Bearing (mechanical)

cation of the surface. Other bearings are separate devices

installed into a machine or machine part. The most so-
phisticated bearings for the most demanding applications
are very precise devices; their manufacture requires some
of the highest standards of current technology.

1 History

Ball bearing

Tapered roller bearing

A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative
motion to only the desired motion, and reduces friction
between moving parts. The design of the bearing may, for
example, provide for free linear movement of the moving
part or for free rotation around a fixed axis; or, it may pre-
vent a motion by controlling the vectors of normal forces
that bear on the moving parts. Most bearings facilitate
the desired motion by minimizing friction. Bearings are
classified broadly according to the type of operation, the
motions allowed, or to the directions of the loads (forces)
applied to the parts.
Rotary bearings hold rotating components such as shafts
or axles within mechanical systems, and transfer axial and
radial loads from the source of the load to the structure
supporting it. The simplest form of bearing, the plain
bearing, consists of a shaft rotating in a hole. Lubrication
is often used to reduce friction. In the ball bearing and Drawing of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) Study of a ball
roller bearing, to prevent sliding friction, rolling elements bearing
such as rollers or balls with a circular cross-section are lo-
cated between the races or journals of the bearing assem- The invention of the rolling bearing, in the form of
bly. A wide variety of bearing designs exists to allow the wooden rollers supporting, or bearing, an object being
demands of the application to be correctly met for maxi- moved is of great antiquity, and may predate the inven-
mum efficiency, reliability, durability and performance. tion of the wheel.
The term “bearing” is derived from the verb "to bear";[1] Though it is often claimed that the Egyptians used roller
a bearing being a machine element that allows one part to bearings in the form of tree trunks under sleds,[2] this
bear (i.e., to support) another. The simplest bearings are is modern speculation.[3] They are depicted in their own
bearing surfaces, cut or formed into a part, with varying drawings in the tomb of Djehutihotep [4] as moving mas-
degrees of control over the form, size, roughness and lo- sive stone blocks on sledges with liquid-lubricated runners

1
2 1 HISTORY

which would constitute a plain bearing. There are also

Egyptian drawings of bearings used with hand drills.[5]
The earliest recovered example of a rolling element bear-
ing is a wooden ball bearing supporting a rotating ta-
ble from the remains of the Roman Nemi ships in Lake
Nemi, Italy. The wrecks were dated to 40 BC.[6][7]
Leonardo da Vinci incorporated drawings of ball bear-
ings in his design for a helicopter around the year 1500.
This is the first recorded use of bearings in an aerospace
design. However, Agostino Ramelli is the first to have
published sketches of roller and thrust bearings.[2] An is-
sue with ball and roller bearings is that the balls or rollers
rub against each other causing additional friction which
can be reduced by enclosing the balls or rollers within a
cage. The captured, or caged, ball bearing was originally
described by Galileo in the 17th century.
The first practical caged-roller bearing was invented in
the mid-1740s by horologist John Harrison for his H3 Early Timken tapered roller bearing with notched rollers
marine timekeeper. This uses the bearing for a very lim-
ited oscillating motion but Harrison also used a similar [9]
bearing in a truly rotary application in a contemporane- race, Paris-Rouen, in November 1869.
ous regulator clock. In 1883, Friedrich Fischer, founder of FAG, developed
an approach for milling and grinding balls of equal size
and exact roundness by means of a suitable production
1.1 Industrial era machine and formed the foundation for creation of an in-
dependent bearing industry.
The first modern recorded patent on ball bearings was
awarded to Philip Vaughan, a British inventor and
ironmaster who created the first design for a ball bearing
in Carmarthen in 1794. His was the first modern ball-
bearing design, with the ball running along a groove in
the axle assembly.[8]
Bearings played a pivotal role in the nascent Industrial
Revolution, allowing the new industrial machinery to op-
erate efficiently. For example, they saw use for holding
wheel and axle to greatly reduce friction over that of drag-
ging an object by making the friction act over a shorter
distance as the wheel turned.
The first plain and rolling-element bearings were wood
closely followed by bronze. Over their history bearings
have been made of many materials including ceramic,
Wingquist original patent of self-aligning ball bearing
sapphire, glass, steel, bronze, other metals and plastic
(e.g., nylon, polyoxymethylene, polytetrafluoroethylene,
The modern, self-aligning design of ball bearing is at-
and UHMWPE) which are all used today. tributed to Sven Wingquist of the SKF ball-bearing man-
Watch makers produce “jeweled” watches using sapphire ufacturer in 1907, when he was awarded Swedish patent
plain bearings to reduce friction thus allowing more pre- No. 25406 on its design.
cise time keeping. Henry Timken, a 19th-century visionary and innovator in
Even basic materials can have good durability. As ex- carriage manufacturing, patented the tapered roller bear-
amples, wooden bearings can still be seen today in old ing in 1898. The following year he formed a company
clocks or in water mills where the water provides cooling to produce his innovation. Over a century the company
and lubrication. grew to make bearings of all types, including specialty
The first patent for a radial style ball bearing was awarded steel and an array of related products and services.
to Jules Suriray, a Parisian bicycle mechanic, on 3 August Erich Franke invented and patented the wire race bearing
1869. The bearings were then fitted to the winning bicy- in 1934. His focus was on a bearing design with a cross
cle ridden by James Moore in the world’s first bicycle road section as small as possible and which could be integrated
 3

into the enclosing design. After World War II he founded

together with Gerhard Heydrich the company Franke &
Heydrich KG (today Franke GmbH) to push the develop-
ment and production of wire race bearings.
Richard Stribeck’s extensive research [10][11] on ball bear-
ing steels identified the metallurgy of the commonly used
100Cr6 (AISI 52100) [12] showing coefficient of friction
as a function of pressure.
Designed in 1968 and later patented in 1972, Bishop-
Wisecarver’s co-founder Bud Wisecarver created vee
groove bearing guide wheels, a type of linear motion
bearing consisting of both an external and internal 90-
degree vee angle.[13]
In the early 1980s, Pacific Bearing’s founder, Robert
Schroeder, invented the first bi-material plain bearing
which was size interchangeable with linear ball bearings.
This bearing had a metal shell (aluminum, steel or stain-
less steel) and a layer of Teflon-based material connected Animation of ball bearing (without a cage). The inner ring ro-
by a thin adhesive layer.[14] tates and the outer ring is stationary.
Today ball and roller bearings are used in many applica-
tions which include a rotating component. Examples in- • Plain bearing, consisting of a shaft rotating in a hole.
clude ultra high speed bearings in dental drills, aerospace There are several specific styles: bushing, journal
bearings in the Mars Rover, gearbox and wheel bear- bearing, sleeve bearing, rifle bearing, composite
ings on automobiles, flexure bearings in optical align- bearing.
ment systems, bicycle wheel hubs, and air bearings used
in Coordinate-measuring machines. • Rolling-element bearing, in which rolling elements
placed between the turning and stationary races pre-
vent sliding friction. There are two main types
2 Common • Ball bearing, in which the rolling elements are
spherical balls
By far, the most common bearing is the plain bearing, a • Roller bearing, in which the rolling elements
bearing which uses surfaces in rubbing contact, often with are cylindrical rollers
a lubricant such as oil or graphite. A plain bearing may or
may not be a discrete device. It may be nothing more than • Jewel bearing, a plain bearing in which one of the
the bearing surface of a hole with a shaft passing through bearing surfaces is made of an ultrahard glassy jewel
it, or of a planar surface that bears another (in these cases, material such as sapphire to reduce friction and wear
not a discrete device); or it may be a layer of bearing
• Fluid bearing, a noncontact bearing in which the
metal either fused to the substrate (semi-discrete) or in
load is supported by a gas or liquid,
the form of a separable sleeve (discrete). With suitable
lubrication, plain bearings often give entirely acceptable • Magnetic bearing, in which the load is supported by
accuracy, life, and friction at minimal cost. Therefore, a magnetic field
they are very widely used.
• Flexure bearing, in which the motion is supported
However, there are many applications where a more suit- by a load element which bends.
able bearing can improve efficiency, accuracy, service in-
tervals, reliability, speed of operation, size, weight, and
costs of purchasing and operating machinery.
4 Motions
Thus, there are many types of bearings, with varying
shape, material, lubrication, principle of operation, and
Common motions permitted by bearings are:
so on.
• axial rotation e.g. shaft rotation
3 Types • linear motion e.g. drawer
• spherical rotation e.g. ball and socket joint
There are at least 6 common types of bearing, each of
which operates on different principles: • hinge motion e.g. door, elbow, knee
4 10 SERVICE LIFE
5 Friction
Reducing friction in bearings is often important for ef-
ficiency, to reduce wear and to facilitate extended use
at high speeds and to avoid overheating and premature
failure of the bearing. Essentially, a bearing can reduce
friction by virtue of its shape, by its material, or by in-
troducing and containing a fluid between surfaces or by
separating the surfaces with an electromagnetic field.
• By shape, gains advantage usually by using spheres
or rollers, or by forming flexure bearings.
• By material, exploits the nature of the bearing ma-
terial used. (An example would be using plastics that
have low surface friction.)
• By fluid, exploits the low viscosity of a layer of fluid,
such as a lubricant or as a pressurized medium to
keep the two solid parts from touching, or by reduc-
ing the normal force between them.
• By fields, exploits electromagnetic fields, such as
magnetic fields, to keep solid parts from touching.
• Air pressure exploits air pressure to keep solid parts
from touching.
Combinations of these can even be employed within the
same bearing. An example of this is where the cage is
made of plastic, and it separates the rollers/balls, which
reduce friction by their shape and finish.
6 Loads
Bearing design varies depending on the size and directions
of the forces that they are required to support. Forces
10 Service life
can be predominately radial, axial (thrust bearings), or
bending moments perpendicular to the main axis. Fluid and magnetic bearings
7 Speeds
Different bearing types have different operating speed
limits. Speed is typically specified as maximum relative
surface speeds, often specified ft/s or m/s. Rotational
bearings typically describe performance in terms of the
product DN where D is the mean diameter (often in mm)
of the bearing and N is the rotation rate in revolutions per Rolling element bearings
minute.
Generally there is considerable speed range overlap be-
tween bearing types. Plain bearings typically handle only
lower speeds, rolling element bearings are faster, followed
by fluid bearings and finally magnetic bearings which are
limited ultimately by centripetal force overcoming mate-
rial strength.
8 Play
Some applications apply bearing loads from varying di-
rections and accept only limited play or “slop” as the
applied load changes. One source of motion is gaps or
“play” in the bearing. For example, a 10 mm shaft in a
12 mm hole has 2 mm play.
Allowable play varies greatly depending on the use. As
example, a wheelbarrow wheel supports radial and ax-
ial loads. Axial loads may be hundreds of newtons force
left or right, and it is typically acceptable for the wheel
to wobble by as much as 10 mm under the varying load.
In contrast, a lathe may position a cutting tool to ±0.02
mm using a ball lead screw held by rotating bearings.
The bearings support axial loads of thousands of newtons
in either direction, and must hold the ball lead screw to
±0.002 mm across that range of loads
9 Stiffness
A second source of motion is elasticity in the bearing it-
self. For example, the balls in a ball bearing are like stiff
rubber, and under load deform from round to a slightly
flattened shape. The race is also elastic and develops a
slight dent where the ball presses on it.
The stiffness of a bearing is how the distance between
the parts which are separated by the bearing varies with
applied load. With rolling element bearings this is due to
the strain of the ball and race. With fluid bearings it is
due to how the pressure of the fluid varies with the gap
(when correctly loaded, fluid bearings are typically stiffer
than rolling element bearings).
Main articles: Fluid bearing and Magnetic bearing
Fluid and magnetic bearings can have practically indefi-
nite service lives. In practice, there are fluid bearings sup-
porting high loads in hydroelectric plants that have been
in nearly continuous service since about 1900 and which
show no signs of wear.
Rolling element bearing life is determined by load,
temperature, maintenance, lubrication, material defects,
contamination, handling, installation and other factors.
These factors can all have a significant effect on bearing
life. For example, the service life of bearings in one ap-
plication was extended dramatically by changing how the
 5

bearings were stored before installation and use, as vibra- turers. For example, bearing mounting, temperature, ex-
tions during storage caused lubricant failure even when posure to external environment, lubricant cleanliness and
the only load on the bearing was its own weight;[15] the electrical currents through bearings etc. High frequency
resulting damage is often false brinelling. Bearing life is PWM inverters can induce currents in a bearing, which
statistical: several samples of a given bearing will often can be suppressed by use of ferrite chokes.
exhibit a bell curve of service life, with a few samples The temperature and terrain of the micro-surface will de-
showing significantly better or worse life. Bearing life termine the amount of friction by the touching of solid
varies because microscopic structure and contamination parts.
vary greatly even where macroscopically they seem iden-
tical. Certain elements and fields reduce friction, while increas-
ing speeds.
Strength and mobility help determine the amount of load
10.1 L10 life
the bearing type can carry.
Bearings are often specified to give an “L10” life (outside Alignment factors can play a damaging role in wear and
the USA, it may be referred to as “B10” life.) This is the tear, yet overcome by computer aid signaling and non-
life at which ten percent of the bearings in that applica- rubbing bearing types, such as magnetic levitation or air
tion can be expected to have failed due to classical fatigue field pressure.
failure (and not any other mode of failure like lubrication
starvation, wrong mounting etc.), or, alternatively, the life
at which ninety percent will still be operating.The L10 life
of the bearing is theoretical life and may not represent 11 Maintenance and lubrication
service life of the bearing. Bearings are also rated using
C0 (static loading) value. This is the basic load rating as Many bearings require periodic maintenance to prevent
a reference, and not an actual load value. premature failure, but many others require little mainte-
nance. The latter include various kinds of fluid and mag-
Plain bearings netic bearings, as well as rolling-element bearings that
are described with terms including sealed bearing and
For plain bearings some materials give much longer life sealed for life. These contain seals to keep the dirt out
than others. Some of the John Harrison clocks still op- and the grease in. They work successfully in many ap-
erate after hundreds of years because of the lignum vitae plications, providing maintenance-free operation. Some
wood employed in their construction, whereas his metal applications cannot use them effectively.
clocks are seldom run due to potential wear.
Nonsealed bearings often have a grease fitting, for pe-
Flexure bearings riodic lubrication with a grease gun, or an oil cup for
periodic filling with oil. Before the 1970s, sealed bear-
Flexure bearings rely on elastic properties of mate- ings were not encountered on most machinery, and oiling
rial.Flexure bearings bend a piece of material repeatedly. and greasing were a more common activity than they are
Some materials fail after repeated bending, even at low today. For example, automotive chassis used to require
loads, but careful material selection and bearing design “lube jobs” nearly as often as engine oil changes, but to-
can make flexure bearing life indefinite. day’s car chassis are mostly sealed for life. From the late
1700s through mid 1900s, industry relied on many work-
Short-life bearings ers called oilers to lubricate machinery frequently with oil
cans.
Although long bearing life is often desirable, it is some-
Factory machines today usually have lube systems, in
times not necessary. Tedric A. Harris describes a bear-
which a central pump serves periodic charges of oil or
ing for a rocket motor oxygen pump that gave several
grease from a reservoir through lube lines to the vari-
hours life, far in excess of the several tens of minutes life
ous lube points in the machine’s bearing surfaces, bear-
needed.[15]
ing journals, pillow blocks, and so on. The timing and
Composite bearings number of such lube cycles is controlled by the machine’s
Depending on the customized specifications (backing computerized control, such as PLC or CNC, as well as
material and PTFE compounds), composite bearings can by manual override functions when occasionally needed.
operate up to 30 years without maintenance. This automated process is how all modern CNC machine
tools and many other modern factory machines are lu-
bricated. Similar lube systems are also used on nonau-
10.2 External factors tomated machines, in which case there is a hand pump
that a machine operator is supposed to pump once daily
The service life of the bearing is affected by many pa- (for machines in constant use) or once weekly. These are
rameters that are not controlled by the bearing manufac- called one-shot systems from their chief selling point: one
6 11 MAINTENANCE AND LUBRICATION

pull on one handle to lube the whole machine, instead of olution is often needed to identify these frequencies dur-
a dozen pumps of an alemite gun or oil can in a dozen ing a FFT analysis. The natural frequencies of a rolling
different positions around the machine. element bearing with the free boundary conditions are 3
The oiling system inside a modern automotive or truck kHz. Therefore, in order to use the bearing component
engine is similar in concept to the lube systems mentioned resonance bandwidth method to detect the bearing fault
above, except that oil is pumped continuously. Much at an initial stage a high frequency range accelerometer
of this oil flows through passages drilled or cast into the should be adopted, and data obtained from a long dura-
engine block and cylinder heads, escaping through ports tion needs to be acquired. A fault characteristic frequency
can only be identified when the fault extent is severe, such
directly onto bearings, and squirting elsewhere to provide
an oil bath. The oil pump simply pumps constantly, and as that of a presence of a hole in the outer race. The har-
monics of fault frequency is a more sensitive indicator
any excess pumped oil continuously escapes through a re-
lief valve back into the sump. of a bearing outer race fault. For a more serious detec-
tion of defected bearing faults waveform, spectrum and
Many bearings in high-cycle industrial operations need envelope techniques will help reveal these faults. How-
periodic lubrication and cleaning, and many require oc- ever, if a high frequency demodulation is used in the en-
casional adjustment, such as pre-load adjustment, to min- velope analysis in order to detect bearing fault character-
imise the effects of wear. istic frequencies, the maintenance professionals have to
Bearing life is often much better when the bearing is be more careful in the analysis because of resonance, as
kept clean and well lubricated. However, many appli- it may or may not contain fault frequency components.
cations make good maintenance difficult. For example, Using spectral analysis as a tool to identify the faults in the
bearings in the conveyor of a rock crusher are exposed bearings faces challenges due to issues like low energy,
continually to hard abrasive particles. Cleaning is of lit- signal smearing, cyclostationarity etc. High resolution is
tle use, because cleaning is expensive yet the bearing is often desired to differentiate the fault frequency compo-
contaminated again as soon as the conveyor resumes op- nents from the other high-amplitude adjacent frequen-
eration. Thus, a good maintenance program might lubri- cies. Hence, when the signal is sampled for FFT analysis,
cate the bearings frequently but not include any disassem- the sample length should be large enough to give adequate
bly for cleaning. The frequent lubrication, by its nature, frequency resolution in the spectrum. Also, keeping the
provides a limited kind of cleaning action, by displacing computation time and memory within limits and avoid-
older (grit-filled) oil or grease with a fresh charge, which ing unwanted aliasing may be demanding. However, a
itself collects grit before being displaced by the next cy- minimal frequency resolution required can be obtained
cle. by estimating the bearing fault frequencies and other vi-
bration frequency components and its harmonics due to
shaft speed, misalignment, line frequency, gearbox etc.
11.1 Rolling-element bearing outer race
fault detection
11.2 Packing
Rolling-element bearings are widely used in the industries
today, and hence maintenance of these bearings becomes
Some bearings use a thick grease for lubrication, which
an important task for the maintenance professionals. The
is pushed into the gaps between the bearing surfaces, also
rolling-element bearings wear out easily due to metal-to-
known as packing. The grease is held in place by a plastic,
metal contact, which creates faults in the outer race, inner
leather, or rubber gasket (also called a gland) that covers
race and ball. It is also the most vulnerable component
the inside and outside edges of the bearing race to keep
of a machine because it is often under high load and high
the grease from escaping.
running speed conditions. Regular diagnostics of rolling-
element bearing faults is critical for industrial safety and Bearings may also be packed with other materials. His-
operations of the machines along with reducing the main- torically, the wheels on railroad cars used sleeve bearings
tenance costs or avoiding shutdown time. Among the packed with waste or loose scraps of cotton or wool fiber
outer race, inner race and ball, the outer race tends to soaked in oil, then later used solid pads of cotton.[16]
be more vulnerable to faults and defects.
There is still a room for discussion whether the rolling el-
ement excites the natural frequencies of bearing compo-
11.3 Ring oiler
nent when it passes the fault on the outer race. Hence we
need to identify the bearing outer race natural frequency For more details on this topic, see Ring oiler.
and its harmonics. The bearing faults create impulses and
results in strong harmonics of the fault frequencies in the Bearings can be lubricated by a metal ring that rides
spectrum of vibration signals. These fault frequencies are loosely on the central rotating shaft of the bearing. The
sometimes masked by adjacent frequencies in the spectra ring hangs down into a chamber containing lubricating
due to their little energy. Hence, a very high spectral res- oil. As the bearing rotates, viscous adhesion draws oil up
 7

the ring and onto the shaft, where the oil migrates into the 13 See also
bearing to lubricate it. Excess oil is flung off and collects
in the pool again.[17] • Axlebox

• Ball bearing

11.4 Splash lubrication • Ball spline

• Hertz contact stress

Some machines contain a pool of lubricant in the bottom,
with gears partially immersed in the liquid, or crank rods • Hinge
that can swing down into the pool as the device operates.
The spinning wheels fling oil into the air around them, • Main bearing
while the crank rods slap at the surface of the oil, splash- • Needle roller bearing
ing it randomly on the interior surfaces of the engine.
Some small internal combustion engines specifically con- • Pillow block bearing
tain special plastic flinger wheels which randomly scatter
oil around the interior of the mechanism.[18] • Race (bearing)

• Rolamite

• Rolling-element bearing
11.5 Pressure lubrication
• Scrollerwheel
For high speed and high power machines, a loss of lubri-
• Shock Pulse Method
cant can result in rapid bearing heating and damage due
to friction. Also in dirty environments the oil can become • Slewing bearing
contaminated with dust or debris that increases friction.
In these applications, a fresh supply of lubricant can be • Spherical plain bearing
continuously supplied to the bearing and all other con-
tact surfaces, and the excess can be collected for filtration, • Spherical roller bearing
cooling, and possibly reuse. Pressure oiling is commonly • Spiral groove bearing
used in large and complex internal combustion engines
in parts of the engine where directly splashed oil cannot
reach, such as up into overhead valve assemblies.[19] High
speed turbochargers also typically require a pressurized
14 References
oil system to cool the bearings and keep them from burn-
ing up due to the heat from the turbine. [1] Merriam-Webster, “headwords “bearing” and “bear"",
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, online subscrip-
tion version. Paywalled reference work.

[2] American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1906),

11.6 Composite bearings
Composite bearings are designed with a self-lubricating
polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE) liner with a laminated
metal backing. The PTFE liner offers consistent, con-
trolled friction as well as durability whilst the metal back-
ing ensures the composite bearing is robust and capable
of withstanding high loads and stresses throughout its long
life. Its design also makes it lightweight-one tenth the
weight of a traditional rolling element bearing.[20]
Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical En-
gineers, 27, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
p. 441.
[3] Bryan Bunch, The history of science and technology.
[4] Steven Blake Shubert, Encyclopedia of the archaeology of
ancient Egypt
[5] Guran, Ardéshir; Rand, Richard H. (1997), Nonlinear
dynamics, World Scientific, p. 178, ISBN 978-981-02-
2982-5.

[6] Purtell, John (1999/2001). Project Diana, chapter 10:

http://nemiship.multiservers.com/nemi.htm
12 Types [7] Bearing Industry Timeline, retrieved 2012-10-21.

[8] “Double- Row Angular Contact Ball Bearings”.

There are many different types of bearings. Newer ver-
sions of more enabling designs are in development be- [9] “Bicycle History, Chronology of the Growth of Bicycling
ing tested, in which will reduce friction, increase bearing and the Development of Bicycle Technology by David
load, increase momentum build-up, and speed. Mozer”. Ibike.org. Retrieved 2013-09-30.
8 15 EXTERNAL LINKS

[10] R. Stribeck, Kugellager für beliebige Belastungen • Choosing the correct bearing type
Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure, 1901, Nr.
3, Band 45, p. 73-79 • Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library
(KMODDL) - Movies and photos of hundreds of
[11] N.N. (R. Stribeck), Kugellager (ball bearings), Glasers working mechanical-systems models at Cornell Uni-
Annalen für Gewerbe und Bauwesen, 1901, No. 577, p. versity. Also includes an e-book library of classic
2-9, Published 01. July 1901
texts on mechanical design and engineering.
[12] A. Martens, Schmieröluntersuchungen (Investigations on
• Types of bearings, Cambridge University
oils) Part I: Mitteilungen aus den Königlichen technischen
Versuchsanstalten zu Berlin, Ergänzungsheft III 1888, • Mounted Ball Bearings Technical Information
p. 1-37, Verlag von Julius Springer, Berlin and Part II:
Mitteilungen aus den Königlichen technischen Versuch-
sanstalten zu Berlin, Ergänzungsheft V, 1889, p. 1-57,
Verlag von Julius Springer, Berlin, (Note: These files can
be downloaded from the website of BAM: http://www.
bam.de/de/ueber_uns/geschichte/adolf_martens.htm)

[13] Machine Design (2007), Did You Know: Bud Wisecarver

(PDF), Machine Design, p. 1.

[14] “Design News Magazine - July 1995”.

[15] Harris, Tedric A. (2000). Rolling Bearing Analysis (4th

ed.). Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 0-471-35457-0.

[16] White, John H. (1985) [1978]. The American Railroad

Passenger Car. 2. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity Press. p. 518. ISBN 0801827477. OCLC 11469984.

[17] Steam Power Plant Engineering, by George Frederick

Gebhardt, published by J. Wiley & sons, Incorporated,
1917, p 791 Google Books scanned ref

[18] The gasoline automobile, George William Hobbs b. 1887,

Ben George Elliott, Earl Lester Consoliver, University
of Wisconsin. University Extension Division, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., 1919 - 483 pages, pp 111-114
Google Books scanned ref

[19] Pressure Lubricating Characteristics, by Paul Dumas, Mo-

tor age, Volume 42, Class Journal Co., 14 Sep 1922
Google Books scanned ref

[20] Gobain, Saint (1 June 2012). “Saint-Gobain and Norco

Get Celebrity Thumbs-Up”. Retrieved 9 June 2016.

15 External links
• Comprehensive review on bearings, University of
Cambridge

• A glossary of bearing terms

• How bearings work

• Bearing lubricants

• Early bearing failure detection

• How to measure a bearing

• Cam follower bearing

• High temperature bearing

 9

16 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

16.1 Text
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16.2 Images
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nal artist: ?
• File:Early_Timken_roller_bearing.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Early_Timken_roller_bearing.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Rankin Kennedy C.E. (1912) The Book of the Motor Car, Caxton Original artist: Rankin Kennedy
C.E.
• File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
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Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
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• File:Tapered_steering_head_bearings.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Tapered_steering_head_
bearings.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was
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• File:Wingquist_patent_PRV_25406_1907.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Wingquist_patent_
PRV_25406_1907.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: PRV archive drawing, patent no. 25407, 1907. Original artist: Sven Wingquist
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16.3 Content license

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