Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ISBN : 9789386629890
2
GENERAL SCIENCE
Physics
Physics is the branch of science which Some Physical Quantities and their Units
deals with the study of matter, energy, and
the interaction between them. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES • First law of Motion - An object at rest
SCALARS & VECTORS will remain at rest or in uniform motion
remains in uniform motion unless acted
In physics, large number of physical
on by an external unbalanced force.
quantities can be broadly classi ied into
This law is often called the law of
two categories– Scalars & Vectors.
inertia. i.e., resistance to change.
• A scalar is a physical quantity that has
only a magnitude (size) E.g. : Distance, • Second law of Motion - The rate of
speed, time, power, energy, etc. change of momentum of a body is directly
• A vector is a physical quantity that has proportional to the unbalanced external
both a magnitude and a direction. E.g. force applied on it.
Velocity, displacement, acceleration, Impulse: If a large force acts on a
force etc. body or particle for a smaller time,
Some physical quantities like moment of then impulse (J) = product of force
inertia, stress, etc. are neither scalar nor and time. Then,
vector. They are tensor. J = Ft F = force, and t = time
So, J = Ft = mat.
Fundamental and Derived Impulse = Change in momentum.
physical Quantities and their
• Third law of Motion - For every action
units
there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Seven Fundamental Physical Quantities
and their Units Instances of Newton’s Laws
Physical SI Unit Symbol of Motion
Quantity First law of Motion
Length meter m A magician pulls a tablecloth out from
under dishes and glasses on a table with-
Mass kilogram Kg
out disturbing them.
Time second S A person’s body is thrown outward as a
Electric Current ampere A car rounds a curve on a highway.
Temperature kelvin K Second law of Motion
Pushing a child on a swing is easier than
Luminous candela Cd pushing an adult on the same swing, be-
intensity
cause the adult has more inertia.
Amount of mole mol A soccer player kicks a ball with his foot
substance
and the toes are left stinging.
3
Two students are in a baseball game. The 8. Rubbing your hands together when it’s
irst student hits a ball very hard and it cold.
has a greater acceleration than the sec- 9. Friction keeps knots from coming
ond student who bunts the ball lightly. undone (like in shoelaces)
Third law of Motion
Rockets are launched into space using WORK & ENERGY
jet propulsion where exhaust accelerates • Work refers to an activity involving a
out from the rocket and the rocket accel- force and movement in the direction of
erates in an opposite direction. the force.
Work done w = Fs cosq
CIRCULAR MOTION
Positive work : If q < 90°
• Motion of a body along a circular path is Zero work : If q = 90°
called circular motion. Negative work : If q > 90°
• Centripetal force - while a body is • A force of 20 newtons pushing an object
moving along a circular path an external 5 meters in the direction of the force
force required to act radially inward. does 100 joules of work.
This force is called centripetal force. • The SI unit of work is the joule (J),
• Capacity of doing work is called energy.
Centripetal force F =
mv2 • It may exist in potential, kinetic,
e
r thermal, electrical, chemical, nuclear, or
where r = radius of circular path. other various forms.
A pseudo force that is equal and • To do 100 joules of work, you must
opposite to the centripetal force is expend 100 joules of energy.
called centrifugal force. • Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
Cream separator, centrifugal dryer, etc, It can only be transferred to other
work on the principle of centrifugal force. objects or converted into different
forms. This is Law of Conservation of
FRICTION energy.
Friction is a force that is created when- • The SI unit of energy is joule.
ever two surfaces move or try to move • It is a scalar quantity.
across each other. • The energy associated with motion is
• Friction always opposes the motion or called kinetic energy (K).
attempted motion of one surface across
1
another surface. K = MV 2 where M is mass and V is the
• Friction is dependent on the texture of 2
both surfaces. velocity.
• Friction is also dependent on the • The energy associated with position is
called potential energy (U).
amount of contact force pushing the
U = mgh; where g is acceleration due to
two surfaces together.
gravity and h is height of the object.
Instances where friction is important
1. Walking
Conversion of Energy from one form to
2. Driving another :
3. Picking something up Dynamo- Mechanical Energy into
4. Car brakes Electrical Energy.
5. Erosion in the environment Electric Motor- Electrical Energy into -
6. Burning up meteors in the atmosphere Mechanical Energy.
before they hit Earth. Microphone- Sound Energy into
7. Striking a match/building a ire. Electrical Energy.
4
–11 2 2
Loud Speaker- Electrical Energy into • G = 6.67 × 10 Nm /kg
Sound Energy. • Gravitational force is a central and
Electric Bulb- Electrical Energy into conservative force.
Light and Heat Energy. • They can operate over a very long
Solar Cell– Solar energy into distances.
electrical energy. • According to Newton’s theory, the
Candle- Chemical Energy into
gravitational attraction between the
light and heat energy.
planets and the sun holds the planets in
Sitar- Mechanical Energy into
Sound energy. elliptical orbits around the sun.
• The earth’s moon and moons of the
POWER other planets are held in orbits by the
attraction between the moons and the
• Power is the rate of doing work.
planets.
• Power = Work / time
• It is equivalent to an amount of energy • The force of gravity depends upon the
consumed per unit time. object’s mass or the amount of matter
• The SI unit of power is joule/second. in the object.
• One horse power is equivalent of 746 • The weight (w) of an object is equal to
watt. the mass of the object multiplied by the
Board of Trade Unit (B.O.T.U.) : kwh acceleration due to gravity(g).
(Kilo watt hour) W = mg
1 kwh = 1 Unit • gmaximum at poles and gminimum at
= 3.6 × 106 joule equator.
This is to measure domestic electric
energy consumption.
1
• gmoon = g
6 earth
GRAVITATION • The value of ‘g’ decreases with altitude,
depth from the earth’s surface.
• Gravitation is a natural phenomenon
by which all physical bodies attract • g decreases due to rotation of earth.
each other.
Weight of a body in a lift
• On Earth, gravity gives weight to
physical objects employing a downward (i) If lift is stationary or moving with
force to keep them grounded. uniform speed (either upward or
• Gravitational force is always attractive. downward), the apparent weight of a
For example, earth always attracts us body is equal to its true weight.
but never repels. (ii) If lift is going up with acceleration,
• It is weakest force among the the apparent weight of a body is
four natural forces in nature i.e. more than the true weight.
electromagnetic, weak and strong (iii) If lift is going down with acceleration,
nuclear force. the apparent weight of a body is less
than the true weight.
• If there are two objects of mass m1 and
(iv) If the cord of the lift is broken, it falls
m2 and they are placed at distance r
freely. In this situation the weight of
apart. Then force between them will be:
a body in the lift becomes zero. This
F = G(m1m2)/r2
is the situation of weightlessness.
where G is the universal gravitational
(v) While going down, if the acceleration
constant. of lift is more than acceleration due
This is called Newton’s Universal to gravity, a body in the lift goes in
Gravitational law. contact of the ceiling of lift.
5
• Escape speed (ve) is the minimum d is the density of liquid, h is height of
speed with which an object just crosses liquid column.
the earth’s gravitational ield and never • In a static liquid at same horizontal
comes back. level, pressure is same at all the points.
• The escape velocity of Earth is about Pascal’s Law of Pressure: If gravitation-
11.2 kilometres per second and on al attraction is negligible in equilibrium
moon it is 2.4 km/sec. condition, pressure is same at all points
in a liquid.
SATELLITES • The pressure exerted anywhere at a
point of con ined liquid is transmitted
• A satellite is a smaller object in space
equally and undiminished in all
which orbits around a larger object
directions throughout the liquid.
Planet in space.
• It can be either arti icial, like the • Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press and
hydraulic breaks are based on the
communication or weather satellites
Pascal’s law of pressure.
that orbit the Earth, or they can be
natural, like our Moon.
Atmospheric pressure decreases with
• A geostationary satellite is an earth-
altitude.
That is why
orbiting satellite, placed at an altitude
of approximately 35,800 kilometres • It is dif icult to cook on the mountain.
• The fountain pen of a passenger leaks
(22,300 miles) directly over the equator.
in aeroplane.
• Geostationary satellite revolves in the
• Bleeding occurs from the nose of the
same direction the earth rotates (west
man.
to east). Its time period is 24 hours.
• It is dif icult to breath on higher altitude
• It is used for Communication, television
due to less amount of air.
broadcasting, weather forecasting ,
• Water starts to boil below 100°C.
defence and intelligence.
Surface Tension (T): It is the force (F)
• Polar orbiting satellites closely
acting normally on unit length (l) of
parallel the earth’s meridian lines, thus
imaginary line drawn on the surface of
having a highly inclined orbit close to
90°.
liquid
• They pass over the North and South • The surface tension decreases with
poles each revolution. rise in temperature and becomes zero
• They are used for weather forecasting, at the critical temperature.
earth-mapping, earth observation, etc. • Due to the surface tension, rain drops
are spherical in shape.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF Archimedes’ Principle: When a body
SOLIDS AND FLUIDS is immersed partly or wholly in a liquid,
there is an apparent loss in the weight of
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by
the body, which is equal to the weight of
an instrument called the barometer.
liquid displaced by the body.
• Sudden fall in barometric reading is
• All objects placed in a liquid experience
the indication of storm.
• Slow fall in barometric reading is the an upward force which allows the body
indication of rain. to loat if it displaces water with weight
• Slow rise in the barometric reading is equal to the weight of the body. This
the indication of clear weather. upward force is called the buoyant
• The pressure exerted by liquid column force and the law is called the law of
at the surface given as p = hdg, where buoyancy.
6
• The weight of water displaced by an • 1 cal = 4.2 joule
iron ball is less than its own weight. • It always lows from a substance at a
Whereas water displaced by the higher temperature to the substance at
immersed portion of a ship is equal to a lower temperature.
its weight. So, small ball of iron ball sink Temperature: It indicates the degree of
in water, but large ship loat. hotness or coldness of a body.
• Hydrogen illed ballon loat in air • Temperature is measured by
thermometer.
because hydrogen is lighter than air.
• Temperature measuring units are
Law of Floatation: A body loats in a
Kelvin, °C or °F.
liquid if
• The density of material of body is less Relation between Temperature on
different scales.
than or equal to the density of liquid.
• When body loats in neutral equilibrium, C - 0 F - 32 R - 0 K - 273 Ra - 492
the weight of the body is equal to the = = = =
100 180 80 100 180
weight of displaced liquid. The centre of
gravity of the body and centre of gravity OR
of the displaced liquid should be in one
vertical line for the condition. C F - 32 R K - 273 Ra - 492
= = = =
• Density (d): It is the mass per unit 5 9 4 5 9
volume. • The normal temperature of a human
M body is 37°C or 98.6°F.
d=
V • At –40° temperature, celsius and
• Density of water is maximum at 4°C. fahrenheit thermometers read the same.
• Thermal expansion: Increase in
• Capillarity: The phenomenon of rise or
length, area or volume on heating.
fall of liquids in a capillary tubes.
• The oil in the wick of a lamp rises due to Methods of Heat Transfer
capillary action. · Conduction: It is that mode of
• Viscosity: The property of a luid by transmission of heat in solid where
virtue of which an internal frictional heat is transferred from a region of
force acts between its different layers higher temperature to a region of lower
when it is in motion. temperature by the aid of particles of
• Bernoulli’s theorem: For a non- the body without their actual migration.
viscous, incompressible luids lowing · Convection: It requires a medium
and is the process in which heat is
streamline from one point to another
transferred from one place to other by
point, then at every point of its path,
actual movement of heated substance
pressure, energy, potential energy and (usually molecule of luid).
kinetic energy per unit volume remains · Radiation has the following proper-
constant. ties:
Blowing of roofs by storms, sprayer (a) Radiant energy travels in straight
action of carburetor, etc. are based on lines and when some object is placed
Bernoulli’s principle. in the path, its shadow is formed at
the detector.
HEAT (b) It is reflected and refracted or can
• Heat is a form of energy which causes be made to interfere. The reflection
sensation of hotness or coldness. or refraction are exactly as in case
Its unit is joule or calorie. of light.
7
(c) It can travel through vacuum. Sublimation: It is the process of
(d) Intensity of radiation follows the law conversion of a solid directly into vapour,
of inverse square. eg., Iodine (dark solid), Dry ice (solid CO 2),
(e) Thermal radiation can be polarised in etc.
the same way as light by transmission Hoar Frost: It is just the reverse process
through a nicol. of sublimation. e.g. Frost and snow lakes.
Latent Heat
• The amount of heat required to change WAVES
phase (liquid to gas or liquid to solid
• A wave is a kind of oscillation
etc.) without change in temperature is
(disturbance) that travels through
called latent heat. Q = mL where, L =
space and matter.
latent heat
• Wave motions transfer energy, not
• Why are steam burns more severe than
matter from one place to another.
hot water burns. It is because latent
• Transverse wave- In it the vibrations
heat of steam is more than hot water.
of particles are perpendicular ^ to the
• Latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g
direction of travel of the wave. It has
• Latent heat of steam is 538 cal/g.
crests and troughs.
Speci ic Heat
• Longitudinal wave:- In it the vibrations
• The amount of heat that is required to
of particles are parallel to the direction
raise the temperature of a unit mass of
of travel of wave. It has compressions
a substance by one degree (14.5°C to
and rarefactions.
15.5°C) is known as Speci ic heat.
• The repetition of sound due to re lection
Speci ic heat of Different materials of sound waves, is called an echo.
Material Speci ic heat (J/Kg K) • Intensity is de ined as the amount
of energy passing per unit area held
Water 4200 around that point per unit time.
Ice 2100 • Quality is that characteristics of sound
which differentiate between two sounds
Iron 460 of same intensity and same frequency.
Kerosene oil 210 • Sonar: It stands for sound navigation
and ranging. It is used to measure
Mercury 140
the depth of a sea to locate the enemy
Lead 130 submarines and shipwrecks.
• If there is a relative motion between
(i) Cooking utensils are made of
source of sound and observer, the
aluminum, brass & steel because
apparent frequency of sound heard
of their low speci ic heat and high
by the observer is different from the
conductivity.
actual frequency of sound emitted by
(ii) Due to low speci ic heat of sand,
the source. This phenomenon is called
deserts are hot in day and cool in night.
Doppler’s effect.
Newton’s law of cooling
• Electromagnetic waves differ from
The rate of loss of heat by a body is
mechanical waves in that they do not
directly proportional to the difference in
require a medium to propagate.
temperature between the body and its
• This means electromagnetic waves can
surrounding.
travel not only through air and solid
dT materials, but also through the vacuum.
i.e., = E µ (T – T0 )
dt • In the 1860’s and 1870’s, a Scottish
where T and T0 are the temperature of scientist named James Clerk Maxwell
body and surroundings. noticed that electrical ields and
8
magnetic ields can couple together to
Air (20°C) 343
form electromagnetic waves.
• He summarized this relationship Steam (at 100°C) 405
between electricity and magnetism into Mercury 1450
what are now referred to as “Maxwell’s
Water (20°C) 1482
Equations.”
• Heinrich Hertz, a German physicist, Sea water 1533
applied Maxwell’s theories to the Iron 5130
production and reception of radio
waves. Glass 5640
Examples of electromagnetic waves
are light, radio waves, X-rays etc. LIGHT
• Sound is transmitted through gases,
• Light is a form of energy which
plasma, and liquids as longitudinal
produces sensation of vision on our
waves, also called compression waves.
eyes.
• It requires a medium to propagate.
• Light is made of discrete packets of
• Through solids, however, sound can be
energy called photons.
transmitted as both longitudinal waves
• Photons carry momentum, have no
and transverse waves.
mass, and travel at the speed of light,
• Audible sound for human is from 20 Hz
i.e. 300,000 km/sec.
to about 20000 Hz.
• Pitch is the property of sound that we • All light has both particle and wave like
perceive as higher and lower tones. properties. For example–
• Sound can be produced at a desired –Particle like; use of detectors in digital
frequency by different methods. camera for the detection and storage of
• The amplitude of a sound wave is the image data.
degree of motion of air molecules –Wave like; use of instrument for
within the wave which corresponds diffraction of light into a spectrum for
to the change in air pressure that analysis.
accompanies the wave. • It is a transverse wave.
• The distance at which a sound can be • One of the physical properties of light is
heard depends on its intensity. that it can be polarized.
• Sounds higher than 20000 Hz are • Sun’s light reaches to earth in 8 minutes
called ultrasonics. 19 seconds (i.e. 499 seconds).
• Sounds less than 20 Hz are called • Roemer was the person who measured
infrasonics. speed of light in AD 1678.
• When temperature is increased the • The light re lected from moon reaches
speed of sound is increased. to earth in 1.28 second.
• Speed of sound in air is 330 m/s. • Objects, which emit light by themselves
are called Luminous bodies, eg. sun,
Speed of Sound in Different Mediums
stars, electric bulb, etc.
Medium Speed of sound (In Non-luminous bodies do not emit light
m/s) themselves but re lect light falling on
Air(0°C) 332 them, eg. planets, moon, etc.
Uses of concave mirror For any two given media and for light
(i) As a shaving mirror. of a given wavelength. This is known
(ii) As a re lector for the head lights of a as Snell’s law.
vehicle, search light.
(iii) In opthalmoscope to examine eye, Also, sin i = m = m2= v1= l1
sin r 1 2 m1 v 2 l2
ear, nose by doctors.
where 1µ2 = Refractive index of the
(iv) In solar cookers,
second medium with respect to the
Uses of convex mirror irst medium.
(i) As a rear view mirror in vehicle Some Phenomena based on Refraction
because it provides the maximum (i) Twinkling of stars
rear ield of view and image formed (ii) Oval Shape of sun in the morning
is always erect. and evening.
(iii) Rivers appear shallow
(ii) In sodium re lector lamp.
(iv) Coins appear raised in glass illed
Refraction of Light with water.
The bending of the light ray from its path (v) Pencils appear broken in the beaker
in passing from one medium to the other illed with water.
medium is called refraction of light. (vi) Sun appears above horizon at sunset
· If the refracted ray bends towards the and sunrise.
normal relative to the incident ray, (vii) Writing on a paper appears lifted on
then the second medium is said to be putting glass slab on it.
denser than the irst medium. But if (viii)An object in a denser medium appears
the refracted ray bends away from the to be nearer when seen from a rarer
normal, then the second medium is said medium, eg. ish in water, a coin at the
to be rarer than the irst medium. base of a water illed vessel.
4 1H1 ¾¾
® 2He4 + 2+1 e0 + 2v + Q
Chemistry
• Chemistry is the branch of science which deals with study of matter and various
changes it undergoes.
STATES OF MATTER
Matter
Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Elements Compounds
Organic Inorganic
METALS AND NON METALS • Non metals are non lustrous and bad
conductors of heat and electricity.
• There are two types of elements- metals Occurrence of Metals
and non- metals.
• Minerals are naturally occurring
• About 80% known elements are metals.
Metals chemical compounds of ixed
• Elements which are hard, ductile, composition and characteristics,
brittle, and malleable, possess lustre physical form and properties.
and conduct heat and electricity are • The most common groups of minerals
termed metals. are silicates, oxides, sulphides, and
• Except Mercury and gallium, all carbonates etc.
metals are solid. Uses of Some Metals and Non-Metals
• Metals have usually high melting points Compounds
and boiling points.
(i) Silver Nitrate (AgNO3) is called lunar
Non-Metals
• Non metals are electronegative caustic and is used to prepare the ink
elements which have a tendency to gain used during voting.
one or more electrons to form negative (ii) Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) is used as
ions called anions. an oxidishing agent, bleaching agent,
22
as an insecticide and for washing old containing 95, 70, 40 and 10-20 percent
oil paintings. carbon respectively.
(iii) Ferrous Oxide (FeO) is used to • CNG, gasoline or diesel is obtained by
prepare ferrous salts and green glass. fractional distillation of crude oil.
(iv) Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) is used in
jeweller's rouge. ACIDS, BASES SALTS AND
(v) Silver Iodide (AgI) is used for pH SCALE
arti icial rain.
• Acids are chemical compounds that
(vi) Mercuric Chloride (HgC12) is used
taste sour, turn blue litmus red, and
to prepare calomel and as a poison.
often react with some metals to produce
Catalyst
hydrogen gas.
A catalyst is a material that is added to a
• Acids- HNO3, HNO2, H2SO4, H3PO4,
reaction mixture to accelerate the process
H3PO3, H2CO3, etc.
but is itself not consumed.
• Bases are chemical compounds that
Fuels taste bitter, turn red litmus blue and
• The substance, which produce heat and feel slippery. Base: (NaOH), (Ca(OH)2),
light on combustion are called fuels. (KOH), (RbOH), etc.
• LPG (Liqui ied petroleum gas) is a • When aqueous (water) solutions of
mixture of hydrocarbons containing an acid and a base are combined, a
three or four carbon atoms, such as neutralization reaction occurs.
propane, butane and pentane. • The pH of a solution measures the
hydrogen ion concentration in that
Calorific Value
solution.
S. No. Fuel Calori ic Value • Anything above pH 7 is alkaline,
(kJ/g) anything below pH 7 is considered
1. Hydrogen 150 acidic.
• Human blood pH should be slightly
2. Methane 55
alkaline (7. 35 - 7. 45).
3. Petrol 50
Uses of Some Acids And Bases
4. LPG 50
Acids Uses
5. Natural gas 35-50
Nitric acid, oxalic Photography
6. Kerosene Oil 48 acid
7. Diesel 45 Sulphuric acid Petroleum
exploration
8. Bio Gas 35-40
Hydrochloric acid Leather industry
9. Coal 25-32 Benzoic acid, formic Preservation for
10. Ethanol 30 acid, citric acid, food stuff
11. Wood 17 acetic acid etc.
Bases
12. Cow dung 6-8
Calcium hydroxide Manufacture of
Coal is made up of carbon. and calcium oxide bleaching powder
• The common varieties of coal are Magnesium antacid in sugar
anthracite, bitumen; lignite and peat hydroxide industries
23
Sodium hydroxide manufacture of pH VALUE OF SOME
hard soaps and IMPORTANT SUBSTANCES
drugs, paper and
Sodium Hydroxide: Alkaline 14. 0
textile industry,
Ammonia 11. 0
Petroleum re ining
Baking Soda 8. 3
Potassium manufacture of
hydroxide soft soaps Human Blood 7. 4
Sources of Some Naturally Occurring Pure Water: Neutral 7. 0
Acids Milk: Acid 6. 6
Acid Source Tomatoes 4. 5
Wine and Beer 4. 0
Citric acid Lemon, orange,
grapes Apples 3. 0
Vinegar 2. 2
Maleic acid Unripe apple
Lemon Juice 2. 0
Tartaric acid Tamarind Battery Acid 1. 0
Acetic acid Vinegar Urine(Human) 5. 5 to 7. 5
Tears 7. 4
Lactic acid Milk
Sea water 8. 5
Hydrochloric acid Stomach Milk (Cow) 6. 3 to 6. 6
Oxalic acid Tomato Coffee 5.0
Allotropes of Carbon
Graphene
• It is allotrope of carbon
• It is a single layer graphite.
• It has extra-ordinary electrical/ thermal
& physical properties
• It can replace silicon in electronics
• Diamond, graphite, charcoal, coke, coal etc. are different forms of carbon.
26
GLASS Aspirin Acetylsalicylic acid
Glass is a mixture of an alkali silicate with Baking soda Sodium bicarbonate
the silicate of a base, that is, silica, sodium Banana oil Isoamyl acetate
silicate and calcium or lead silicate. (arti icial)
Type & Uses Bicarbonate of Sodium hydrogen
(i) Milky Glass is prepared by adding soda carbonate or sodium
tin oxide (SnO2), calcium phosphate bicarbonate
[(Ca3(PO4)2] or cryolite (Na3AIF6) to Black ash Crude form of
the melt glass. sodium carbonate
(ii) Flint Glass contains lead oxide (PbO)
Bleaching powder Chlorinated lime;
and used in optical instruments like calcium hypochlorite
lenses, prisms.
Bone ash Crude calcium
(iii) Soda or Soft Glass is sodium calcium phosphate
silicate (Na2O. CaO. 6SiO 2). It is the
ordinary glass and used for making Borax Sodium tetraborate
Decahydrate
bottles, window panes, etc.
(iv) Potash Glass or Hard Glass contains Brine Aqueous sodium
potassium carbonate (K 2CO3). It has chloride solution
higher softening temperature. It Calomel Mercury chloride;
is used for making beakers, lasks, mercurous chloride
funnel, etc. Carbolic acid Phenol
(v) Crown Glass contains potassium Caustic potash Potassium hydroxide
oxide (K 2O), Barium oxide (BaO),
Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide
boric oxide (B 2O3) and silica (SiO2). It
is used for optical apparatus. Chalk Calcium carbonate
(vi) Crook's Glass contains cesium Chile saltpeter Sodium nitrate
oxides. It is used for spectacles as it Chile nitre Sodium nitrate
absorbs UV rays.
Copperas Ferrous sulfate
(vii) Glass Laminates is made by ixing
polymer sheet between layers of Cream of tartar Potassium bitartrate
glass. It is used to make windows and Ethanol Ethyl alcohol
screens of cars, trains and aircraft. Fixed white Barium sulfate
(viii) Jena Glass contains B2O3 and Galena Natural lead sul ide
alumina. It is resistant to acids
and alkalies. It is used for making Glauber’s salt Sodium sulfate
laboratory bottles, for keeping acids Green verditer Basic copper
carbonate
and alkalies.
Green vitriol Ferrous sulfate
CHEMICAL NAME OF SOME crystals
Gypsum Natural calcium
COMMON COMPOUNDS sulfate
Common name Chemical name Hypo Sodium thiosulfate
Acid of sugar Oxalic acid (photography) solution
Alcohol, Ethyl alcohol Laughing gas Nitrous oxide
Alum Potassium Lime Calcium oxide
aluminium sulphate
Lunar caustic Silver nitrate
Alumina Aluminium oxide
Methanol Methyl alcohol
Aqua regia Nitrohydrochloric
acid
27
Milk of Magnesium SOME CHEMICAL
SUBSTANCES AND THEIR USES
magnesium hydroxide
Soaps and Detergents: Soaps are the sodium
Oil of vitriol Sulfuric acid or potassium salts of fatty acids. They are
Oil of wintergreen Methyl salicylate made by the saponi ication of fats. Detergents
are made from some petroleum products.
(arti icial) Antibiotic: Medicinal compounds
Orthophosphoric Phosphoric acid produced by moulds and bacteria, capable
of destroying or preventing the growth of
acid bacteria in animal systems. For example
Paris blue Ferric ferrocyanide penicillin, chloramphenicol etc.
Paris green Copper Antibody: Kinds of substances formed in
the blood, tending to inhibit or destroy
acetoarsenite harmful pathogens, etc.
Paris white Powdered calcium Antigen : Substance capable of stimulating
formation of antibodies in a host. It is the
carbonate foreigne substance which enters the host
and use its system to sustain. For example
Pear oil (arti icial) Isoamyl acetate
bacteria, virus etc.
Pearl ash Potassium carbonate Antipyretic: A substance used to lower
Permanent white Barium sulfate body temperature.
Plaster of paris Calcium sulfate Pesticides: They are used to kill pests.
Pests are living organism, who destroy
Precipitated chalk Calcium carbonate
crops or eat away grains.
Quicklime Calcium oxide Insecticides: They are used to kill insects
Quicksilver Mercury for example D.D.T aluminium phosphate
gammexene.
Rock salt Sodium chloride Fungicide: They are used to kill fungus. For
Saltpeter Potassium nitrate example. Copper sulphate, Bordeax mixture.
Soda ash Sodium carbonate Rodenticides: They are used to kill
rodents. For example, Aluminium
Soda nitre Sodium nitrate phosphide, Thalium sulphate.
Sugar Sucrose Herbicides: They are used to kill weeds
Vinegar Impure dilute acetic Benzipram, benzadox.
Sulphadrugs: Alternatives of antibiotics,
acid sulphanilamide, sulphadiazine, Sulpha
Vitamin c Ascorbic acid gunamidine.
Vitriol Sulfuric acid Antacids: Substances which neutralise the
Washing soda Sodium carbonate excess acid and raise the pH to appropriate
level in stomach are called antacids.
Water glass Sodium silicate Epsom salt: Hydrated magnesium sulphate
White caustic Sodium hydroxide (MgSO4 · 7H2O), used in medicines to empty
White lead Basic lead carbonate bowels.
White vitriol Zinc sulfate crystals Chloroform: A sweetish, colourless liquid.
It is used as a solvent and anaesthetic.
Yellow prussiate Potassium Saccharin: A white crystalline solid which
of potash ferrocyanide is 550 times sweeter than sugar, but does
Yellow prussiate Sodium ferrocyanide not have any food value. It is used by
of soda diabetic patients.
Zinc vitriol Zinc sulfate DDT: Dichloro diphenyl tricholoro ethane,
Zinc white Zinc oxide a white powder used as an insecticide.
28
carbohydrate, but not without protein.
GENERAL ORGANIC
NUCLEIC ACIDS
CHEMISTRY Nucleic acids are colourless, complex,
amorphous, compounds made up of
CARBOHYDRATES three units: bases, sugar and phosphoric
Carbohydrates are defined as the optically acid. These are macro-molecules of high
molecular weight and are present in every
active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones
or substances which yield these on living cell.
hydrolysis.
BRANCHES OF SCIENCE
Classification of Carbohydrates
Based on Molecular Size Acarology – study of mites
Adenology – study of glands
CARBOHYDRATES
Angiology – study of blood
flow and
lymphatic
system
MONOSACCHARIDES OLIGOSACCHARIDES
Apiology – study of bees
Based on Nature Arthrology – study of joints
Carbohydrates are also classified as Astheniology – study of diseases
reducing and non-reducing sugars of weakening and
depending on whether they reduce aging
Fehlings and Tollen’s reagent or not. Auxology – science of
Based on Taste growth
Barology – study of
Carbohydrates with sweet taste are called
sugars while those without a sweet taste gravitation
are called non-sugars. Biometrics – study of biological
measurement
LIPIDS
Bromatology – study of food
Lipids are organic compounds soluble in
non-polar fat solvents such as acetone, Ctetology – study of the
ether, chloroform, benzene, etc. and inheritance
insoluble in water. The most important of acquired
role of lipids is that of biological characteristics
fuel. Lipids supply more energy than Cacogenics – study of racial
carbohydrates, excess of lipids is stored degeneration
in the body and used at the time of Carcinology – study of cards
starvation.
and other
PROTEINS crustaceans
Proteins are highly complex, natural Carpology – study of fruits and
compounds, composed of a large number seeds
of different amino acids joined Catacoustics – science of echoes
together with peptide linkage, i.e., they or reflected
are naturally occurring polypeptides.
sounds
The biological importance of proteins
can be judge by the fact that the animals Cetology – study of whales
can live for a long time without fat or and dolphins
29
Chemistry – study of properties Gynaecology – study of women's
of substances physiology
Chirography – study of Halieutics – study of
handwriting or fishing
penmanship Helminthology – study of
Coprology – study of worms
pornography Hematology – study of blood
Cosmology – study of the Hepatology – study of liver
universe
Herpetology – study of
Craniology – study of the skull reptiles and
Dactylography – the study of amphibians
fingerprints Histology – study of the
Dactylology – study of sign tissues of
language organisms
Demography – study of Horology – science of time
population. measurement
Demology – study of human Horticulture – study of
behaviour gardening
Dermatology – study of skin Hyetology – science of
Ecology – study of rainfall
environment Hygienics – study of
Edaphology – study of soils sanitation;
Emetology – study of vomiting health
Emmenology – the study of Hygiastics – science of health
menstruation and hygiene
Endocrinology – study of ductless Hypnology – study of sleep;
glands study of
hypnosis
Entomology – study of insects
Insectology – study of
Entozoology – study of parasites insects
that live inside
larger organisms Ichthyology – study of fish
Epidemiology – study of diseases; Irenology – the study of peace
epidemics Kalology – study of
Euthenics – science concerned beauty
with improving Kinematics – study of
living conditions motion
Geochemistry – study of chemistry Kinetics – study of forces
of the earth's crust producing
Geogony – study of formation or changing
of the earth motion
Geology – study of earth's Karyology – study of cell
crust nuclei
Geoponics – study of Laryngology – study of larynx
agriculture Lepidopterology – study of butterflies
Graminology – study of grasses and moths
30
Leprology – study of Oology – study of eggs
leprosy Optics – study of light
Magnanerie – art of raising Ornithology – study of birds
silkworms
Osteology – study of bones
Magnetics – study of
Otology – study of the
magnetism
ear
Malacology – study of molluscs
Paedology – study of
Malariology – study of malaria children
Mammalogy – study of mammals Palaeontology – study of fossils
Mastology – study of mammals Parasitology – study of
or mammary parasites
glands or breast
diseases Pathology – study of
disease
Meteoritics – study of meteors
Pharmacology – study of drugs
Meteorology – study of weather
Physiology – study of processes
Metrology – science of weights
of life
and measures
Psychology – study of mind
Microbiology – study of
microscopic Pyretology – study of
organisms fevers
Microclimatology – study of local Rheumatology – study of
climates rheumatism
Microphytology – study of very Radiology – study of X-rays
small plant life and their medical
Morphology – study of forms and applications.
the development Seismology – study of
of structures earthquakes
Myology – study of muscles Sociology – study of society
Magirics – art of cookery Tectonics – science of
Nasology – study of the nose structure of
objects, buildings
Neonatology – study of newborn
babies and land forms
Nephology – study of clouds Toxicology – study of poisons
Nephrology – study of the Urology – study of urine;
kidneys urinary tract
Obstetrics – study of Virology – study of viruses
midwifery Xylology – study of wood
Odontology – study of teeth Zoiatrics – veterinary surgery
Oncology – study of tumours Zoology – study of animals
31
Biology
• Edward Jenner is famous for creating
INTRODUCTION the irst effective vaccine for smallpox-
Biology is the study of life and living (father of immunology)
organism, including their structure, func- • Joseph Lister is famous for using
tion, evolution, distribution, identi ication antiseptics for cleaning and sterilizing
and Taxonomy wounds.
• Aristotle is often called “the father of • Robert Brown discovered the cell
biology”. nucleus.
• Leeuwenhoek invented a simple • William Watson (1909) introduced
the term Genetics.
microscope and studied living cells.
• Watson and Crick gave the model of
• Alexander Flemming discovered
DNA.
Penicillin. • In 1866 Ernst Haeckel coined word
• Carolus Linnaeus introduced Binomial “ecology”
Nomenclature for naming plants and • Hippocrates and Aristotle laid the
animals. foundation of ecology.
• Charles Robert Darwin proposed • Camillo golgi discovered golgi body.
the theory of Pangenesis to explain • Salim Ali known as the “birdman of
inheritance and also proposed Origin of India”
species by Natural Selection. • Har Gobind Khorana is a biochemist
• Gregor Johann Mendel discovered who won the Nobel Prize in 1968 for
principles of inheritance. demonstrating how the nucleotides in
• Lamarck discarded the idea of ixity of nucleic acids control the synthesis of
proteins.
species.
• Louis Pasteur proposed ‘Germ
theory of disease. He also proposed
CELLS
pasteurization for sterilization. • All living organism are constituted of
• Robert Hooke assembled a compound structural and functional units called
microscope and discovered cells in cells.
cork. • Robert Hook coined the term ‘cell’ in
1665.
• William Harvey discovered blood
• Cells are grouped into tissues, tissues
circulation.
into organ and organs into organ
• T.H. Morgan laid foundation of gene system.
theory. • Smallest cells- Mycoplasmas.
• David Baltimore is known for his • Largest isolated single cell- egg of an
discovery of reverse transcriptase. ostrich
• Charles Darwin is famous for the
theory of Natural selection. Prokaryotic Cells
• Hippocrates is considered to be the • Morphologically most primitive cells.
“father of western medicine”. • It is without nucleus.
32
• A single membrane surrounds the cell. Genetics
• It is found in bacteria, blue green algae, • Study of genes is known as genetics.
mycoplasma.
• The plasma membrane is semi Gene
permeable in nature. • It is a segment of DNA and basic unit
• Many prokaryotes have small circular of heredity. These are located on
DNA molecules called plasmids. chromosomes.
• Cell devision occurs by ission or • DNA is found in nucleus, and also found
budding.
in mitochondria and chloroplast.
Eukaryotic Cells • It stands for deoxyribonucleic acid
• The eukaryotic cells occur in all protists, (DNA).
fungi, plants and the animals. • It is double stranded.
• Eukaryotic cells are typically composed • It consists of Nitrogenous bases-
of plasma membrane, cytoplasm
Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine or
and its organelles viz. mitochondria,
Guanine, 5-carbon sugar and a
endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex a
true nucleus, etc. phosphate molecule.
Cell Wall • RNA is single stranded.
• Cell wall is present in plants. • It consists of phosphate, ribose sugar,
• Cell division occurs by mitosis and nitrogenous bases- Adinine, Uracil,
meiosis. Cytosine, and Guanine.
• Cell wall is unique feature of plant cell • Mendel conducted cross hybridization
which is made up of cellulose and is experiments on green pea plant (Pisum
totally absent in animals. sativum).
Cell Membrane Mutation
• Cell membrane is composed of lipids. • Sudden change in the sequence of DNA
• The function of plasma membrane is the is known as mutation.
transport of the molecules across it.
Sex Determination
• Lysosomes these are popularly called
• X and Y are the sex chromosomes which
“suicide bags”
Nucleus are responsible for the determination
• It is centrally located spherical and of sex. 46 chromosomes are present
largest component of all eukaryotic cell. in human body cell. In which 22 pairs
Nucleolus is present in nucleus. of these are autosomes & 23nd is sex
• Robert Brown named it Nucleus. chromosomes, ie. x & y.
Mitochondria
Genetic disorder
• These are also called “Powerhouse of
• It is caused due to abnormality in an
cells”. individual DNA.
Some Human Body Disorder
Disorder Symptom Defect
Cystic ibrosis Mucus clogs lungs, liver, Failure of chloride ion
and pancreas transport mechanism
Sickle-cell anemia Poor blood circulation Abnormal hemoglobin
molecules
Tay-Sachs disease Deterioration of central Defective enzyme
nervous system in infancy (hexosaminidase A)
Phenylketonuria Brain fails to develop in Defective enzyme
infancy (phenylalanine hydroxylase)
33
Hemophilia Blood fails to clot Defective blood-clotting factor
VIII
Huntington’s disease Brain tissue gradually Production of an inhibitor of
deteriorates in middle age brain cell metabolism
Muscular dystrophy Muscles waste away Degradation of myelin coating
(Duchenne) of nerves stimulating muscles
Congenital Increased birth weight, Failure of proper thyroid
hypothyroidism puffy face, constipation, development
lethargy
Hypercholesterolemia Excessive cholesterol levels Abnormal form of cholesterol
in blood, leading to heart cell surface receptor
disease
Blood Group
• Karl Landsteiner (1900) discovered the blood group in human.
• There are four groups of blood A, B, AB and O.
• Universal Donor : ‘O’ blood group person is ‘universal donor’, i.e can give blood to all
the four blood groups (O, A, B, and AB).
• Universal Recipient : ‘AB’ blood group person is universal recipient’, i.e can take
blood from all the four groups (AB, A, B, O).
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
Photosynthesis
• It is the process by which plants makes their food in the presence of sunlight, CO2,
water and chlorophyll.
Light
6CO 2 + 12H 2 O ¾¾¾¾¾® C6 H12 O6 + 6O 2 + 6H 2 O
Chlorophyll
Respiration
• It is the process of oxidation which occurs in three steps. Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle and
Electron transport system.
It occurs in Cytoplasm (Glycolysis) and rest cycle in Mitochondria.
C6 H12 O6 + 6O 2 ® 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + energy
Transpiration
• Loss of water in the form of water vapour from plant through a small pore stomata is
known as Transpiration.
• Plants obtains nitrogen from soil in the form of nitrites, nitrates and salts.
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
Animals & their teeth
Man (Child) 20 Cow & Sheep 32
Man (adult) 32 Cat 30
Horse 44 Rabbit 28
Dog 42 Mouse 16
34
Digestion of Food
Name of the Name of the Substrate End product
Digestive enzymes
juice
Saliva Ptyalin (Salivary Starch Maltose
amylase)
Pancreatic Amylopsin Starch, Maltose and Glucose
juice (pancreatic amylase) Glycogen
Intestinal Sucrase (invertase), Sucrose; Maltose, Glucose and fructose, Glucose,
juice Maltase, Lactase Lactose and galactose
Gastric Juice Pepsin, Rennin Proteins, Proteoses and peptones,
Casein Calcium caseinate
Pancreatic Trypsin, Proteins, Proteoses and Peptides
Juice Chymotrypsin, Peptides Amino acid.
Carboxyl peptidases
Intestinal Amino peptidase, Peptides Amino acids
juice Dipeptidase
Vitamin required by the body
Vitamin Chemical Name Function in De iciency Disease Sources
Body
B1 Thiamine Part of Beri-beri: nerve Found in whole
pyrophosphate coenzyme for and heart disorders grain cereals, etc.
respiration
B2 Ribo lavin Part of Aribo lavinosis: Milk, yogurt, etc.
coenzyme FAD skin and eye
needed for disorders
respiration
B12 Cyanoco-balamin Coenzyme Pernicious Animal products
needed for anaemia etc.
making red
blood cells, etc.
B5 Nicotinic Part of Pellagra: skin, gut Widespread in
acid (‘niacin’) coenzymes and nerve disorders foods.
NAD, NADP
used in
respiration
C Ascorbic acid Not precisely Scurvy: Lemon, orange,
known degeneration of etc.
skin teeth and blood
vessels.
A Retinol Visual pigment, Xeropthalmia: ‘dry Milk, eggs, etc.
rhodopsin eyes’
35
D Cholecalciferol Stimulates Rickets: bone Found in dairy
calcium deformity products, etc.
absorption by
small intestine,
needed for
proper bone
growth
E Tocopherol Not precisely Infertility Found primarily
known in plant oils,
green, leafy
vegetables, etc.
K Phylloquinone Involved in Possible Green, leafy
blood clotting haemorrage vegetables, etc.
Minerals required by the body
Minerals Source Function
Sodium (Na) Table salt large amounts is for proper luid balance, etc.
present in processed foods, etc.
Chloride Table salt, large amounts is for proper luid balance, etc.
present in processed foods, etc.
Potassium Meats, milk, etc. for proper luid balance, etc.
Calcium Milk and milk products, etc. Important for healthy bones and teeth,
etc.
Phosphorus Meat, ish, poultry, eggs, milk, Important for healthy bones and
processed foods. teeth, etc.
Magnesium Nuts and seeds; etc. Found in bones, etc.
Sulfur Occurs in foods as part of protein, Found in protein molecules.
meats, etc.
Iron Organ meats; etc. found in red blood cells.
Iodine Seafood, foods grown in iodine- Found in thyroid hormone.
rich soil, etc.
Respiratory System
The organ system which aids in the process of respiration is called the Respiratory
system.
Organs of Respiration in Animals
Respiratory Animals
Organ
Lungs Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Amphibians
Gills Fish, Crabs, Tadpole larva of Frog
Skin Earthworm, Leech, Amphibians
Trachea Insects
36
Human Respiratory System carbonic acid (H2CO3) by the enzyme
• Human respiratory system consists carbonic anhydrase (present in RBC).
of external nostrils, nasal cavity, • CO2 reacts with amine radicals (NH2)
nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchiole of haemoglobin molecule and forms
and lungs. a carbamino – haemoglobin (HbCO2)
• Human respiratory system consists molecule. Nearly 23% of CO 2 is
of external nostrils, nasal cavity, transported through this mode.
nasopharynx, larynx, trachea,
Circulatory System
bronchiole and lungs.
• These are of two types open circulatory
system and closed circulatory system.
Hearing.
Temporal lobe
Occipital lobe Sight.
Parietal lobe Touch, taste, smell, temperature and conscious association.
Diencephalon Controls hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, body temperature,
sweating and emotions.
Mid brain Connects the forebrain and hind brain, controls re lex move-
ments of head, neck, and trunk in response to visual and au-
ditory stimuli.
Hind brain Maintains posture, equilibrium and muscle tone.
Cerebellum
Controls respiration.
Pons varoli
Medulla oblangata Controls heart beat, breathing movements, regulates blood
pressure, swallowing, coughing, sneezing and vomiting.