Types of Writing:

Genre- The type or category to which a piece of literature belongs.

These are the most well-known genres in literature:
 Short Story- A piece of fiction that tells a story written in prose; it is usually short
in length and focuses on one character, event or incident.
 Novel- a fictional narrative that is of book length. It usually has characters and
events that resemble reality.
 Novella-A fictional narrative that is longer than a short story but shorter than a
novel.
 Poetry- A type of literature art-form where the writer uses poetic devices to get
the message of their work across to the reader.
 Drama-A type of fiction which is set up by a script that is performed by actors on
stage.
 Fiction-A type of narrative that is written about imaginary characters and events.
 Non-Fiction- A type of narrative literature where the characters and events are
real.
 Biography- A type of literature written about someone by another person.
 Autobiography- A type of literature written by someone about his/her own life.
 Fable- A fictional story where the main characters are non-human, such as
animals/mythical creatures but possess the qualities that humans have. There is
usually a moral/lesson to be learned from the events that unroll within the story.
Eg. Aesop’s Fables- “The Tortoise and the Hare”
 Science Fiction- A type of literature where the characters and events are set in a
future time/place where science and technology are more advanced than the
present time.
 Tragedy- A type of narrative that deals with subjects such as human suffering,
pain and death in the story.
 Comedy- A type of story that is contains humor in it and is intended to entertain
an audience.

Elements of a Story:

Exposition- The essential background information at the beginning of a story that helps
readers to better understand the context of the story.

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Setting- If refers to the time and place that a story takes place. It can be directly stated or
suggested by the author. It is the background for the story and helps us to better
understand the events throughout the story.

Questions that help you determine the setting:

a. When does the story occur (year, historical events- etc.)
b. Where does it occur?
c. Why is the main character presented in this setting?
d. How does the setting affect the main character?
e. How does the setting help create conflict/complications?
f. How does the setting influence the actions of the characters?

Characterization- It is the manner in which an author develops characters and their

personalities. An author develops characters in several ways: by telling us directly about
the character, having them think/speak/act in a particular way, interactions between other
characters in the story; as well as other characters’ opinions of them.
Protagonist- It is the main character in a piece of literature.
Eg. Hamlet in the play ``Hamlet``.
Antagonist- This refers to any force/person/obstacle that stands in the way of the main
character as s/he tries to resolve the conflict in the story. Narrator-The person who is
telling the story.
Point of view- The perspective from which the narrator tells the story.
The most common points of view are:

-1st person point of view- the narrator is a character in the story (use of ‘I’ ‘me’
‘my’)
-3rd person point of view- the narrator is outside of the story (use of ‘he’ ‘she’
‘they’ ‘names’)

*Point of View can be limited (we cannot get into the minds of the characters) or
omniscient (we are `all-knowing` of the thoughts/feelings of the characters as they act)

Plot- The sequence of events that take place from the beginning to the end of the story.
Conflict -The struggle between two or more opposing forces (person vs. person; nature;
society; self; fate/God).
Rising action- The series of conflicts and complications in a story before the conflict is
resolved.
Climax- It is the highest point of tension in the story. It is here that the main conflict is
about to be resolved.

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Falling action- The results or effects of the climax in the story
Resolution/denouement- The end of a piece of literature when loose ends are tied up and
questions are answered.
Motif- A recurring feature of a story that is related to the theme
(i.e. recurring dreams, music, visions, etc.)
Theme – It is the main idea of a literary work summed up in one sentence. Theme differs
from the subject of a piece of literature in that it involves a statement or opinion about the
subject. The best way to arrive at the theme is to ask yourself: “What is the author trying
to tell us through the story?” For example, while the subject of a story might be money,
the actual theme might be “money is the root of all evil”.
Mood –.The feelings that the reader feels while reading the text. This is created by the
way the author uses words in the text to make the reader feel emotions such as fear,
happiness, sadness, hate, anger etc.
Tone- It is the attitude that the author holds in the text. This is usually felt by the author`s
descriptions or word choice in the story.

Literary Devices:

Allusion – A situation when an author refers to something that is well-known outside the
text such as: another piece of literature, artwork, person, place or time. This adds to the
meaning of the text and allows the reader to make connections between the text and the
outside world.
Alliteration – The repetition of the initial consonant sounds of words: “Peter Piper
picked a peck of pickled peppers”.
Assonance – The repetition of vowel sounds in a series of words: E.g. “Anna’s apples,”
“the pond is long gone”
Imagery – The use of language that is used to create pictures in the mind of the reader.
Imagery is not limited to visual, but may also include the other senses-sight, smell, sound,
taste and touch.
Figurative Language –Any language that represents one thing in terms of something
else. (non-literal language). It includes simile, metaphor, personification, hyperbole,
symbol)
Personification – A figure of speech in which non-human things are given human
characteristics e.g. “the evil green monster which we call greed…”
Simile – A direct comparison of dissimilar objects using “like” or “as”:
e.g. “I wandered lonely as a cloud”
Metaphor – An indirect comparison between two different things to show that they have
something in common. E.g. “She is a pig.”
Hyperbole – The use of extreme exaggeration to add meaning, e.g. “Her eyes were as
wide as saucers…”

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Onomatopoeia – Th use of a word whose sound imitates its meaning: e.g. “shhh” or
“hiss” etc.
Oxymoron – A phrase that consists of two words that are contradictory: e.g. “living
dead”
Diction - An author’s word choice to create a specific effect.
Dialogue – This refers to the words of conversation between characters in a piece of
writing. It is ONE of the most common ways that authors reveal their characters to the
reader. [THINK INFERENCING…]
Symbol/symbolism – The use of one thing (object, person, place) to stand for something
else. E.g. a pearl may stand for $/wealth
Irony – Any situation where the words that are used mean the opposite of what they are
supposed to mean. There are three (3) main types of irony:
 Dramatic… when the reader or audience knows something a character does not
E.g. the reader knows the gun in the murderer’s pocket is really plastic…
 Situational… when there is a difference between what is expected and what
actually happens. E.g. the necklace stolen from the queen’s house was a fake…
 Verbal… when the speaker says one thing but means the opposite
e.g. sarcasm
Flashback- A method of returning to the past (in the story) for the purpose of making the
present clearer. Flashbacks are usually created through storytelling or a character’s
visions/dreams.
Foreshadowing- When the author gives us hints to what will come next without actually
stating what will happen.
Suspense – A technique where the author creates a build-up of excitement that keeps the
reader guessing what will happen next. This is usually referred to the “keeping you on the
edge of your seat” feeling.

Types of Literary Techniques

Mentioned below is the list of literary techniques that we often
encounter in our readings especially while reading passages of
SAT exams. Besides the descriptions, you can also go through
some examples given in the further paragraphs.

Allegory
It is a technique in which the idea of the story is given in the
form of characters, actions, or events.

For example: The book 'Animal Farm' by George Orwell uses

animals as characters.

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Alliteration
Often, you might come across certain consonants repeated in a
novel or a piece of art. This technique is known as alliteration,
and its purpose is to create a musical effect, imitate sounds, and
lay more emphasis to certain words.

For example: Touch each object you want to touch as if tomorrow

your tactile sense would fail. ~ Helen Keller, "The Seeing See
Little".
Silly Sally saw sixty slithering snakes
Better butter always makes the batter better.

Aside
Aside is another character (behind the screen, third person, or a
person expressing thoughts of the character). It is specifically
meant for audience and actors involved that are unable to hear
aside.

For example: Julius Caesar, Act II, Scene II

Caesar: Bid them prepare within:

I am to blame to be thus waited for.
Now, Cinna: now, Metellus: what, Trebonius!
I have an hour's talk in store for you;
Remember that you call on me to-day:
Be near me, that I may remember you.

Trebonius: Caesar, I will:

Trebonius: They all make hasty plans to go to the capital. [Aside]:

and so near will I be,
That your best friends shall wish I had been further.

Blank Verse
Written in iambic pentameter lines, that was mostly used by
Shakespeare, this form of poetry is written in non-rhyming style.
Iambic pentameter uses patterns of light syllables, and they're
accompanied by accented or stressed syllables.

For example: Romeo and Juliet, Act II Scene I

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Romeo: But soft! What light through yon-der win-dow breaks?
It is the East and Ju-liet is the sun!
A-rise fair sun and kill the en-vious moon,
Who is al-rea-dy sick and pale with grief
That though her maid art far more fair than she.

Climax
The situation, that often concludes the drama, at the highest
point of any drama scene, which makes it more intense for the
further scene is known as climax.

For example: In the story of Cindrella, the climax is when she

places her foot in the glass slipper and has a perfect fit, after
which she is chosen to marry the prince.

Comic Relief
Comic relief provides ease and comfort in case of tense and
difficult situations in novels and dramas. Finding humor in time of
problems is an interesting way to keep the story alive and keep
the audience engaged.

Conflict
Conflict, as the word means, is a struggle between two forces of
opposite nature. Characters in many movies, dramas, stories, and
novels struggle with themselves or with some external
situations. A struggle that takes place inside the mind of a
character is called internal conflict, while that takes place
outside is called external conflict.

Man Vs. Himself is an example of the internal conflict. Man Vs.

Nature is an example of external conflict.

Cliché
It is an expression that has been so popular that it might have
lost its meaning.

For example: The expression, "turn over a new leaf".

Caricature

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A caricature is description or portrayal of a character by
exaggerating its characteristic features written with the
intention of mocking it.

For example: Caricatures of political leaders is very often seen in

newspapers.

Epiphany
A profound spiritual realization, often called life-changing event
in the life of the character. Epiphany has been used in many plays
when a character realizes truth that is different than what he or
she expects.

For example: "I turned to go home. Street lights winked down the
street all the way to town. I had never seen our neighborhood
from this angle. There were Miss Maudie's, Miss Stephanie's-
there was our house, I could see the porch swing- Miss Rachel's
house was beyond us, plainly visible. I could even see Mrs.
Dubose's...Atticus was right. One time he said you never really
know a man until you stand in his shoes and walk around in them.
Just standing on the Radley proch was enough..." ("To Kill a
Mockingbird" by Harper Lee) - This plot shows the awakening of
Scout's consciousness after which she sees the world from an
entirely new perspective.

Hyperbole
An exaggerated expression that intensifies a fact. Examples of
hyperbole are found abundantly in various plays of Shakespeare.

For example: If thou dost slander her and torture me,

Never pray more; abandon all remorse;
On horror's head accumulate;
Do deeds to make heaven weep, all earth amazed;
For nothing canst thou to damnation add
Greater than that. ~ Shakespeare (Othello)

"I've told you a million times already."

Imagery

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Words weaved in such a style that they bring sensory
impressions to the reader. There are numerous imagery examples
in literature especially in poetry.

For example: Consider the statement, "He could hear the

footsteps of doom nearing as she walked away from him, leaving
him all alone".

Irony
Irony is, by far, one of the most commonly used techniques.
Literature abounds in examples of irony, and you can find a
number of them in writings ranging from Shakespeare to the
present-day writers.

For example: Poetry from The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by

Samuel Taylor Coleridge.

"Water, water, every where,

And all the boards did shrink ;
Water, water, every where,
Nor any drop to drink."

Metaphor
Comparison of two things without using words 'like' or "as".

For example: One of the examples of metaphor is, "Shall I

compare thee to a summer's day? Thou art more lovely and more
temperate" by William Shakespeare.

Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is a word that describes the origin of a sound or
imitates a sound.

For example: In movies words like KABOOM, BANG, POW, WHACK,

WHAM, BOINK, POP, are used to add sound effects to action
scenes.

Oxymoron
An integral part of figures of speech list, oxymoron are words
that contradict each other's meaning.

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For example: "He is a wise fool".

Paradox
A statement that although may appear contradictory, expresses a
deeper truth or another facet of the same expression.

For example: A rich man is no richer than a beggar.

Another example of paradox is, "What a pity that youth must be
wasted on the young." ― George Bernard Shaw

Personification
In personification, human qualities are given to objects and
things.

For example: One of the simple personification examples is,

opportunity knocked on the door.
The flowers are dancing beside the lake.
Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/literary-
techniques.html

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