General Principle of Instruments /

Measurements

CHAPTER
CHAPTER-1
General Principles

The General Measurement System

• Purpose and performance of measurement systems
• Structure of measurement systems
• Examples of measurement systems
• Block diagram symbols
Purpose and performance of
measurement systems
Defining a process as a system which generates information.
Examples:
• chemical reactor,
• a jet fighter,
• a gas platform, a submarine, a car, a human heart, and a weather system.

Table 1.1 lists information variables which are commonly generated by processes:
• A car generates displacement, velocity and acceleration variables,
• A chemical reactor generates temperature, pressure and composition variables.
 Common information/measured variables
Table
able 1.1

• Acceleration • Density
• Velocity • Viscosity
• Displacement • Composition
• Force–Weight- • pH
• Pressure
• Humidity
• Temperature
• Torque
• Heat/Light flux
• Volume
• Current
• Mass • Voltage
• Flow rate • Power
• Level
Cnts
• To define the observer as a person who needs this information from the process.
This could be the car driver, the plant operator or the nurse.
• The purpose of the measurement system is to link the observer to the process, as
shown in Figure 1.1. Here the observer is presented with a number which is the
current value of the information variable.
variable
• We can now refer to the information variable as a measured variable. The input
to the measurement system is the true value of the variable; the system output is
the measured value of the variable.
• In an ideal measurement system, the measured value would be equal to the true
value.
Cnts
• The accuracy of the system can be defined as the closeness of the measured value
to the true value. A perfectly accurate system is a theoretical ideal and the
accuracy of a real system is quantified using measurement system error E,
where
E = measured value − true value
E = system output − system input
E.g: If the measured value of the flow rate of gas in a pipe is 11.0 m3/h and the true
value is 11.2 m3/h, then the error E = −0.2− m3/h. If the measured value of the
rotational speed of an engine is 3140 rpm and the true value is 3133 rpm, then E =
+7 rpm.
• Error is the main performance indicator for a measurement system.
Purpose of Measurement system
Structure of measurement systems
• The measurement system consists of several elements or blocks.
• It is possible to identify four types of element, although in a given system one type
of element may be missing or may occur more than once.
• The four types are shown in Figure 1.2 and can be defined as follows.
Figure 1.2 General structure of measurement system.
Sensing element

• This is in contact with the process and gives an output which depends in some
way on the variable to be measured.
• Examples are:
• Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f.. depends on temperature.
• Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain
• Orifice plate where pressure drop depends on flow rate.
• If there is more than one sensing element in a system, the element in contact with
the process is termed the primary sensing element, the others secondary sensing
elements.
Signal conditioning element

• This takes the output of the sensing element and converts it into a form more
suitable for further processing, usually a d.c. voltage, d.c. current or frequency
signal.
• Examples are:
• Deflection bridge :
which converts an impedance change into a voltage change.
• Amplifier:
which amplifies millivolts to volts.
• Oscillator:
which converts an impedance change into a variable frequency
voltage.
Signal processing element

• This takes the output of the conditioning element and converts it into a form more
suitable for presentation.
• Examples are:
• Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC):
(ADC
which converts a voltage into a digital form for input to a computer.
• Computer:
which calculates the measured value of the variable from the
incoming digital data.
Data presentation element

This presents the measured value in a form which can be easily recognised by the
observer.

Examples are:
• Simple pointer–scale indicator
• Chart recorder
• Alphanumeric display
• Visual display unit (VDU).
Examples of measurement systems
• Figure 1.3 shows some typical examples of measurement systems.
• Figure 1.3(a) shows a temperature system with a thermocouple sensing element;
this gives a millivolt output. Signal conditioning consists of a circuit to
compensate for changes in reference junction temperature, and an amplifier. The
voltage signal is converted into digital form using an analogue-to-digital
converter, the computer corrects for sensor non-linearity, and the measured value
is displayed on a VDU.
• In Figure 1.3(b) the speed of rotation of an engine is sensed by an electromagnetic
tachogenerator which gives an a.c. output signal with frequency proportional to
speed. The Schmitt trigger converts the sine wave into sharp-edged pulses which
are then counted over a fixed time interval.
interval The digital count is transferred to a
computer which calculates frequency and speed, and the speed is presented on a
digital display.
Conts
• The flow system of Figure 1.3(c) has an orifice plate sensing element; this gives a
differential pressure output. The differential pressure transmitter converts this into
a current signal and therefore combines both sensing and signal conditioning
stages. The ADC converts the current into digital form and the computer calculates
the flow rate, which is obtained as a permanent record on a chart recorder.
• The weight system of Figure 1.3(d) has two sensing elements: the primary element
is a cantilever which converts weight into strain; the strain gauge converts this into
a change in electrical resistance and acts as a secondary sensor. There are two
signal conditioning elements: the deflection bridge converts the resistance change
intomillivolts and the amplifier converts millivolts into volts. The computer
corrects for non-linearity in the cantilever and the weight is presented on a digital
display.
Cnts
• The word ‘transducer’ is commonly used in connection with measurement and
instrumentation.
• It gives an output voltage (usually) corresponding to an input variable such as
pressure or acceleration.
• So transducer may incorporate both sensing and signal conditioning elements;
• for example a weight transducer would incorporate the first four elements shown
in Figure 1.3(d).
Cnts
Block diagram symbols
• A block diagram approach is very useful in discussing the properties of elements
and systems.
• Figure 1.4 shows the main block diagram symbols used.
Figure 1.4 Block diagram symbols.
Sensor and Applications
Definition
• A sensor is a device that receives a stimulus and responds with an electrical signal.

Fig 1.1

Level control system. A sight tube and the operator’s eye

form a sensor.
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What are some quantities
that can be sensed?
• Motion, position, • Sound
displacement
• Moisture
• Velocity and acceleration
• Light
• Force, strain
• Radiation
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Flow
• Chemical presence

These quantities are the stimulus.

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The Response is an Electrical Signal

• When we say electrical we mean a • The voltage, current or charge may be

signal which can be channeled, describe by:
amplified and modified by electronic • Amplitude
devices: • Frequency
• Voltage • Phase
• Current • Digital code
• Charge

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 Sensing Elements
• The sensing element is the first element in the measurement system; it is in contact
with, and draws energy from, the process or system being measured.
• The input to this element is the true value of the measured variable; the output of
the element depends on this value.
• Elements with an electrical output are further divided into passive and active.
• Passive devices such as resistive, capacitive and inductive elements require an
external power supply in order to give a voltage or current output signal;
• Active devices, e.g. electromagnetic and thermoelectric elements, need no power
supply.
i) Resistive sensing elements
ii) Capacitive sensing elements
 i) Resistive sensing elements

Potentiometers for linear and angular displacement measurement

• Figure 8.1 shows potentiometers for the measurement of
• (a) linear (rectilinear)
• (b) angular (rotary) displacement.

• It consist of a former with a cylindrical cross-section

cross either a straight cylinder or
an arc of a circle.
• Resistive material is placed on the former so the resistance per unit length is
constant (the usual case).
• This means resistance is proportional to the distance d travelled by the wiper
between A and B.
Potentiometer Displacement Sensor
Cont’s

where:
Conts

• Therefore the open circuit voltage for a linear displacement potentiometer is:

• i.e.. voltage is proportional to displacement.

• From Figure 8.1(b), the open circuit voltage for an angular displacement
potentiometer is:

• where x = θ/θT is the fractional angular displacement.

. The choice of a potentiometer for a given application involves four main
parameters:
 ii) Capacitive sensing elements
• The simplest capacitor or condenser
consists of two parallel metal plates
separated by a dielectric or insulating
material.
• The capacitance of this parallel plate
capacitor is given by:

where
ε0 - permittivity of free space
(vacuum)
vacuum) of magnitude 8.85 pF m−1, m−1
ε - relative permittivity or dielectric
constant of the insulating material,
Am2 - area of overlap of the plates,,
dm - represent separation.
What is Capacitance ?

• Two isolated conductive objects of arbitrary shape which can hold an electric
charge is called a capacitor.
• An E field is developed between the two conductors.

q 0 A
C 
V d

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Figure 8.9 Capacitive Sensing
ensing Elements
Capacitive displacement sensors

If the displacement x causes the plate separation to increase to d + x the capacitance

of the sensor is:
 Variable Area
• There is a non-linear relation between C and x.
• displacement x causes the overlap area to decrease by ΔA
Δ = wx,
where w is the width of the plates, giving:
Variable Dielectric

• The displacement x changes the amount of dielectric material ε 2 (ε 2 > ε 1)

inserted between the plates. The total capacitance of the sensor is the sum of two
capacitances, one with area A1 and dielectric constant ε1, and one with area A2
and dielectric constant ε 2, i.e.

Since A1 = wx, A2 = w(l − x), when w is the width of the plates,

Capacitive pressure sensor

Here one plate is a fixed metal disc, the other is a flexible flat circular diaphragm,
clamped around its circumference; the dielectric material is air (ε ≈ 1). The
diaphragm is an elastic sensing element which is bent into a curve by the applied
pressure P.
Cnts.

The deflection y at any radius r is given by:

where
a = radius of diaphragm
t = thickness of diaphragm
E = Young’s modulus
ν = Poisson’s ratio.
Cnts.

The deformation of the diaphragm means the average separation of the plates is
reduced.
The resulting increase in capacitance ΔC is

where d is the initial separation of the plates and C = ε 0πa2/d the capacitance at
zero pressure.
 Cnts.
• The variable separation displacement sensor has the disadvantage of being
nonlinear (eqn [8.18]).
• So problem is overcome by using the three-plate differential or push-pull
displacement sensor shown in Figure below.
below
• This consists of a plate M moving between two fixed plates F1 and F2; if x is the
displacement of M from the centre line AB,
AB then the capacitances C1 and C2
formed by MF1 and MF2 respectively are:
 Capacitive Level Sensor
• This level sensor consisting of two concentric
metal cylinders.
• The space between the cylinders contains liquid
to the height h of the liquid in the vessel.
• If liquid is non-conducting (electrical
conductivity less than 0.1 μmho cm−3), it forms
a suitable dielectric and the total capacitance of
the sensor is sum of liquid and air capacitances.
capacitances
• The capacitance/unit length of two coaxial
cylinders, radii b and a (b > a), separated by a
dielectric ε is
Cnt’s
Assuming the dielectric constant of air is unity,
unity the capacitance of the level
sensor is given by:
END OF SLIDE