Quality Control and Inspection of Powder Metallurgy Secondary Operations

Introduction
QUALITY PLANNING TECHNIQUES for P/M secondary operations are no different than
quality planning for any other manufacturing process--the thought process should be consistent
throughout. Developing quality control and inspection for any P/M part begins with the quality
planning phase of the product launch process. Quality planning begins well before the purchase
order is issued. A thorough review of print requirements with the customer can minimize
problems later in the process development. The dimensioning techniques used when designing
a part will often determine types of gaging and quality control methods to be used. Geometric
dimensioning and tolerancing (GDT) is widely used in design work to ensure the part meets
the form, fit, and functional requirements. If properly used, GDT will minimize
misinterpretations of the print and lead to the most economical gaging solutions for the part.
It is extremely useful to have mutual (customer/supplier) agreement on gaging concepts during
the quality planning process. Quality requirements must also be discussed at this time to avoid
capability and processing issues later on. Classification of characteristics (C of C) and the
associated capability indices should be thoroughly understood to properly process the part.
Secondary operations are often added to satisfy statistical process control requirements.
Another important step in the quality planning process is to plan and develop the process(es)
before the first parts are produced--it is much less desirable to backtrack (reactive) in the quality
planning activities than to act (proactive) on a well thought out plan with failure modes defined
and methods provided to prevent and/or detect those potential failure modes. Two useful tools
to help in the planning process are a failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) and a control
plan.
A FMEA process is a very good engineering tool that is used to detect problem areas in the
process and to mistake-proof and/or assign the correct process controls. It should be noted that
the FMEA process is used to flag potential causes of failure in the process: if the potential for
failure is high, efforts should first be made to minimize the potential effects of the failure. Once
the risk has been minimized, the appropriate process control can be assigned. Mistake-proofing
should be used to reduce risk and ensure quality.
The control plan assigns control methods to the process in an effort to help minimize process
and product variation. Features to be checked, method of inspection, control method, frequency
of inspection, and responsibility are assigned for each operation. The control plan takes into
consideration the FMEA results as well as any classification of characteristics that the customer
has defined. Depending on the characteristic, the amount of control may vary, from simple first
piece layouts (for tool generated dimensions) to 100% inspection on characteristics generated
using incapable machinery
Secondary Operations
The purpose of this article is not to discuss technology gains made in secondary operations for
powder metallurgy, but to provide useful information in controlling and improving secondary
processes using quality control and inspection methodologies. However, development of the
following secondary operations is briefly discussed:
• Restrike--densification
• Restrike--sizing
• Heat treat
• Machining and grinding

Examples of FMEA and control plans are shown in Fig. 1 and 2, respectively, for the restrike-
-densification process to illustrate the use of such tools when assigning process control methods
and inspection instructions to a process. Additional information on statistical process control
concepts and terminology are also discussed in the article "Planning and Quality Control of
Powder Metallurgy Parts Production" in this Volume.
Restrike--Densification. Restrike operations are frequently used to densify parts above the
density attainable at compacting. In these instances, more emphasis is placed on attaining the
desired material property through densification than on achieving tight dimensional limits
(although dimensional control is also important). Adequate control must be placed on the
process to ensure density requirements (and dimensions) are met. Because density checks are
not readily performed in a production environment, dimensional controls may be used to
control density if correlation can be proved to be sufficient. When densifying thin parts, greater
dimensional and weight control may be required at compacting to avoid overdensification and
damage to the restrike press and/or tooling. Press and tool load monitors are effective process
control tools.
Restrike--Sizing. Sizing using a restrike operation is used to enhance dimensional
characteristics on P/M parts. In this instance, the density of the part has already been met in the
compacting and sintering operations. Sizing is used to meet tighter dimensional limits on
diameters, lengths, tapers, and so forth. The quality control methods assigned for sizing
operations depend on the characteristic sized and the capability of the machine in achieving the
desired limits of size; highly capable processes require very little in-process or post-process
inspection while marginally capable processes require significant and frequent inspection.
Heat Treat. The properties from heat treatment (such as hardness and tensile strength) are
dependent on many process variables. Carbon potential, atmosphere, heat treat temperature,
quench rate and temperature, and draw temperature affect the properties of parts. A FMEA of
the heat treatment should be done to list potential failures caused by incorrect settings of the
above inputs. To minimize potential process failures, process control of the heat treat operation
should include monitoring the inputs as well as the outputs. Minimal variation of these
parameters results in significantly reduced variation of product characteristics. Again,
depending on the stability of the process, more or less dimensional and metallurgical inspection
is required as post-process inspection.
Machining/Grinding. Although machining and grinding are different technologies, process
control issues are similar for each. Variation in the process can and should be minimized in the
selection of capable machinery, the design of the fixturing, and the selection of the tooling
(inserts, cutters, grinding wheels, etc.). Process control and inspection techniques vary
depending on the characteristics being generated, the capability of the process, and the quality
requirements specified on the blueprint (classification of characteristics). Machine controls
have allowed technologies such as automatic compensation and redundant tooling to
significantly reduce process variation due to tool wear and other time-related variations. The
selection of the machine to be used is a big factor when analyzing the FMEA and developing
control plans.
Process Control Methods
Many methods are used to control part conformance in manufacturing processes. Control plans
should be selected to minimize the financial impact to the process (either in the cost of the gage
and/or the time required to gage the part), but also to allow for optimal control of the process
(100% inspection controls the outgoing product, but typically is not a costeffective-inspection
method). As stated above, the control plan must include the gaging method, the control method,
the frequency, and the responsibility. A discussion of each area follows.
Gaging Method. The two types of commonly used gaging in the manufacturing environment
are attribute gages and variable gages. Attribute gaging is used to check conformance or
nonconformance for a specific dimension/tolerance. Variable gaging is used to record actual
dimensional values for comparison to the tolerance specification. Both types of gages can be
used to effectively control processes.
Typically, attribute gaging is used to control relational features (GDT features such as true
positions, etc.) and dimensional features that are either incidental characteristics or produced
by an extremely capable and stable process (i.e., Cpk values over 2.00) (see the article
"Planning and Quality Control Powder Metallurgy Parts Production" in this Volume for
definition of Cpk and other statistical control indices). Attribute gages range from inexpensive
go/no-go plug gages to complex, part specific
true position gages that can be very expensive. For well-centered processes, these gages can be
useful in helping the operator control the process. It should also be noted that restricted
tolerance attribute gaging, also called "narrow limit" gaging (50% or 75% of the tolerance
band), can be used to monitor and compensate the process before nonconforming parts are
produced.
One of the biggest advantages of powder metallurgy is the ability to press features that are
complex. The secondary operations mentioned above refine pressed features and/or generate
new features that often have a geometric relationship to pressed features. With proper GDT,
functional attribute gaging is a cost-effective way to control the relationship of features
generated by secondary operations to those generated at the press.
Variable gaging allows the operator to record specific dimensional data that can then be
analyzed and used to make decisions on process adjustments. Variable gages are used to control
processes that are incapable and/or unstable over time (tool wear, etc.). Variable gaging is
frequently used on significant characteristics that require a high degree of control. Variable
gages can be standard components such as digital micrometers or complex gages that are part
specific. In order for the variable gage to be effective for product acceptance decisions, the
gage must have a minimum resolution of 10 divisions over the tolerance band being measured
(0.010 in. tolerance band needs a gage capable of measuring in 0.001 in. increments).
Variable data is generally required by customers to evaluate the capability of a process. Gage
resolution used to estimate process capability may be greater than the gage resolution required
for product acceptance. It should also be noted that variable gaging is often used to establish
process capability, but the process can then be monitored using attribute gages (if capability is
high, for example). In these instances, gaging costs may still be high, but the cost impact to the
process has been minimized by using attribute gages.
Control Method. The most common control method for manufacturing processes is statistical
process control (SPC). Three common statistical tools are widely used in manufacturing to
control processes. For ease of understanding their use and effectiveness, they are discussed
below (in order of effectiveness, least to greatest).
Sampling tables were used in industry long before the current statistical approaches were made
popular. Typical sampling tables, such as MIL-STD-105E (current standard ANSI/ASQC
Z1.4--1993), were developed for use with attribute gaging and mandated some acceptable
quality level (AQL) limit as a decision criteria for accepting or rejecting a lot of product.
Statistical methods were used to determine what the sample sizes should be for a specific lot
of material. Sampling tables can still be used as a quality control tool, but are usually used to
control lots of product (post-process inspection plans), not the process itself.
A histogram/frequency distribution can be used in process control to visualize the pattern of
variation being generated by an operation. This picture of the data is very useful in easily
determining (1) the approximate central value or central tendency (average), (2) the spread of
the values (variation), and (3) the relationship of the values to the process specifications
(capability index). A histogram can turn machine-recorded values (Fig. 3) into a beneficial tool
to monitor a process (Fig. 4).
Control Charts. Time-ordered data are an effective way to view process information. Control
charts vary in the presentation of the data collected (individuals chart, x-bar and R, group
charts, etc.), but are useful tools to control processes over time. For example, if the same data
used in the histogram in Fig. 4 are displayed as an individual chart (or average chart) (Fig. 5),
the same information (average, variation, process performance) can be approximated. Because
the control chart is time ordered, trends (decreasing or increasing values) can also be depicted.
The range is determined as the difference in subsequent values and plotted on a range chart
(Fig. 6). The range chart shows how stable the process is (the variation from one reading to the
next).
Other control methods (nonstatistical) can be used to control manufacturing processes. If the
features to be controlled are generated by the compacting or sizing tooling, an "audit" of the
characteristic may be sufficient. The audit is usually done at setup (first piece) and/or at the
end of the production run (last piece). This ensures that no dramatic change occurred during
the process.
Another control method is 100% inspection. Inspection of all parts may be necessary if the
process is incapable or out of control. If possible, 100% inspection should be avoided--it adds
cost to the operation and is not an effective way to control the process (100% inspection is not
100% effective). The best control methods for capable and stable processes are statistically
based. Mistake-proofing is a cost-effective approach to 100% inspection in some cases.
Frequency. The sampling frequency for a manufacturing process varies based on the
classification of the characteristic, the capability of the process, and the stability of the process:
A stable and capable process may only use tool control as a control method. The opposite
extreme may require 100% inspection. Most process parameters can be controlled using
statistical methods with either attribute or variable gaging and varying frequencies of
inspection (statistical methods are discussed above).
Responsibility. Organizations assign quality and inspection responsibilities differently. The
most effective inspections are done at the point of manufacture by the person(s) performing the
manufacturing task. Real-time data collection and instant process feedback is the best control
in any manufacturing environment. Obviously, this is not realistic in some instances (heat
treating for example), so the responsibility in those situations must be assigned appropriately
(to Inspection, for example). The main goal of collecting data should be to control the
processes. It is useless to generate data that means nothing after the fact. Every effort should
be made to utilize prevention activities, not detection activities, when developing control plans.
Continuous Improvement and Examples
The tools used in quality control and inspection can also be used to continually improve the
processes mentioned above. The use of statistical analysis can be used to make small
incremental improvements to processes. Design of experiments (DOEs) also utilize statistics
to review data and make significant changes to improve existing processes.
Technology has dramatically improved information gathering, and consequently better, faster
feedback can be made to the process to improve control. Improvements to equipment, machine
tools, programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and computer numerical controllers (CNCs) have
enhanced capabilities. Electronic data collection and analysis allows for communication
between the machine and the data collector, thereby providing automatic compensation and
reduced variation in the process. In-process gaging techniques can be used to measure the part
as it is being processed (machined, ground, etc.). Below are examples where quality control
and inspection techniques have been used to improve existing (or new) processes.