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‡ Waves refer to the rise and fall of the water surface in the sea or ocean when
the wind blows over it. Depending on the wave energy, waves can build up
(constructive waves) or erode a beach (destructive waves).

‡ Tides refer to the daily and alternate rise and fall of sea level seen along
ocean coasts primarily due to the gravitational pull of the Moon and, to a
lesser extent, the Sun. These pulls on the Earth and its water produce two
high tides on opposite sides of the Earth when the Moon is very close to the
Earth and low tides when the Moon is further away.
At certain times of the month, when the Earth, the Sun and the Moon are all in
a straight line, extremely high tides (spring tide) are experienced. While very
low tides (neap tide) occurs when the Earth, Moon and Sun are at right angles
to each other. The difference between the high and low tides is called tidal
action and it affects the coastal processes of erosion and transportation.

‡ Currents are large-scale and persistent movements of water in the ocean. It

is largely driven by prevailing winds which can either be horizontal or vertical.
An example is the longshore current th at flows parallel to the coast. It is
formed by waves that approach the coast at an angle. This current can
transport an entire section of a sandy beach several kilometres down the
coast within a short period.

    

 
 


(a) Speed of wind
The greater the wind speed, the greater the wind energy.
(b) Duration of wind
The longer the wind blows, the larger the waves and the greater the energy.
(c) Fetch The greater the fetch, the greater the wave ener gy.



     
  
 
 
 
 

‡ When the wind blows over the surface of the water, waves are formed. ‡
Waves move in a series of circular loop -like motions.
‡ As waves move through deep water, little energy is lost.
‡ As waves approach the coast, the water becomes shallower.
‡ Friction with the sea floor surface slows down the wave movement.
‡ This frictional force causes the waves to heighten and bend forward.
‡ As they continue to move forward, they collapse onto the beach, into
foaming water.
‡ The forward movement of the waves up the shore is called swash.
‡ Earth's gravity pulls the waves back to the sea; this movement is called
backwash.

_
    
     



 
   
 
 
    

  
‡ Presence of high energy destructive waves.
‡ Coastal rocks with numerous joints, cracks and lines of weaknesses which
will allow the rocks to be eroded and broken down more quickly. Soft rocks
such as shale and clay erode much faster than harder rocks like granite or
basalt.
‡ Rocks with soluble minerals will erode easily as their soluble minerals are
constantly reacting chemically with the sea water.
‡ More open and exposed coasts are more vulnerable to erosion than those
sheltered from prevailing winds.


 
 
‡ Direction of prevailing wind.

   
‡ Abundant supply of sediments.
‡ Gentle sloping beaches which disperse wave energy due to the friction with
the shore, along with the weak gravitational pull on the waves, this result in
constructive waves as the swash is stronger than that of the backwash. Thus,
sediments are deposited.
‡ Sheltered coasts with indented coastlines and calm conditions also allow
deposition to take place.

 
 

  
 

  

(a) Type of waves

Destructive waves have more energy than constructive waves, thus more
materials are eroded than deposited.
(b) Structure and composition of coastal rocks
Rocks with more lines of weaknesses will be eroded more rapidly. Soft rocks
like shale and clay are eroded faster than hard rocks like granite and basalt.
Rocks with soluble minerals like limestone will react chemically with the sea
water, causing the rocks to disintegrate as they weaken and break down
rocks.
(c) Position of the coast
Coasts that are protected from prevailing winds and wave action naturally by
coral reefs, mangroves or by man made structures will experience less
erosion than those that are left open and exposed.

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‡ Coastal erosion occurs through four processes:
(a) Hydraulic action
- The sheer force and direct impact of the breaking waves exerts great
pressure as it pounds onto the cliff face.
- Water enters the lines of weaknesses present in the rock and the air present
in the cracks is being compressed further.
- The pressure from the compressed air then widens the cracks.
- Over time, this compression and outward pu sh of the air pockets may cause
the cracks to be enlarged and break down the rocks.
(b) Abrasion
- It is caused by the constant impact of the materials like rocks and boulders
scraping against the coast.
- These materials are carried by the destructive wav es that are able to lift
them up from the sea bed and hurl them against the coast.
(c) Attrition
- It occurs when particles that are being carried by the waves rub and hit
against each other, thus breaking down into smaller particles in the process.
- Over time, these particles are eroded to develop smooth and rounded
surfaces.
(d) Solution
- It occurs when waves react chemically with the soluble minerals present in
the rocks, like limestone.
- The minerals are being dissolved, forming a chemical solution.

!
 
 
(a) Longshore drift is one of the important ways in which waves transport
materials along a coast.
- When waves approach the coast at an angle, the swash carries the material
in the water up the beach at an oblique angle.
- The backwash then carries the materials perpendicularly down the beach
due to the pull of gravity.
- This results in a zigzag movement of the materials along the beach.
- The direction of the longshore drift is affected by the wind direction. For
example, when the wind is blowing from a southeast direction, the direction of
the longshore drift will be from east to west.

!   
 
 
      

 
(a) Supply of sediment
- Most sediment is transported down the coast by rivers.
- Some sediment is products of coastal erosion, and some is deposited onto
the coast by the waves.
- When the wave energy drops, the waves can no longer carry their load of
sediment, thus deposition takes place.
(b) Gradient of slope
- On gentle slopes, the wave energy is spread out and reduced due to friction
with the shore forming constructive waves.
- The strong swash brings materials up and deposits them onto the beach.

(c) Position of the coast

- Along coasts that are sheltered from strong winds, such as indented
coastlines and
riverine inlets, destructive waves are not common.
- The calm coastal conditions allow deposition to take place.
- Sandy beaches are common in protected bays.

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‡ A cliff is a steep rock face and is formed when a coast is eroded.
‡ When waves undercut a steep rock coast, hydraulic action and abrasion
weaken the lines of weaknesses present on the rock surface, forming a notch
at the base of the cliff. ‡ This notch continues to be further eroded and
deepened to form a cave.
‡ Further undercutting will eventually cause the roof of the cave to collapse.
‡ As the process continues, an overhanging cliff is f ormed.
‡ In time, this overhanging cliff will collapse and the materials will be deposited
at the foot of the cliff.
‡ A steep rock face called a cliff is formed.

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‡ A wave-cut platform is a gently-sloping platform formed at the bas e of a cliff.
‡ When waves undercut a steep rock coast, hydraulic action and abrasion
weaken the lines of weaknesses present on the rock surface, forming a notch
at the base of the cliff. ‡ This notch continues to be further eroded and
deepened to form a cave.
‡ Further undercutting will eventually cause the roof of the cave to collapse.
‡ As the process continues, an overhanging cliff is formed.
‡ In time, this overhanging cliff will collapse and the materials will be deposited
at the foot of the cliff.
‡ A steep rock face called a cliff is formed.
‡ Continuous erosion causes the cliff to retreat inland. Over time, a wave -cut
platform is formed at the foot of the cliff.

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‡ A headland is made of resistant rocks which extend outwards in to the sea
and it is formed due to differential erosion of coastal rocks.
‡ A bay is made of less resistant rocks which remain after erosion has taken
place on coastal rocks.
‡ Headlands and bays are formed along coasts that have alternate strips of
resistant hard rocks and less resistant soft rocks arranged at right angles to
the coast.
‡ The less resistant soft rocks are eroded faster than the resistant rocks.
‡ The result is the formation of an indented coast with the remaining hard
rocks forming headlands extending into the sea and soft rocks forming bays.

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‡ A beach is a zone of deposition along the coast.
‡ It is formed when materials carried by the waves, tides and currents are
deposited on gentle slopes where constructive waves allow mate rials to be
deposited by the strong swash.
‡ Beaches are formed at protected bays along an indented coast as a result of
wave refraction
‡ Due to wave refraction, waves approach the shallow sea in front of the
headland first before they reach the adjacent bays.
‡ As wave energy tends to concentrate and strike at the headlands rather than
the bays, erosion takes place at the protruding headlands.
‡ Along the bays, waves are diverged and so their energy is spread out and
weakened. Deposition of sediment thus takes place along the bays, and over
time, sandy beaches are formed.
‡ Beaches usually consist of sandy materials although they can be formed
from broken coral pieces, pebbles and blackish volcanic sand.
‡ Usually the wind and waves will sort out the mater ials on the beach with the
finer materials being deposited nearer to the sea and the coarser materials
deposited further inland.‡ Beach materials are continually moved along by
process of longshore drift according to the wind direction.

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· The swash and backwash push and drag materials up and down the beach.
· When the waves approach the coast obliquely, they move up the beach at an
angle and carry the materials up the beach.
· However, the backwash will drag the materials down the beach at a right
angle due to gravitational pull.
· The swash from the next breaker will transport obliquely some of the
materials up the beach again and the process is repeated.
· The movement of the particles along the beach in a zig -zag manner is called
longshore drift.

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‡ Spits and tombolos are formed by longshore drift.
‡ When there is a change in the direction of the coastline, the longshore drift
will continue to transport the materials in the original direction to the sea.
‡ The materials are deposited as they enter the water. Over time, these
materials accumulate above the water, and a spit is formed.
‡ The spit continues to grow as materials are continuously deposited.
‡ The spit eventually joins a nearby island to the mainland, f orming a tombolo.

(  )






 )
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 *
Hard engineering approach" or "structural approach" refers to the construction
of physical structures to defend against the erosive power of the waves.
"Soft engineering approach" or "non-structural approach" refers to coastal
protection focusing on planning and management so that coastal areas and
properties are not damaged by coastal erosion. It involves minimal human
interference allowing nature to take its course.

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(a) Building seawalls

Seawalls are structures that are built along the coast to absorb energy of
incoming waves before they erode away loose mat erials on the beach. They
may be built of concrete, rocks or wood. However, it is a costly method to
build and maintain.

(b) Building breakwaters

They are built with either one end attached to the coast or away from the
coast. Similar to seawalls, they ar e able to absorb the energy of incoming
waves before they reach shore. When constructed offshore, they can create a
zone of calm water behind them.

(c) Building groynes

Groynes are built are right angles to the shore to prevent longshore drift. They
are able to absorb or reduce the energy of the waves and cause materials to
be deposited on the side of the groyne facing the longshore drift. However,
erosion can still take place on the part of the coast which is not protected by
the groynes.

(d) Building gabions

Gabions are usually wire cages filled with crushed rocks which are piled up
along the shore to prevent of reduce coastal erosion by weakening the wave
energy. However, this is a short term protection method which lasts between
five to ten years, as wire cages require regular maintenance due to constant
exposure to sea water resulting in corrosion or damaged by excessive
trampling and vandalism. Also, if they are not properly maintained, these wire
baskets become unsightly and hazardous on the beach.

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(a) Beach nourishment
It is the constant replenishment of large quantities of sand to the beach
system. As the beach
extends seawards, it leads to an improvement of both beach qual ity and storm
protection. However, it is very expensive to constantly transport large
quantities of sand to fill up the beach as sand is continuously being eroded
and transported away by the waves and winds. This could have serious
consequences for the wil dlife living within the coastal environment.
Moreover, with a limited supply of sand available, this method may not be
practical in the long run.

(b) Relocation of property

Coastal planners are trying to protect man -made structures such as buildings
by relocating them and letting nature reclaim the beach in its own time.
Relocation of buildings and other properties and restricting construction at
vulnerable sites will help to save the coast and prevent the loss of lives and
properties. This is extremely im portant especially when faced with the future
threat of rising sea-levels due to global warming.

(c) Planting of mangroves

Mangroves, with their long, curved roots that prop up from the soil help to trap
sediments and reduce coastal erosion. The prop root s are constantly looking
for new anchorage and are able to secure and trap enough sediment to form
small islands. As mangrove communities grow and expand seawards, they
also help to extend coastal land seawards.

(d) Stabilising dunes

Coastal dunes can be found along the shore where there is large supply of
sand and strong winds. The winds carry and deposit the sand on the coast
further inland. Gradually, the sand piles up to form coastal dunes which help
to defend the coast from the sea. Dunes are so fragi le that delicate shrubs
struggle to hold them in place. To prevent the dunes from being disturbed by
human traffic, access points to the beach should be controlled and
designated.
Shrubs and trees can also be planted to stabilise the dunes, as the roots of
trees can reach downwards to tap the groundwater and thereby anchor the
sand in the process.

(e) Growth of coral reefs

Natural coral reefs help to slow down wave energy, however, when coral reefs
are destroyed due to processes of land reclamation and wat er pollution, the
waves move towards the shore at full force and erode away the beaches.
Natural coral reefs should be conserved and protected while damaged reefs
ought to be restored. Artificial reefs can also be created along the coast by
placing environmentally friendly and durable materials such as steel or
concrete on the sea-floor. They can also help to enhance fishing opportunities
and serve as undersea barriers to reduce the impact of wave energy.
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Soft engineering approaches are more effective because they improve the
quality of the coastal areas in the long run and bring about benefits; also, they
are aesthetically more pleasing than the unsightly physical structures of hard
engineering approaches.
‡ Using the beach nourishment method, the beach is extended seawards
which leads to the improvement of both beach quality and storm protectio n.
Stabilised sand dunes also encourage the growth of other living organism in
addition to coastal protection. Established mangrove communities trap
sediments to form islands so that they can grow and expand seawards
increasing its coastal protection abili ty.
‡ Conserving natural coral reefs can help to reduce the impact of wave energy.
Coral reefs can also be artificially created by placing environmentally friendly
and durable materials such as steel or concrete on the sea -floor. This not only
serves as undersea barriers to reduce wave erosion, it also enhances fishing
opportunities when living organism begins to grow on it.
‡ Relocation of at-risk buildings and other properties and restricting
construction at vulnerable sites will help to save the coast an d prevent the loss
of lives and properties. This is extremely important especially when faced with
the future threat of rising sea-levels due to global warming.

Hard engineering approaches, on the other hand, are not as effective

because:
‡ They only protect the areas they have been constructed for, while other parts
of the coast are still exposed to erosion. Hence, making them less effective
than soft engineering methods.
‡ Structures constructed are not only expensive to build, but these structures
need to be maintained regularly so they can continue to provide coastal
protection as they are subjected to strong waves constantly. For instance,
gabions can only last for five to ten years and damaged gabions can be
dangerous when they are tampered with.