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three-dimensional woven carbon DOI: 10.1177/0040517517723022
journals.sagepub.com/home/trj
fiber fabric/epoxy composite

Wei Fan1, Dan-dan Li2, Jia-lu Li2, Juan-zi Li1, Lin-jia Yuan1,
Li-li Xue1, Run-jun Sun1 and Jia-guang Meng1

Abstract
To investigate the reinforcement architectures effect on the electromagnetic wave properties of carbon fiber reinforced
polymer composites, three-dimensional (3D) interlock woven fabric/epoxy composites, 3D interlock woven fabric with
stuffer warp/epoxy composites, and 3D orthogonal woven fabric/epoxy composites were studied by the free-space
measurement system. The results showed that the three types of 3D woven carbon fiber fabric/epoxy composites had a
slight difference in electromagnetic wave properties and the absorption was their dominant radar absorption mechanism.
The electromagnetic wave absorption properties of the three types of composites were more than 90% (below 10 dB)
over the 11.2–18 GHz bandwidth, and more than 60% (below 4 dB) over the 8–12 GHz bandwidth. Compared with
unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced plastics, the three kinds of 3D woven carbon fiber fabric/epoxy composites
exhibited better electromagnetic wave absorption properties over a broadband frequency range of 8–18 GHz.
Therefore, the three kinds of 3D woven composite are expected to be used as radar absorption structures due to
their excellent mechanical properties and outstanding absorption capacity. The total electromagnetic interference
shielding effectiveness of the three types of 3D carbon fiber woven composites are all larger than 46 dB over the 8–
12 GHz bandwidth, which is evidence that the three types of 3D carbon fiber woven composites can be used as excellent
shielding materials for electromagnetic interference.

Keywords
electromagnetic property, three-dimensional woven composite, reinforcement architecture, free-space method

With the rapid development of the detection power of
today’s radar installation, weapon systems, such as
fighters, warships and missiles, are under severe
threat.1,2 Therefore, stealth technologies for evading
radar detection have attracted considerable attention
in many countries in recent years.3 At present, there
are several techniques to evade radar detection, which
are broadly classified into two categories: shaping
of the target and radar absorption materials (RAMs).2
Shaping involves modifying the external features of
the target to reduce the electromagnetic (EM) waves
backscattered to the direction of the radar source and
to redirect them. However, reduction is achieved only
in a limited angular region at the expense of an increase
in the radar cross-section in other regions. Besides, it is
effective only at higher frequencies and frequently con-
flicts with structural and aerodynamics requirements in
designing aerospace vehicles. Although the external
profile might be desirable for stealth considerations, it
may not be acceptable for aerospace vehicle designers.4
RAMs can be achieved by both absorption and
redirection of incident EM energy, so the development
and application of RAMs has become one of the key
factors for the development of stealth technology.5
RAMs can be classified into two categories according
1
School of Textile and Material, Xi’an Polytechnic University, China
2
Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Advanced Textile Composites,
Tianjin Polytechnic University, China
Corresponding author:
Jia-lu Li, Tinjin Ploytechnic University, No. 399 Binshui West Road, Tianjin
300387, China.
Email: lijialu@tjpu.edu.cn
2 Textile Research Journal 0(00)
to the molding process and carrying capacity: coating
on the target and radar absorption structures (RASs).
Coatings or paints have the advantage of low cost and a
simple process. However, they make the aircrafts
thicker and heavier. Besides, coated absorbing mater-
ials cannot be used in the wide band of frequencies and
have poor environmental endurance and poor mechan-
ical properties. Therefore, coated absorbing materials
cannot be used for structural purposes.4,6 By contrast,
RASs have the functions of both load-bearing and EM
energy absorption, and they does not interfere with the
external profiles set by the aircraft designers. Therefore,
RASs have acquired much attention of scientists in the
field.7–10
For RASs, the mechanical properties and absorption
capacity should be considered simultaneously. It is well
known that the mechanical properties of carbon fiber
reinforced polymer composites are excellent, and
carbon fiber (in continuous or discontinuous forms)
as electric loss RAMs can absorb some EM waves, in
theory.11 In fact, carbon fiber is a strong reflector of
EM waves due to its high graphitization degree.11–14 To
meet the need of RASs, some people added EM
powders, such as carbon black,10 ferrite,7,15,16 carbon
nanotubes,17–19 etc., into the matrix of composites, and
others changed the machining parameters, the volume
fraction of fibers, the processing parameters, and
fiber orientation to improve the EM absorption cap-
acity.14,20,21 To date, however, no studies have focused
on the reinforcement architectures of the EM absorp-
tion properties of carbon fiber reinforced polymer
composites.
Three-dimensional (3D) woven composites can offer
increased resistance to delamination and have the abil-
ity to contain (localize) the area of damage due to the
addition of yarns, known as binders, which interlace
through the fabric thickness.22–24 The carbon fiber in
the thickness direction of composites can enhance the
microwave absorbing properties.11
Besides, 3D woven composites can be mass-
produced at low cost using automated manufacturing
techniques, making them viable in a wide spectrum of
industrial sectors.23,25 Therefore, in this study, the EM
properties of three representative 3D carbon fiber
woven fabrics (3D interlock woven fabric, 3D interlock
woven fabric with stuffer warp, and 3D orthogonal
woven fabric) reinforced epoxy composites were inves-
tigated. As the free-space method is known as an ade-
quate method for measuring anisotropic and
inhomogeneous materials, such as composites,26 the
EM properties of the 3D carbon fiber fabric/epoxy
composites over the 8–18 GHz bandwidth were tested
by the free-space method in this study. A light micro-
scope was used to reveal the structure of the
composites.
Manufacturing and experimental
procedures
Materials
Commercially available raw materials were used in this
study. The T300-3 K, T300-6 K, and T700-12 K carbon
fibers were supplied by Toray, Japan. The epoxy resin
TDE-86, the hardener PA (tetra hydro phthalic anhyd-
ride), and the accelerant aniline used in the experiment
were from Tianjin Resin Plant, China.
Sample preparation
We chose three typical 3D woven fabrics (3D interlock
woven fabric, 3D interlock woven fabric with stuffer
warp, and 3D orthogonal woven fabric) as the
reinforcement architectures in this study. The sketch
diagrams of the three fabric structures are shown in
Figure 1 to illustrate the specific preform structures.
The 3D sheet fabrics with the size of 400 mm
(length)  200 mm (width)  4 mm (thickness) were
made on the 3D weaving equipment in the Institute
for Composite Materials of Tianjin Polytechnic
University, China. The matrix was prepared through
mixing TDE-86 epoxy resin, methyl tetrahydrophthalic
anhydride (hardener), and dimethyl benzylamine
(accelerant) by a weight ratio of 100:85:1, and then
using the RTM (resin transfer molding) process to
make the composites. The process involved cutting
the large 3D sheet fabric into testing samples size
(380 mm  180 mm  4 mm) and placing it into the
mold, closing the mold, checking it for leaks, and heat-
ing them to 90 C. Once the mold and the pipeworks
connected to the mold were sufficiently heated, a
vacuum of approximately 0.45 MPa was applied to
the pipeworks, the mold and the resin trap were
allowed to stabilize for 5 min, and then the resin was
injected into the mold. The injection process was con-
tinued until a sufficient volume of resin was seen in the
resin trap, to indicate that the mold had been com-
pletely filled with resin. The mold was isolated from
the resin pot and the resin trap and then put into an
air-circulating oven. The manufacturer recommended
cure cycle was employed27: the first step of the cure
cycle was 2 h at 110 C, with the second step being 2 h
at 130 C, the third step being 1 h at 150 C, the
fourth step being 8 h at 160 C, and the final step
being 3 h at 180 C. After curing, ultrasonic C-scans
(USPC 3040 DAC c-scan system) were performed to
ensure that the samples we selected were free of voids
errors. The carbon fiber volume fraction of the three
types of 3D woven composites was calculated by the
weighting method.27 The structural parameters of the
3D interlock woven fabric/epoxy composites
(3DIWC), 3D interlock woven fabric with stuffer
Fan et al. 3

Figure 1. The structures schematic of three-dimensional (3D) interlock woven fabric (a), 3D interlock woven fabric with stuffer
warp (b), and 3D orthogonal woven fabric (c).

Table 1. Structural parameters of the three-dimensional (3D) interlock woven fabric/epoxy composites (3DIWC), 3D interlock
woven fabric with stuffer warp/epoxy composites (3DISWC), and 3D orthogonal woven fabric/epoxy composites (3DOWC)

Yarns linear density (K) Fabric density (yarn/cm)

Binder Binder Fiber volume

Sample type Warp Weft Warp yarn Warp Weft Warp yarn Layer fraction

3DIWC – 6 6 – 5 8 6 46.3
3DISWC 12 6 3 3 5 3 6 46.2
3DOWC 12 12 3 3 3 3 6 46.5

warp/epoxy composites (3DISWC), and 3D orthog-

onal woven fabric/epoxy composites (3DOWC) are
listed in Table 1.

Characterization methods
A free-space measurement system was used to evaluate
the broadband EM characteristics of the 3D woven
composites studied in this paper. The free-space meas-
urement system was composed of two horn antennas
(transmit and receive antennas) for a broadband fre-
quency range of 8–18GHz, a sample holder, a data
Figure 2. Schematic configuration of the free-space measure-
acquisition system, and a vector network analyzer ment system for characterization of the electromagnetic prop-
(Agilent Technologies, ZNB40). The network analyzer erties of materials.
consisted of a synthesized sweeper and a scattering par-
ameter (S-parameter) test set. The S-parameter test set
in the network analyzer was linked to the broadband
horn antennas through precision coaxial cables and cir- parameter (S12) with the free-space measurement
cular-to-rectangular waveguide adapters. A schematic system. The EM wave perpendicularly struck the com-
of the experimental setup is shown in Figure 2. The two posite surface and the E field was parallel to the weft
identical horn antennas were mounted 80 cm apart. The direction of the composites.
composite under test was mounted in the central plane The measurement system was calibrated for reflec-
of the two antennas on a low loss polystyrene block. tion and transmission with an electronic calibration
The test sample was illuminated with a polarized EM module (ZV-Z54 10 MHz–40 GHz). The vector net-
wave at normal incidence and the reflection and trans- work analyzer calibration process is shown in
mission were investigated by measuring the reflection Figure 3. After calibration, the S-parameter of the com-
scattering parameter (S11) and transmission scattering posite samples can be tested according to the GJB
4 Textile Research Journal 0(00)
Figure 3. The vector network analyzer calibration process.
2038A-2011 standard (measurement methods for
reflectivity of radar absorbing material). The test pro-
cess was conducted at 20 C and 60% relative humidity
in the constant temperature and humidity laboratory of
Tianjin Polytechnic University.
After the EM properties testing, the large pieces
(380 mm  180 mm  4 mm) were sectioned into small
sizes (20 mm  20 mm  4 mm) with a water-cooled dia-
mond wheel saw. The cut surfaces were polished by
using 360, 800, 2000 grit sandpaper and microcloth
(silk fabric) in order for them to be uniform and
smooth. Then the cross-section morphology of the
composites was examined in a Zeiss Stemi 2000-C
Stereo Microscope, which offers a wide variety of
standard features and options that will meet the most
rigorous application demands.
Basic theory of electromagnetic
transmission
The RAM attenuates the incident EM wave by trans-
mission or absorption, while the shielding material
attenuates the incident EM wave by reflection or
absorption. When an EM plane wave (EI) strikes a
monolithic conductive material having different intrin-
sic impedance, two waves will be created at the external
surface: a reflected wave (ER) and a transmitted wave
(EI–R), as shown in Figure 4. The amplitude of the ER
and EI–R waves depends on the intrinsic impedance of
the RAM and the EM incident wave propagating
domain. As the transmitted wave from the external sur-
face (EI–R) travels in the conductive shield, the strength
(amplitude) of the wave exponentially decreases due to
absorption. The absorbed energy will be dissipated as
heat.26 Once the wave reaches the second surface of the
Figure 4. Schematic view of electromagnetic wave interaction
with radar absorption material.
from the internal surface is part of the reflection
mechanism).
Results and discussion
Electromagnetic transmission characteristics of the
composites
In order to investigate the contribution of absorption,
reflection, and transmission to the overall incident EM
power of the three composites, power data collected
from the EM transmission characterization setup
were analyzed. The EM characterization setup used
directly measures the transmitted power (T) and
reflected power (R). The currently available character-
ization tools are incapable of separately evaluating the
multiple-reflection effect. So for practical purposes, the
measured R is not only the power that has been
reflected from the external surface, but also includes
the positive contribution of internal surface reflection
and negative contribution of multiple-reflection. The
incident power (I) was a constant (I ¼ 1 mW), so the
absorbed power (A) can be calculated by the following
equation
A ¼ 1  ðT þ RÞ ð1Þ
In a two-port network analysis system, the scattering
parameters (S), that is, S11 (S22) and S12 (S21) can be
correlated to the reflection and transmission coefficient.
R and T of the RAM can be represented as28
sheet (x ¼ h), a portion (ET) of the wave will be trans-  2
ET 

mitted from the sample and a portion (EM) will be T ¼   ¼ jS12 j2 ¼ jS21 j2 ð2Þ
reflected into the sample (note that this first reflection EI
Fan et al. 5

Figure 5. Power balance in the X-band and Ku-band frequency range for three-dimensional (3D) interlock woven fabric/epoxy
composites (a), 3D interlock woven fabric with stuffer warp/epoxy composites (b), and 3D orthogonal woven fabric/epoxy com-
posites (c) as a function of frequency.

 2 meanwhile the three kinds of composites can be used

ER 

R ¼   ¼ jS11 j2 ¼ jS22 j2
EI
According to Equations (1)–(3), we can calculate
the incident, reflected, transmitted, and absorbed
power of the three composites. The power balance in
the X-band (8–12 GHz) and Ku-band (12–18 GHz)
frequency range for 3DIWC, 3DISWC, and 3DOWC
as a function of frequency is shown in Figure 5. There
ð3Þ as EM shielding materials.
The absorption properties of the three kinds of
composites
The EM absorption rate of the RAM can be evaluated
in terms of the refection loss (RL), which is the loga-
rithmic scales of the ratio ER and EI expressed by the
following equation5
 2
were five samples for each of the 3DIWC, 3DISWC, ER 
and 3DOWC. The reported power values were the
average values of the 3DIWC, 3DISWC, and
3DOWC.
It is clearly seen that regardless of the reinforcement
architecture, the amount of energy blocked by absorp-
tion was higher than that by reflection, especially when
the frequency was more than 11.4 GHz, that is, the A
values were larger than 0.9 mV, while the R values were
smaller than 0.1 mV in the Ku-band frequency range.
Besides, the maximum transmitted power of the
3DIWC, 3DISWC, and 3DOWC were all lower than
0.024%, which meant that all EM wave incidents on the
composites were reflected and absorbed. This was
because the carbon fabric was a good electrical con-
ductor and the thicknesses were larger than skin
depth. Therefore, we can reasonably conclude that the
absorption is the dominant radar absorption mechan-
ism of the 3DIWC, 3DISWC, and 3DOWC, and
RL ¼ 10 log  ¼ 20 logjS11 jðdBÞ ð4Þ
EI
Figure 6 shows the average reflection loss of the
3DIWC, 3DISWC, and 3DOWC in the frequency
range of 8–18 GHz. It can be seen that the three
kinds of composites had a similar reflection loss
curve. The maximum reflection losses for the 3DIWC,
3DISWC, and 3DOWC were 23.7, 24.5, and 24.8
at the frequency of 15.4 GHz, respectively. The absorp-
tion bandwidth of 10 dB for each composite was
7.8 GHz (11.2–18 GHz). In other words, the three
kinds of composites absorbed more than 90% of the
incident microwave radiation over a broadband fre-
quency range of 11.2–18 GHz. The absorption band-
width of 20 dB (99% absorption) of reflection loss
for the 3DIWC was 0.9 GHz (from 15.0 to 15.9 GHz),
and for the 3DISWC and 3DOWC was 1.1 GHz (from
14.9 to 16.0 GHz). Furthermore, the three kinds of
6 Textile Research Journal 0(00)

Figure 6. The reflection loss of the three kinds of composite

structures in the frequency range of 8–18 GHz. 3DIWC: three-
dimensional (3D) interlock woven fabric/epoxy composites;
3DISWC: 3D interlock woven fabric with stuffer warp/epoxy
composites; 3DOWC: 3D orthogonal woven fabric/epoxy
composites.

composites showed more than 60% absorptivity

(below 4 dB) over a broadband frequency range of
8–11.2 GHz. Xin et al.29 reported that the reflection
loss of the T300 carbon fiber/epoxy unidirectional com-
posites with 50% fiber volume fraction was from 1 to
2 dB in the frequency range of 8–18 GHz. By com-
parison, it is not difficult to discover that the 3D woven
composites exhibited better EM absorption properties
than the unidirectional composites over a broadband
frequency range of 8–18 GHz.
The cross-section photomicrographs of the three
kinds of compositess were investigated by a Zeiss
Stemi 2000-C Stereo Microscope, as shown in
Figure 7. In the 3DIWC (Figure 7(a)), the binder
yarns showed a different undulation connecting the
weft yarns of the upper layer and under layer, and
the weft yarns were extruded by the binder yarns to
become crimp. The 3D interlock woven fabric with
stuffer warp (Figure 1(b)) was made by adding the
warp yarns into the 3D interlock woven fabric.
The warp yarns and weft yarns were almost straight,
and only the binder yarns showed a different extent of
crimp (Figure 7(b)). In 3D orthogonal woven fabric
(Figure 7(c)), the weft (y-directional) and warp
(x-directional) yarns in the x–y plane without any
crimp and the multiple layers of warp and weft yarns
were interlaced by a set of binder yarns (z-yarns), which
held the fabric through-thickness together. From
Figure 7(c), it can be seen that the binder yarns
remained straight in the thickness direction and only
became crimp at the corner of the material face.
The study of Stonier RA30 showed that many tiny
pyramids formed at the interlaced areas of the yarns in
Figure 7. Cross-section photomicrographs and the corres-
ponding schematic diagrams of three-dimensional (3D) interlock
woven fabric/epoxy composites (a), 3D interlock woven fabric
with stuffer warp/epoxy composites (b), and 3D orthogonal
woven fabric/epoxy composites (b).
the carbon fiber polymer composite, which like the
microwave dark rooms were conducive to the EM
absorbing. There were more interlaced places in the
3DISWC, 3DIWC, and 3DOWC, which formed many
tiny pyramids that made the 3DISWC, 3DIWC, and
3DOWC have good absorption capacity.
The transmission properties of the three kinds of
composites
Figure 8 shows the average transmitted power of the
3DIWC, 3DISWC, and 3DOWC in the frequency
range of 8–18 GHz.
It is seen that the transmitted power of the 3DOWC
was greater than that of the 3DISWC, which was
greater than that of the 3DIWC. The resin-rich areas
formed in the tiny pyramids, which were conducive to
the EM propagation through the thickness of the com-
posites. There could be more interlaced places in the
3DISWC than in the 3DIWC (Figure 7), so the trans-
mitted power of the 3DISWC was larger than that of
the 3DIWC. The numbers of interlaced point of the
Fan et al.
Figure 8. Transmitted power in the frequency range of 8–18
GHz for the three-dimensional interlock woven fabric/epoxy
composites (3DIWC) (a), three-dimensional interlock woven
fabric with stuffer warp/epoxy composites (3DISWC) (b), and
three-dimensional orthogonal woven fabric/epoxy composites
(3DOWC) (c) as a function of frequency.
3DOWC had no difference with those of the 3DISWC,
but there were z-yarns in 3DOWC. The carbon fibers in
the vertical-arranged manner in the 3D composites
could be formed into resin ducts along the z-yarns, so
the transmitted power of the 3DOWC was larger than
that of the 3DISWC.
The EM interference shielding effectiveness (EMI
SE) of shielding materials can be expressed as26
7
Figure 9. Total electromagnetic interference shielding effect-
iveness as a function of frequency. 3DIWC: three-dimensional
(3D) interlock woven fabric/epoxy composites; 3DISWC: 3D
interlock woven fabric with stuffer warp/epoxy composites;
3DOWC: 3D orthogonal woven fabric/epoxy composites.
Conclusions
In order to investigate the reinforcement architecture
effect on the EM wave properties of carbon fiber rein-
forced polymer composites, the 3DIWC, the 3DISWC,
and the 3DOWC were studied by the free-space meas-
urement system. The results showed that regardless of
the reinforcement architectures, the 3D woven carbon
fiber fabric/epoxy composite absorbed more than 60%
 2
ET  EM power and transmitted less than 0.024% over the
EMI SEðdBÞ ¼ 10log  ¼ 20logjS12 jðdBÞ
EI
The EMI SE of the 3DIWC, 3DISWC, and 3DOWC
as a function of frequency is shown in Figure 9. From
Figure 9, it is seen that the EMI SE of the 3DIWC was
larger than that of the 3DOWC, which was larger than
that of the 3DISWC. These results corresponded to the
transmission properties shown in Figure 8. Besides, the
total EMI SE of each composite is larger than 46 dB.
The value of EMI SE of a material indicates how
much incident signal is blocked by the shielding
medium. A total of 20 dB EMI SE means 99%, while
30 and 40 dB mean 99.9% and 99.99% of incident radi-
ation is blocked, respectively. The total EMI SE of the
three types of 3D carbon fiber woven composite are all
larger than 46 dB over the 8–12 GHz bandwidth, which
is evidence that the three types of 3D carbon fiber
woven composites can be used as excellent shielding
materials for EMI. As we know that for commercial
application purposes the minimum EMI SE of a shield-
ing material should be 20 dB, the three types of 3D
carbon fiber woven composites can meet the commer-
cial requirements.
ð5Þ 8–18 GHz bandwidth. It meant that the absorption was
the dominant radar absorption mechanism of the
3DIWC, 3DISWC, and 3DOWC, and meanwhile the
3DIWC, 3DISWC, and 3DOWC can be used as EM
shielding materials. The EM wave absorption proper-
ties of the three kinds of composites were more than
90% (below 10 dB) over the 11.2–18 GHz bandwidth,
and more than 60% (below 4 dB) over the 8–12 GHz
bandwidth. Therefore, the three kinds of composites
described herein exhibited good EM wave absorption
properties over a broadband frequency range of
8–18 GHz.
The numbers of tiny pyramids formed at the places
of interlaced yarns and the fiber arrangement in the
thickness direction of the composites influence the
extent of the transmitted properties. The resin-rich
areas formed in the tiny pyramids were conducive to
the EM propagation through the thickness of the com-
posites, and the 3DISWC had more tiny pyramids than
the 3DIWC, so the transmitted power of the 3DISWC
was greater than that of the 3DIWC. The number of
interlaced points of the 3DOWC had no difference with
those of the 3DISWC, but there were z-yarns in
8 Textile Research Journal 0(00)
3DOWC. The carbon fibers in the vertical-arranged
manner in the 3D composites could be formed into
resin ducts along the z-yarns, so the transmitted
power of the 3DOWC was larger than that of the
3DISWC.
The 3DIWC, 3DISWC, and 3DOWC not only had
good EM wave absorbability but also excellent mech-
anical properties; hence, they can be used as a RAS in a
weapon system, such as for fighters, warships, and mis-
siles. Besides, 99.99% of incident radiation is blocked
by the 3D carbon fiber woven composite over the
8–12 GHz bandwidth, which is evidence that the three
types of 3D carbon fiber woven composites can be used
as excellent shielding materials for EM interference.
These 3D woven structures provide an easy and effect-
ive way to design and improve the EM wave absorb-
ability of carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites.
However, we need to further adjust the structure par-
ameter of reinforcement to make the 3D woven struc-
tures absorb 90% EM energy over the entire frequency
range of radar. Only then can they be the material of
choice for military applications.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article: This work was supported by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (Grant No:51603163), the
Science and Technology Project of Shaanxi, China (Grant
No:2017JQ5056), the Science and Technology Project of the
China Textile Industry Association (Grant No:2016050), the
Science and Technology Project of Shaanxi Education
Department, China (Grant No:16JK1343), the Young
Talent Foundation of the University Association for
Science and Technology in Shaanxi, China (Grant
No:20160123), the Sanqin Scholar Foundation of Shaanxi
Province, China, the Doctoral Program of Xi’an
Polytechnic University, China (Grant No:BS1514), and the
Cooperative Innovational Center for Technical Textiles,
Shaanxi Province, China (Grant No:2015ZX-02).
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