet zone’ around the whole symbol, which must not contain any writing or marks.
The special coding used to create the data matrix is free for anyone to use, which means that anyone can create and read
data matrix codes without paying a license.
Solid border Broken border Data storage area
ISBN 978-605-112-034-8
9 786051 120348
Data matrix Linear bar code

Advantages of Data Matrices
Data matrices have the following advantages over traditional linear bar codes:
Ô They encode information digitally (as a set of 0 and 1 digits).
Ô They can be very small and printed with low contrast, so they can be printed directly on small parts.
Ô They offer high information density, which means that a small matrix can carry a lot of data.
Ô They can be printed at different sizes.
Ô They have good built-in error correction, which means that a data matrix can still be read even if up to 20% of it is missing
or damaged.
Ô They are read by video cameras instead of a laser beam, which means that they can be read in any orientation (e.g. upside
down).
Storage Capacity
A data matrix is square or sometimes rectangular, and is made up of an arrangement of between 8 x 8 and 144 x 144 black
and white cells. A matrix can store up to 3116 numbers, or 2335 alphanumeric characters (i.e. letters and numbers). In
computing terms, a data matrix can store anything between a few bytes and two kilobytes of data. This is much more efficient
than a UPC linear bar code, which can encode only 12 numbers plus one ‘check digit’ for error correction.
Activities
Ô Search the Internet for online barcode generators. Try making a data matrix containing your name and the name of your
school (select ‘data matrix’ as your symbology or bar code type). How big is each matrix?
Now try making a linear bar code with the same information (select ‘UPC’ as your data symbology or bar code type). Can
you do it?
Ô How could you write a data matrix as a numerical matrix like the ones you are studying in this book?
Ô How many distinct pieces of information can be encoded if the area inside the border of a data matrix is
a) a 1 x 1 matrix?
b) a 2 x 2 matrix?
c) a 5 x 5 matrix?
Ô What size of square matrix would you need in order to encode every letter of the English alphabet, if each matrix had to
contain one letter?
EXERCISES 2
A. The Determinant of a Matrix 5. Evaluate the determinants.
1. Evaluate the determinants. 1 3 2 3 –2 1
a. 2 1 3 b. 4 3 0
1 2 7 0 13 12
a. b. c. 3 0 5 5 1 0
5 8 11 6 12 13
2 –1 3 15 12 10
101 100 a a +1 x–2 x
d. e. f. c. 1 0 2 d. 0 0 1
100 101 a –1 a x x–2
1 2 1 4 5 6
15 15 10 2 –1 3
e. 2 2 4 f. 1 2 –1
1 1 6 3 –4 7
2. Evaluate the determinants.

25 26 105 107
a. b.
27 28 109 111
1113 1117 cos 25 ° – sin 25 °
c. d. 6. Evaluate the determinants.
1111 1115 sin 25 ° cos 25 °
1 2 3
1457 1458 1459
cos15 ° sin15 ° 2007 – a 2008 – a
e. f. a. 999 1000 1001 b. 12 9 6
sin15° cos15 ° 2009 – a 2010 – a
1000 1001 1002 1453 1455 1457
3 –2 7 6 1 8 –3 2
–4 0 2 1 9 3 0 1
c. d.
5 2 0 –2 –2 6 0 –4
2 0 –1 0 2 –1 0 4
⎡ 4 11 9 ⎤
3. Given the matrix A = ⎢⎢0 3 2 ⎥⎥ , compute the
⎣⎢ 3 1 1⎦⎥
minors M12, M23 and M31.
7. Find x in each case.

3 4 3 x 1 x
a. –2 x 4 = 30 b. x 1 1 =0
x –1 x 1 1 x
⎡ –1 2 7 ⎤
4. Given the matrix A = ⎢⎢ 3 0 –2 ⎥⎥ , compute the 2 2 0 1 2 x–1
⎣⎢ 4 11 1⎦⎥ c. 2 x 0 =0 d. x 2x x =0
cofactors C12, C23 and C31. x 2 6 0 x 1

96
B. Properties of Determinants 12. Given

8. Evaluate the determinants. b2 + c2 ab ac
1 1 2 3 11 0 ab c2 + a2 bc = ka 2b 2c 2
a. 1 1 2 b. 9 3 0 ac bc a2 + b2
3 0 5 5 9 0 and a2 + b2 + c2 = 0, find k.
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 2 1 1 0 2 0 0
c. d.
3 3 3 0 0 0 3 0
3 3 3 2 0 0 0 4
2 2 2 2
0 2 2 2 1 x x2
e.
0 0 2 2 13. Show that 1 y y2 = ( x – y)( y – z)( z – x).

0 0 0 2 1 z z2
9. Evaluate the following determinant.
ka k2 + a2 1
kb k2 + b 2 1 y+ z x+ z x + y
kc k2 + c2 1 14. Show that x y z = 0.

1 1 1

x2 y + xy2 xy 1
2 2
y z + yz yz 1
2 2
z x + zx zx 1
C. Applications of Determinants
15. Evaluate the determinants.
1 1 3 –1
a. b.
5 0 2 4
x– y y– z z–x 1 0 4 2 1 –1
c. –2 1 0 d. 0 4 3
y– z z–x x–y
z–x x–y y–z 3 2 1 5 0 –2
Determinants
97
16. Use an adjoint matrix to compute the inverse of 18. Find the area of the triangle with each set of
each matrix. vertices.
⎡1 1 ⎤ ⎡2 –1⎤ a. (0, 0), (3, 1), (2, 8)
a. ⎢ ⎥ b. ⎢ ⎥
⎣5 0 ⎦ ⎣4 7 ⎦ b. (5, –6), (–1, 3), (2, 9)
⎡ 1 0 4⎤ ⎡ 2 2 –1⎤ c. (–2, 5), (7, 2), (3, –4)
⎢ ⎥
c. ⎢ –2 1 0 ⎥ d. ⎢⎢ 0 3 –1⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 3 2 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ –1 –2 1⎥⎦
19. Use a determinant to check whether each set of

points is collinear.
17. Solve each system of equations by using Cramer’s
a. (2, 6), (–5, 10), (15, –2)
rule.
b. (2, 10), (6, 13), (–6, 4)
a. x+ y+ z = 3 b. x + y = 2 c. (–2, 5), (7, 2), (3, –4)
–2 x + 3z =1 y + z = –2
3x – 4 y – 2 z = –3 x + z =10
c. x – y+ z = 5 d. 5x – y + 3z = –3
x + 2 y + 3z = 8 –2 x + y – z = 2
x – y+ z = 8 x + 4y +5z =17
e. x + 3y + 4 z =15 f. 2x – y – 2 z = 4
–2 x + 4 y +5 z =12 x + 3y – z = –1
3x + y +6 z = 29 x + 2 y + 3z = 5
20. In each case, use a determinant to find an
g. 3x + 2 y – 4 z = –9 h. 3x – y + 2 z = –2 equation for the line containing the points.
x + 2z = –1 –4x + y +7 z = 4 a. (5, 1) and (1, 3) b. (0, –3) and (2, 7)

c. (6, –2) and (–3, 3) d. (8, –8) and (4, 9)
2 x – 5 y +5 z = –11 2 x + 4y – z =1
98
CHAPTER SUMMARY
A. The Determinant of a Matrix • The Rule of Sarrus
• Every square matrix can be assigned a real number which ⎡ a11 a12 a13 ⎤
is called the determinant of the matrix. We write det A, Let A = ⎢⎢ a21 a22 ⎥
a23 ⎥ . Then det A is defined as
|A|, D or ∆ to mean the determinant of a square matrix A. ⎣⎢ a31 a32 a33 ⎦⎥
• Only square matrices have determinants. det A=a11a22a33+a21a32a13–a31a22a23–a31a22a13–a32a23a11–a33a21a12

=a11a22a33+a21a32a13–a31a22a23–(a31a22a13+a32a23a11–a33a21a12)
• The determinant of a 1 × 1 matrix [a] is a.
• The rule of Sarrus only works for matrices of order 2 and 3.
⎡ a b⎤
• The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix ⎢ ⎥ is ad – bc. • We calculate the determinant of an n × n matrix in terms
⎢⎣ c d ⎥⎦
of the determinants of (n – 1) × (n – 1) matrices.
• If A is a square matrix then a minor of the entry aij, • To find the determinant of an n × n matrix, we apply
denoted by Mij, is the determinant of the square matrix cofactor expansion repeatedly until we are working with
formed by deleting the ith row and jth column from A. determinants that we can calculate easily.
• If A is an n × n triangular matrix then its determinant is
• A cofactor Cij is defined in terms of the minor Mij as
equal to the product of the diagonal entries, i.e.
Cij = (–1)i + j ⋅ Mij. |A| = a11⋅ a22 ⋅ a33 ... ann.
• If A is an n × n matrix and Cij is the cofactor of aij then
B. Properties of Determinants
⎡ C11 C12 " C1n ⎤
⎢ ⎥ If A is an n × n matrix then the following properties hold:
C21 C22 " C2 n ⎥
the cofactor matrix of A is ⎢ . 1. If the elements in any row or column are all zero then
⎢ # # % # ⎥
⎢ ⎥ |A| = 0.
⎢⎣Cn1 Cn 2 " Cnn ⎥⎦
2. If A has two identical rows or columns then |A| = 0.
• To obtain the cofactor matrix, we can apply a pattern of 3. If two rows (or two columns) of A are interchanged to get
alternating signs to a matrix of the minors. For a 3 × 3 A′, then det A′ = –det A.
⎡+ − + ⎤ 4. det AT = det A.
⎢ ⎥ 5. If the elements in one row (or one column) of det A are
determinant, the sign pattern is ⎢ − + − ⎥ .
⎢⎣ + − + ⎥⎦ all multiplied by a real number k then the value of the
resulting determinant is k times the original determinant.
• We can calculate the determinant of a matrix
6. If each element of one row (or column) of det A is
⎡ a11 a12 a13 ⎤ multiplied by a real number k and the resulting elements
⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢ a21 a22 a23 ⎥ by multiplying the entries in any row are then added to the corresponding elements of another
⎢⎣ a31 a32 a33 ⎥⎦ row (or column), then the resulting determinant is the
same as the original one.
or column by their cofactors. The cofactor expansion
7. If A and B are two square matrices of the same order then
along the ith row is the determinant of their product is the product of their
determinants, i.e. det (AB) = det A ⋅ det B.
|A| = (ai1 ⋅ Ci1) + (ai2 ⋅ Ci2) + (ai3 ⋅ Ci3).
8. If the elements of a row or column are expressed as a
The cofactor expansion of the jth column is binomials, the determinant can be written as the sum of
two determinants as follows:
|A| = (a1j ⋅ C1j) + (a2j ⋅ C2j) + (a3j ⋅ C3j).
a+ k b+l c+ m a b c k l m
• Since we can evaluate the determinant by expanding the
cofactors in any row or column, it is best to choose a row d e f =d e f +d e f .
or column which contains as many zeros as possible. g h i g h i g h i
Chapter Summary
99
C. Applications of Determinants Concept Check
• The transpose of a cofactor matrix is called the adjoint
• Does a matrix with dimension 3 × 2 have a determinant?
matrix, written adj A.
⎡a b⎤
1 • What is the determinant of the matrix ⎢ ⎥?
• If A is an invertible matrix then A = ⋅ adjA. –1
⎢⎣ c d ⎥⎦
A
• Cramer's Rule • Can we find the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix by using
cofactor expansion?
The solution of the system
• What is the difference between the minor and the cofactor
⎧ a1x + b1y + c1z = d1 of the entry aij of a matrix?
⎪⎪
⎨ a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2 is (x, y, z), where • How can we find the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix by
⎪ using minors?
⎪⎩ a3 x + b3y + c3z = d3
• Does the rule of Sarrus work on 2 × 2 matrices? Give an
d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1 example to support your answer.
d2 b2 c2 a2 d2 c2 a2 b2 d2 • Name two methods for finding the determinant of a 3 × 3
matrix. Which method is easier?
d b3 c3 a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3
x= 3 , y= ,z = • Is it possible to find the determinant of 4 × 4 and larger
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
matrices?
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 • Why is it better to calculate the determinant of matrix by
expanding along the row or column which contains the
a1 b1 c1 most zeros?
and a2 b2 c2 ≠ 0. • What is a triangular matrix?
a3 b3 c3 • How can we find the determinant of a triangular matrix?
• What is the value of the determinant of a matrix which
contains only zeros in one of its rows?
• The area of a triangle with vertices at (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and • What is the value of the determinant of a matrix if it has
two identical rows?
(x3, y3) is
• How does the determinant of a matrix change if any row
x1 y1 1 y
(x1, y1)
is multiplied by a real number k?
1
Area = ± x2 y2 1 , • Is it always true that det A = det AT?
2
x3 y3 1 (x2, y2)
• Can we write the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix as the
(x3, y3)
sum of two determinants?
0 x • How can we find the inverse of a matrix by using an

adjoint matrix?
where the sign (+ or –) is chosen to make the area positive. • If a matrix is invertible, what can you say about its
determinant?
• Three points (x1, y1), (x2, y2), and (x3, y3) are collinear if
• Explain what Cramer’s rule is used for.
x1 y1 1 • What is a coefficient matrix?
and only if x2 y2 1 = 0.
• If Cramer’s rule does not give a solution to a system, what
x3 y3 1 does this say about the determinant of the coefficient
matrix?
• The equation of the line which joins the points (x1, y1)
• How can we find the area of a triangle with vertices
x y 1 (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3) by using a determinant?
and (x2, y2) is x1 y1 1 = 0.
• What is the relation between collinearity and the
x2 y2 1 determinant for the points (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3)?
100
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2A
11 10 a 1 a
1. Evaluate the determinant .
10 11 5. Solve 3 5 5 = –54 for a.
A) 19 B) 20 C) 21 D) 22 E) 23 a 4 a
A) –9 B) –6 C) –3 D) 6 E) 9
x–1 y–1 z–1

x –1 x 6. Evaluate the determinant 1 1 1 .
x x +1 yz xz xy
A) –1 B) 2 C) 1 D) x E) 2x2 – 1
A) –2 B) –1 C) 0 D) 1 E) 2
2000 2001 2002

7. Evaluate the determinant 2003 2004 2005 .
⎡5 2 ⎤
3. Given A = ⎢ ⎥ , find det(A ).
5
2006 2007 2008
⎣ 3 1 ⎦
A) 204 B) –2 C) 0 D) 2008 E) 2
A) –3 B) –1 C) 1 D) 0 E) 3
0 a b 0
a 0 b 0
2 –11 9 0 a 0 b
4. Evaluate the determinant 0 0 0. 1 1 1 1
6 2 –1 A) ab(a + b) B) ab(b – a) C) ab
A) –1 B) 2 C) 1 D) 11 E) 0 D) 2ab(a – b) E) 0
Chapter Review Test 2A

101
x 2 –1 – x + 4y + z = –13
x2 2 .
9. Solve 3 x 0 = . 13. Solve the system x – 2y – z = 9
x x
0 4 x 3x +5 y + 2 z = 30
A) 7 B) 2 C) –3 D) –2 E) 5 A) (10, –2, 5) B) (5, –2, 10) C) (2, 5, 2)

D) (–5, 2, 6) E) (10, 5, 2)
a b c 2a 2b 2c 14. Find the value of c such that the system

10. d e f = 6 is given. Find 2d 2e 2 f . 4x – 3y + z = 2003
g h i 2 g 2h 2i 2 x – y + 3z = 2004
A) 6 B) 12 C) 24 D) 48 E) 5 8 x + cy – 3z = 2005
does not have a unique solution.
A) 5 B) –1 C) 2 D) –7 E) 3
x + 2 y – 2 z = –6
11. Solve the system 3x – y + z =10 .
– x +5 y – 2 z = –16 15. What is the area of a triangle with vertices at the
points (6, –4), (1, 8), and (–5, –1)?
A) (1, 2, 3) B) (2, –2, 2) C) (2, 0, 2)
D) (–2, 3, 4) E) (–2, 3, –2) 113 115 117 119
A) B) C) D) E) 55
2 2 2 2
x + y – z = –2 7 –1 x
2 x
12. Given the system 2x+ y – z = 3 , 16. =10 and 0 3 y = –57 are given.
–4 y
– x + 3y – 2 z = 4 1 2 –3
what is z – x – y? Find x.
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 E) 5 A) –2 B) 2 C) 3 D) –3 E) 5

102
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2B
1 3 2 1 1 1 0 1 1
1. Solve 4 x2 3 =17 for x. 5. a b c =k 1 b c is given. Find k.
2 2 2 2
2 5 2 a b c a+b b c2
A) {–1, 1} B) {1} C) {2} D) {3} E) {4} A) a + b B) a – b C) a – b – c
D) a + b + c E) abc
1 a–2 3
cos x cos x cos x
2. Evaluate the determinant 2 b – 4 2 .
6. Evaluate the determinant cos 2 x cos 2 x cos 2 x .
3 c–6 5
cos 3 x cos 3 x cos 3 x
A) –abc B) 4(c – a – b) C) –1 D) 0 E) 1
A) cos x B) cos 2x C) cos 3x D) 1 E) 0
25 24 2007 453 454

3. Evaluate the determinant 0 0 –1 . 451 452
24 25 7 A) (450)2 B) 452 C) 455 D) 4 E) 2
A) –49 B) –7 C) 0 D) 7 E) 49
1 2 0 2
4 3 0 1.
123 3 12 8. Evaluate the determinant
0 0 0 0
4. Evaluate the determinant 65 5 6 .
4 –2 2 5
47 7 4
A) 0 B) 47 C) 65 D) 123 E) 2007 A) 42 B) 14 C) 8 D) 0 E) –12
Chapter Review Test 2B
103
1 0 x x+ y+ z = 5
9. Solve x 2
1 0 = 0 for x. 13. Solve the system 2 x + 2 y + z = 6 .
x 0 1 x + 2y + 2z = 9
A) {1, –1} B) {2, 1} C) {1, 3} A) (1, –2, 1) B) (3, –2, 1) C) (2, 1, 2)

D) (1, 1, 2) E) (1, 0, 4)
D) {–2, 1} E) {1, 5}
a b c
10. If –1 1 –3 = p then evaluate
4 0 1
14. The determinant of a matrix [A]2×2 is 9. What is
a+ 2 b+ 2 c+ 2 det(2A–1)?
1 –1 3 .
1 4 9
4 0 1 A) B) C) D) 4 E) 9
9 9 4
A) 4p – 2 B) 2p + 6 C) 28 – p
D) 4p + 12 E) p + 24
x +8 y + 3z = 8 15. The points (a, 1), (5, 0) and (5, 8) are collinear.
11. Solve the system 2 x + y – z = 7 . What is a?
3x + 2 y + z = 4
A) –2 B) 1 C) 2 D) 4 E) 5
A) (1, 2, –3) B) (1, –2, 2) C) (2, 2, –3)
D) (–2, 3, 4) E) (1, 3, –2)
x + 2 y + 3z = 2 x +1 2 3
12. Solve the system 4x +5y +6 z = 3 . 16. Solve 1 x+ 2 3 = 0 for x.
7 x +8 y +9 z = 4 1 2 x+ 3
A) (1, 2, 3) B) (2, –2, 2) C) (2, 0, 2) A) {–1, –2, –3} B) {0, –6, 6} C) {–6, 0}
D) no solution E) infinitely many solutions D) {0, 6} E) {1, 2, 3}
104
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2C
1. A triangle with vertices (–4, 1), (2, 3) and ⎡cos 2 x cos x ⎤ | A|
(x, –1) has an area of 11 square units. What is x 5. A = ⎢ ⎥ is given. What is ?
⎣ sin 2 x sin x ⎦ cos x
if x is a positive number?
A) tan x B) cot x C) 1
A) 11 B) 9 C) 6 D) 2 E) 1
D) sin x E) sin 2x
⎡ 1 –1⎤ 6. A is a 3 × 3 matrix with |A| = 2. Find det(2A).

2. A = ⎢ ⎥ is given. Find det(A ).
–1
⎣ 2 3⎦
1 1 A) 32 B) 30 C) 24 D) 16 E) 8
A) 25 B) 5 C) 1 D) E)
5 25
⎡ 1 –1 1⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ 4 ⎤
7. Given ⎢⎢ –1 1 2 ⎥⎥ ⋅ ⎢⎢ y ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ 8 ⎥⎥ , find z.
x –1 x2 –1 ⎢⎣ 2 1 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣11⎥⎦
3. Solve 2
= .
1 x x +1 1 1 1
A) –2 B) – C) – D) 3 E) 4
2 3
A) 3 B) 2 C) 1 D) 0 E) –1
a2 –a
8. Evaluate 2
if a and b are the roots of the
b b
log 2 6 1
4. Evaluate the determinant . equation x2 + x – 2 = 0.
ln e log 36 16
A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 3 E) 4 A) –4 B) –2 C) 1 D) 2 E) 4
Chapter Review Test 2C

105
2 sin x 1+ cos x ⎡ 2x x x⎤
9. f ( x) = . Find f ( π ). ⎢ –3x –2 x − x ⎥ = –27,
1 – cos x sin x 3 13. If ⎢ ⎥ what is x?
⎢⎣ x x x ⎥⎦
1 3
A) B) C) 1 D) 2 E) 4 A) 3 B) 1 C) –1 D) –3 E) –4
4 4
⎡b + c c b ⎤
⎢ | A|
e x
e 2 14. A = ⎢ c c+ a a ⎥⎥. Simplify .
10. Given = 24, find x. a⋅b⋅c
e –2 ex ⎢⎣ b a a + b ⎥⎦
A) 4 B) 1 C) a + b
A) –5 B) 3 C) 2 D) ln 2 E) ln 5
D) a + b + c E) –1
11. Find the sum of the entries in the first column of

15. Find the determinant of the matrix
⎡ 1 2 –1⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎡1 x y + z ⎤
the adjoint of the matrix A = ⎢2 3 0 ⎥ . ⎢1 y x + z ⎥ .
⎢⎣ 1 –1 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣1 z x + y ⎥⎦
A) –5 B) –4 C) –3 D) 2 E) 4 A) x ⋅ y ⋅ z B) 0 C) –1
D) x + y + z E) 1
⎡ 1 2⎤ ⎡ 1 –2 ⎤ 16. Which one of the following cannot be a value of x

12. Given A = ⎢ ⎥ and B–1 = ⎢ ⎥, find
⎣ –1 3 ⎦ ⎣3 2 ⎦ ⎡ 1 x –1⎤
det(A–1B). if the inverse of the matrix ⎢2 –1 3 ⎥ exists?
⎢ ⎥
1 1 12 14 ⎢⎣ 1 –2 1⎥⎦
A) B) C) 2 D) E)
80 40 5 5 A) –1 B) –2 C) –5 D) –8 E) –11

106
EXERCISES 1. 1
1
1. a. yes (linear) b. no (not linear) c. no d. no e. no f. yes 2. a. (2, 1)
b. ( , 0)
3
1 1 3
c. (– , , 0) d. (2, 1, 3) e. (0, 0) f. (–t, 0, t), t ∈ \ 3. a. (6, 3) b. (2, 7) 4. a. (6, –8) b. (1, – )
2 2 2
2t 3 5
5. a. (2, –2) b. (–2, 2) c. no solution d. ( + 2, t), t ∈ \ e. (1, 1) f. no solution g. ( , , 3)
3 2 2
t + 2 1 – 4t –3t
h. ( , , t), t ∈ \ i. (1, 2, 3) j. (3, –3, 1) k. (0, 0, 0) l. ( , t, t), t ∈ \ m. (1, –2, 1, 0)
3 3 5
2
n. (1, –1, 2, 0) 6. a. {k : k ∈ \, k ≠ –ñ3, k ≠ ñ3} b. k = – c. {k : k ∈ \, k ≠ –1, k ≠ 1}
3
8
d. k∈{–2, 2} e. k = f. k = –2 7. k∈{–2, 1} 8. a. 2a+b ≠ 22, c = 0 b. (11, 0, 0)
3
c. 2a + b = 22, c ∈ \
EXERCISES 1.2
⎡ 7 3⎤ ⎡ –1⎤
⎡ –2 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ c21 = –9 c23 = 59
1. a. A+ B= ⎢ ⎥ b. A + B = ⎢ 1 9 ⎥ c. A + B = ⎢ 8 ⎥ 2. 3.
⎣ 6 3⎦ ⎢ –2 15 ⎥ ⎢ 1⎥ c13 = 26 c32 = 56
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎤
A – B = ⎢ 4 0⎥ ⎡ 5 –5 ⎤ ⎡ 7⎤
⎣ –2 –1⎦ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
A – B = ⎢ 3 –1⎥ A – B = ⎢ –4 ⎥
⎡2 4⎤ ⎢ –4 –5 ⎥ ⎢ –3⎥
2A = ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎣4 2⎦ ⎡12 –2 ⎤ ⎡ 6⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎡ ⎤ 2A = ⎢ 4 6⎥ 2 A = ⎢ 4⎥
2 A – B = ⎢5 6⎥
⎣0 0 ⎦ ⎢ –6 10 ⎥ ⎢ –2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ 11 –6 ⎤ ⎡10 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2A – B = ⎢ 5 1⎥ 2 A – B = ⎢ –2 ⎥
⎢ –7 0 ⎥ ⎢ –4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
1
4. a = 3, b = 2, c = 1 5. k = –1, m = – , n = –2 6. a. a = 4; b = –1; c = 3; d = 1 b. a = –1; b = 1; c = 2
2
⎡6 –21 15 ⎤
⎡ –3 3⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
7. a. ⎢ ⎥ b. ⎢ 0 –10 ⎥ c. ⎢ 4 2 ⎥ d. ⎢8 –23 19 ⎥ e. [12]
⎣12 –12 ⎦ ⎣10 0⎦ ⎣ –2 4 ⎦ ⎢4 7 5⎥
⎣ ⎦
Answers to Exercises
107
⎡ 3⎤ ⎡ –1 19 ⎤ ⎡3 0 0⎤ ⎡0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
8. a. undefined b. ⎢10 ⎥ c. ⎢ 4 –27 ⎥ d. ⎢0 –4 0 ⎥ e. ⎢0 0 0 ⎥ f. undefined g. undefined
⎢26 ⎥ ⎢ 0 14 ⎥ ⎢0 0 –10 ⎥ ⎢0 0 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 0⎤ ⎡ 1 0⎤ ⎡ –5 2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
b. ⎢2 –1⎥
29 30
9. a. A = ⎢ ⎥ b. A = ⎢ ⎥ 10. a. ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 –1⎦ ⎣0 1⎦ ⎣ 3 5⎦ ⎣ 3 –2 ⎦
⎡ 3 0 3⎤
⎡ cos( α + β) – sin( α + β) ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
11. AB = ⎢ ⎥ 12. a. [1 2 3] b. ⎢2 1 –1⎥ c. ⎢2 5 1 ⎥ d. ⎢7 2 ⎥ 13. –4
⎣ sin( α + β) cos( α + β) ⎦ ⎢ 1 5 2⎥ ⎣3 2 0 ⎦ ⎣0 7 ⎦
⎣ ⎦
⎡cos( α + β) – sin( α + β) ⎤
BA = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ sin( α + β) cos( α + β) ⎦ ⎡ 1 1 –1⎤
⎡ 7 –2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
14. 5 15. 4 16. 5 18. a. ⎢ ⎥ b. ⎢ –3 2 ⎥ c. no inverse d. ⎢0 –1⎥ e. ⎢ –3 2 –1⎥
⎣ –3 1⎦ ⎣ –2 1⎦ ⎣ 1 11⎦ ⎢ 3 –3 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ –13 6 4 ⎤ ⎡ –4 9 ⎤ ⎡ –6 –25 24 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 3 4⎤ ⎢ 77 77 ⎥
f. ⎢ 12 –5 –3 ⎥ 19. a. ( AB)–1 = ⎢ ⎥ b. ( AB)–1 = ⎢ ⎥ c. ( AB) = ⎢⎢ –6 10 7 ⎥⎥
–1
⎢ –5 2 ⎣ 2 1⎦ ⎢ –9 1 ⎥
1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣17 7 15 ⎥⎦
⎣
⎡2 –1⎤ ⎣⎢ 17 77 ⎦⎥
( A T )–1 = ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 1 0 4⎤
⎣1 2 ⎦ ⎡ 2 3⎤
T –1
⎢– 7 7 ⎥ ( A ) = ⎢⎢ –4 1 2 ⎥⎥
T –1
(A ) = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 2⎥ ⎢⎣ 2 3 1⎥⎦
⎣⎢ 7 7 ⎥⎦
53
20. a. – 21. 2 22. –3 23. 14
25
24. The products AB and BA are not commutative. A2 – 2A + I = 0 ⇔ 2A – A2 = I
Since A is a square matrix, A ⋅ A–1 = I, and so A–1 = 2I – A.
25. Hint: AB ≠ BA (The products are not commutative.)
EXERCISES 2
3
1. a. –2 b. 42 c. 25 d. 201 e. 1 f. –4 2. a. –2 b. –8 c. 8 d. 1 e. f. –2 3. M12 = –6,
2
M23 = –29, M31 = –5 4. C12 = –11, C23 = 19, C31 = –4 5. a. –4 b. –11 c. –3 d. –27 e. 0 f. 0 6. a. 0
1
b. 0 c. –44 d. –510 7. a. b. 1 c. 2 d. x = 0, x = 2 8. a. 0 b. 0 c. 0 d. 24 e. 16
2
9. k(a – b)(a – c)(c – b) 10. 0 11. 0 12. 4 13. Hint: use Example 21 on page 80 14. Hint: use the properties
of determinants 15. a. –5 b. 14 c. –27 d. 19

108
7 1⎤ ⎡ 1 8 4 ⎤
16. a. ⎡0 1⎤ b. ⎡⎢ c. ⎢ – – d. ⎡ 1 0 1⎤
⎢ 5⎥ 18 18 ⎥ 27 27 27 ⎥ ⎢ 1 1 2⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢– 2 1⎥ ⎢– 2 11 8 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢1 – 1⎥ ⎢⎣3 2 6 ⎥⎦
⎣⎢ 5 ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ 9 9 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 27 27 27 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 7 2 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ 27 27 27 ⎥⎦
20 6 9
17. a. (1, 1, 1) b. (7, –5, 3) c. inconsistent d. (–3, 0, 4) e. (2, –1, 4) f. ( ,– , ) g. (–3, 2, 1)
7 7 7
11 11 3 63
h. (– , , ) 18. a. 11 b. c. 33 19. a. no b. yes c. no
19 19 19 2
20. a. –x – 2y + 7 = 0 b. –5x + y + 3 = 0 c. –5x – 9y + 12 = 0 d. –17x – 4y + 104 = 0
TEST 1A TEST 1B
1. B 9. A 1. B 9. D
2. E 10. C 2. E 10. D
3. E 11. B 3. C 11. A
4. D 12. A 4. A 12. E
5. C 13. B 5. D 13. E
6. E 14. D 6. D 14. B
7. A 15. E 7. C 15. B
8. C 16. E 8. C 16. C
TEST 2A TEST 2B TEST 2C

1. C 9. C 1. A 9. A 1. E 9. B
2. A 10. D 2. B 10. C 2. D 10. E
3. B 11. B 3. E 11. A 3. E 11. C
4. E 12. B 4. A 12. E 4. B 12. B
5. E 13. A 5. B 13. E 5. A 13. A
6. C 14. D 6. E 14. B 6. D 14. A
7. C 15. C 7. E 15. E 7. E 15. B
8. D 16. C 8. D 16. C 8. D 16. D
Answers to Exercises
109
adjoint matrix: the transpose of a cofactor matrix. dimensions (of a matrix): the number of rows and
antisymmetric matrix: If the entries on the main columns in a given matrix (also called the order of the
diagonal of a square matrix are all zero and the sums matrix). For example, the matrix [1 2 3] has one row
of the symmetric entries with respect to the main and three columns, so its dimensions are 1×3.
diagonal are zero then this matrix is called an determinant: a real number which is associated with a
antisymmetric matrix. square matrix. Every square matrix has one
determinant.
coefficient: a constant multiplier of the variable(s) in an

algebraic term. For example, the coefficient of 2xy is 2.
elementary matrix operation: one of three basic
coefficient matrix: a matrix which is obtained from
matrix operations: multiplying a row or column of a
the coefficients of a system of linear equations. For
matrix by a scalar, adding a scalar multiple of another
example, the coefficient matrix for the system
row or column to a given row or column, or transposing
2 x + y =1 ⎡2 1⎤ two rows or columns.
is ⎢ 3 −1⎥ .
3x − y = 9 ⎣ ⎦ elimination method: a method for solving a system of
communication matrix: a matrix which shows the linear equations in which equations are added
possible paths of communication between different together to eliminate one or more of the variables.
things, places or points. entry: one of the numbers in a matrix. We write aij to
consistent system of equations: a system of linear mean the entry in the ith row and jth column of a
equations which has either one solution or infinitely matrix A.
many solutions. equal matrices: Two matrices are equal matrices if
column (of a matrix): a vertical array of numbers in a they have the same dimension and their
matrix. corresponding entries are all equal. A = B means that
cofactor: The cofactor of a matrix entry aij is two matrices A and B are equal. Note that
Cij=(–1) ⋅ Mij, where Mij is the minor of aij.
i+ j
⎡ 1⎤
cofactor expansion: a way of calculating the determinant [1 2 3] ≠ ⎢2 ⎥ , since the dimensions are different.
⎢ 3⎥
of a matrix by using some of its cofactors. ⎣ ⎦
cofactor matrix: The cofactor matrix of a matrix A is
the matrix which consists of the cofactors of all the
entries of A. homogeneous linear system: a system of linear
Cramer’s rule: a method for solving a system of n equations in which the right-hand side of every
linear equations in n unknowns by using matrices. equation is zero.
inconsistent system of equations: a linear system scalar matrix: a diagonal matrix whose entries are all
which has no solution. equal.
identity matrix: a diagonal matrix in which every
singular matrix: a square matrix whose determinant
entry on the main diagonal (from top left to bottom
is equal to zero (and which therefore has no inverse).
right) is 1 and whose other elements are all 0. The
n × n identity matrix is denoted by In. square matrix: a matrix which has the same number
inverse matrix: A matrix B is the inverse of a matrix A of rows and columns.

if AB = I, the identity matrix. A–1 means the inverse of A. substitution method: a method for solving a system of
invertible matrix: a matrix which has an inverse. linear equations in which we substitute a variable in
an equation with an equivalent expression from a
different equation.
linear equation in n variables: an equation that can be
symmetric matrix: If all the entries in a square matrix
written in the form a1x1 + ... +anxn = b, where a1, ..., an
are symmetric with respect to the main diagonal (i.e.
and b are real numbers and x1, ..., xn are variables.
aij = aji for all possible i and j) then the matrix is
called a symmetric matrix.
main diagonal (of a matrix): the sequence of system of equations: a set of equations that need to be
elements of a square matrix that run from the top left solved simultaneously, i.e. the solution must fit every
to the bottom right of the matrix. equation in the set.
matrix: an ordered rectangular array of elements set
out in rows and columns. An m × n (pronounced
‘m by n’) matrix has m rows and n columns.
minor: If A is a square matrix then the minor of an
entry aij is the determinant of the square matrix triangular matrix: a square matrix which has all zero
formed by deleting the ith row and jth column of A. Mij entries either above or below the main diagonal.
means the minor of aij. transpose of a matrix: the matrix which is obtained by
interchanging the rows and columns of a given
matrix. For example, the transpose of
order of a matrix: another name for the dimension of
a square matrix. ⎡a b⎤ ⎡a c ⎤
⎢ ⎥ is ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ c d⎦ ⎣b d ⎦
trivial solution: the solution of a homogeneous linear
row (of a matrix): a horizontal line of numbers in a
system in which all variables are zero.
matrix.
row echelon form: A system of linear equations is in
row echelon form if the leading coefficient (i.e. the
first non-zero coefficient from the left) of each
equation is always strictly to the right of the leading zero matrix: a matrix whose entries are all zeros. We
coefficient of the equation above it. write 0 to mean a zero matrix.

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