Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, human over-Population, and Overharvesting - ​ ​HIPPO​ ​I = PAT​ ​ : mathematical notation of a formula put

forward to describe the impact of human activity on the environment. ​Gross primary production (​GPP​)​ refers to the total amount of carbon fixed in 
the process of photosynthesis by plants in an ecosystem. ​Net ecosystem​ production (NEP)​, defined as the difference between gross primary production and total ​ecosystem​ respiration, represents the total amount of organic carbon in an ​ecosystem​ available for storage, export as organic carbon, or non 
biological oxidation to carbon dioxide through fire or ultraviolet oxidation.​Geographic Range​: members of a species' ppltns live, feed, and reproduce. Geographic ranges can change due to the establishment and extinction of species. ​Cosmopolitan Species​: Species that have ranges that stretch over 
several continents. ​Endemic Species​: Species that have ranges that are isolated to a small area on a single continent. Richness: Biodiversity, Evenness: similar proportions of species ​Selection:​ In the context of evolution, certain traits or alleles of a species may be subject to selection. Under selection, 
individuals with advantageous or "adaptive" traits tend to be more successful than their peers reproductively--meaning they contribute more offspring to the succeeding generation than others do , directional, stabilizing, etc.​ ​Intrinsic rate of growth ​(r-max) is the rate of growth under ideal conditions. 
Exponential growth ​occurs when the growth rate remains the same while the ppltn grows. creates a J shaped curve. ​Logistic growth ​occurs when the growth rate decreases as the ppltn grows due to density-dependent factors (factors increasing mortality rate as ppltn grows such as predation rates, 
competition, and disease). This creates an S-shaped curve (shown in blue below). It is the most common type of ppltn growth. ​Determining the ppltn Growth​ ​Logistical Growth ​(most common): rN ((K-N)/KJ) change in ppltn = max growth rate * pop. size*((carrying capacity - pop size )/carrying capacity) 
Age of repdtn: ​The average age in an organism when it becomes capable of repdtn (For example, ppltn A might have many more members than ppltn B. However, all the members of A might be post-reproductive, whereas ppltn B might consist of mostly pre-reproductive and reproductive age individuals. 
ppltn A might be in danger of extinction).​ r-selected orgs​: Put most of their energy into rapid growth and repdtn. This is common of organisms that occupy unpredictable envmts, e.g. weeds are usually annuals with rapid growth and early repdtn. They produce large number of seeds containing few stored 
nutrients ​K-selected organisms:​ Put most of their energy into growth. They are common in stable envmts near carrying capacity, e.g. Redwoods take many years of growth to reach reproductive age ​History of envmtal Protection ​1854 ​- Thoreau writes Walden, abt live simply/harmony with nature ​1864 
- George Perkins Marsh publishes Man and Nature, described by some envmtalists as the fountainhead of the conservation movement. ​1872 ​- Yellowstone = nation's first National Park ​1892 ​- Muir founded Sierra Club to protect the Sierra Nevada ​1905 ​- National Audubon Society formed ​1949 ​- Leopold 
publishes A Sand County Almanac,: guidelines for the conservation movement, introduces the concept of a land ethic. ​1962 ​- l Carson writes Silent Spring, DDT as a pesticide/how it hurt bird species' eggs ​1969 ​- Hardin-Tragedy of the Commons ​1970 ​- EPA Act passed by Nixon, creating the EPA ​1970 ​- 
Clean Air Act bans certain aerosols in the US ​973 ​- Endang. Species Act Passed ​1979 - ​Three Mile Island meltdown in Pennsylvania of nuclear reactor ​1984 ​- Bhopal poisoning in India ​1986 ​- Chernobyl incident in Ukraine ​1987 ​- Montreal Protocol by Reagan and Thatcher - attacks CFC disruption of ozone 
layer ​1989 ​- Exxon Valdez spill in Prince William Sound off Alaska dumps millions of gallons of crude oil ​1997 ​- Kyoto Protocol in Japan confronts global warming, US doesn't sign ​2010 ​- BP oil spill in Gulf of Mexico, biggest oil spill in US history ​2010 ​- The Cove, documentary, released, revealing the 
horrors of Japan cetacean killing. ​Biomes ​Desert: ​ hot: -18-45, <15cm; cold: -2 to 4, 15-26mm-- <250 mm of H2O or 10 inches 1/3 of the world's land. Defined by the amount of rainfall, not tmptr. ​Flora: ​Succulent plants store H2O in their leaves, have small surface exposed to sunlight, have vertical 
orientation to minimize exposure to sun, open stomata at night, waxy leaves to minimize transpiration, deep roots to tap ground H2O, shallow roots to collect H2O after short rainfalls Sharp spines on cacti reflect sunlight, create shade, discourage herbivores; toxins are secreted into soil to prevent 
interspecific competition (allelopathy); biomass is stored in seeds Short-lived annuals (wildflowers) have short lifespans and are dependent on H2O for germination H2O-resistant cuticles and physical features to deter herbivorous fauna. ​Fauna​: keep warm/cold in cold/hot deserts respectively, they 
have to be able to find food and H2O, and they have to avoid prey. In hot deserts, many anmls are nocturnal, sleeping during the hot day and waking up at night in the cool shade to nourish themselves. In the cold deserts, many anmls, such as bears, go into a state of dormancy (hibernation) in the cold 
seasons to conserve energy, nourishing themselves so that they can stay alive during the long winter. They spend time in underground burrows where it is cooler. Aestivation (summer hibernation) is common; some anmls metabolize dry seeds; kangaroo rats produce their own H2O and secrete urines; 
insects and reptiles have thick outer coverings to minimize H2O loss Birds and large mammals can escape critical dry spells by migrating along the desert plains or up into the mountains. Smaller anmls cannot migrate but regulate their envmt by seeking out cool or shady places. In addition to flying to 
other habitats during the dry season, birds can reduce heat by soaring. Many rodents, invertebrates, and snakes avoid heat by spending the day in caves and burrows searching out food during the night. anmls active in the day reduce their activities by resting in the shade during the hotter hours 
location ​330 degrees north and south of equator, Chihuahuan Desert in Texas and Mexico and the Mojave Desert in southern CA and Nevada. the Great Basin Desert, is located in northern Nevada and Utah, while the Sonoran desert is located in Mexico and Arizona ​General Grasslands:​ ​ ​Allium 
canadense.-(wild onion): moth repellant. Anemone canadensis(Big bluestem). Perennial grass. Apocynum cannabinum (Hemp Dogbane). White indian hemp. Marsh marigold.Calamagrostis canadensis Cynomys gunnisoni/gunnison’s prarie dg. Precipitation levels are too low to support trees but too great 
for deserts to form. Moderate tmptr with notable extremes: -20° F to 110° F common, and even colder tmptrs in the north. Variable precipitation: 6-40 in (15-100 cm). Scattered rain and lightning common in summer mths ("convection storms") with more general rains and snows in winter mths. Soils 
generally fertile, deep and rich; variable Growing season of 240 days. Generally flat to rolling topography cut by stream drainages where there is a river-bank habitat. Location: prairies, russian steppes, south a velds, argentine pampas Flora: Grasses are the major producer with several genera and 
species common but usually with one or two dominate. Most grasses possess rhizomes and are wind pollinated. pyriscent serotiny - fire seeds deep, spreading root systems that allow them strength and moisture during times of drought. long narrow leaves that don’t need as much H2O. The grasses 
grow from the bottom and grow close to the ground. They have strong roots which means = won’t be destroyed when anmls walk on them or eat them. Grasslands=susceptible to fires but the plants hearty root system enables them to survive fires and soon after a fire, they will begin sprouting. The softer 
stems allow the plants to bend rather than break in the Grassland winds. Fauna Dominated by grazing anmls (deer, antelope, buffalo - once common but now rarely native to the range), burrowing small anmls, and songbirds. Taller foliage above ground adapted to withstand strong winds, fires, extreme 
tmptr changes anmls: Herds (safety in numbers), Burrowing small anmls (colonies as prairie dogs), Flight songbirds – strong fliers, Long distance vision for predator & prey, Eyes of grazing anmls well above snout, Many are built for speed – live in herds or colonies, Small creatures can stand on 
haunches, Some hop up and down or hop long distances, Camouflage coloration, Underground burrows, Birds – strong fliers (strong winds), flight song birds to attract mates in air, nest in tall grass ​Savanna​: ​ ​Grassland with scattered individual trees Cover almost half of Africa’s surface, and large areas 
of australia, south america, india clmt = most important factor in creating scav-sav = found in warm or hot clmts where the annual rainfall is about 25-75 inches/year and concentrated in 6-8 mth periods of the year, followed by a long period of drought when fires can occur; soil of savanna is porous, with 
rapid drainage of H2O and thin layer of humus, which provides the vegetation with nutrients. Predominant vegetation consists of grasses and broad-leaved plants that grow with grasses. Deciduous trees and shrubs are scattered across open landscape. Savannas have both a dry and rainy season and 
seasonal fires play a pivotal role in savanna’s biodiversity. ​Fauna ​giraffes, zebras, buffaloes, kangaroos, mice, moles, gophers, ground squirrels, snakes, worms, termites, beetles, lions, leopards, hyenas, elephants ​Adaptations ​ Sharp claws to fight off predators, Feel vibrations in the ground - Black 
mamba, The elephant’s strength tear open the trunk of the baobab tree suck the H2O from it. Small burrowing anmls remain dormant during times of drought.Grasses are built to survive droughts because they can go dormant during dry periods and then grow rapidly once the rains come. Many plants 
flower only part of the year to preserve H2O. Many plants grow organs that store H2O, such as bulbs or corms. The baobab trees are able to store H2O between the bark and meat of the tree that they can sip on during the drought.​ ​Temperate grassland​: grasses = dominant vegetation while trees and 
large shrubs are present . South africa, pampas of argentina, steppes of former soviet union, and plains/prairies of central north am. Hot summers, cold winters, rainfall is moderate. Similar to the savanna, seasonal drought and occasional fires are factors that influence biodiversity. ​Adaptations​ Some 
anmls, such as bison, have broad, flat-topped teeth and digestive systems especially adapted to feed on grasses. Many prairie anmls have front legs and paws that allow them to burrow into the ground, where they are protected from predators. ​Innate behavior ​-​ behavior determined by the 
"hard-wiring" of the nervous system. It is genetically predetermined, usually inflexible, a given stimulus triggering a given response. This trigger results in the same set of actions every time the response is initiated. Examples: ​Reflexes​ – knee-jerk reflex – movement in response to the direction of the 
stimulus toward (positive) or away (negative) from the stimulus ​Kinesis​ – Random movement of the anml in no particular direction (Ex. Pill bugs move more when the humidity is low) ​ Instincts (stereotyped behavior) ​– more complex behaviors than reflexes that repeat the same way every time (Ex. 
Shaking H2O from wet fur, newly hatched sea turtles move toward the ocean) ​Learned behaviors ​–​ Results from experiences of the anml. Learned behaviors can modify innate behaviors. Examples: Classical conditioning – anmls associate one stimulus with another ​Habituation​ – response to the 
stimulus decreases when it is repeated with no apparent effect ​Imprinting behavior​ – during a critical period, an anml can adopt a behavior by latching on to the stimulus ​ Operant conditioning ​– or trial and error learning ​envmtal Cues​,​ such as day length, height of tides, are used by plants and anmls to 
establish or maintain patterns of activities. Many life activities run in cycles, such as mating, birth, migration, building body fat, hibernation. Biological rhythms can be direct response to envmtal stimuli (exogenous) or can occur without envmtal cues (endogenous). ​Hibernation ​is a state of inactivity 
and metabolic depression in anmls, characterized by lower body tmptr, slower breathing, and/or lower metabolic rate. Some anmls have reduced metabolic rates during the summer -- ​estivation ​Migration is another important response to envmtal change. True migration is when a group of anmls travel 
from one well-defined area to another for a specific purpose such as breeding, overwintering, seeking food. Communication can involve a range of signals such as visual, chemical, auditory and tactile signals. ​Interspecific competition ​– occurs when species compete for a particular resource that is in 
short supply - competitive exclusion principle. Two species that compete for resources will evolve differently from each other so they do not compete for the same resources any more and they can coexist in the same community – resource partitioning. ​Predation and herbivory​ ​– interaction between 
species in which one species, the predator, kills and eats the other, the prey. Both predators and prey developed important adaptations through natural selection for survival. Plants also have adaptations to avoid being eaten ​ Cryptic coloration​ ​(camouflage) – Ex. Canyon tree frog Mechanical and 
chemical defenses – Ex. Skunks, porcupines ​Aposematic coloration​ (warning coloration) – Ex. Poison arrow frog ​Pouyannian​ - plants like insects ​Aestivation​ ​- state of dormancy ​Coevolution ​– reciprocal evolutionary adaptations of two interacting species. ​ Semelparous​ - die after 1 reproduction; 
iteroparous​ = multiple ​Human Impact: ​ ​ ​Probs with Nutrient Enrichment:​ People can move nutrients from one area to another, enriching one and deplete an other. Farm soil may runoff into streams. 
When natural vegetation is cleared from an area, nutrients can easily run off. Cultural eutrophication. ​Acid Precipitation​: 

Acid precipitation – rain, snow, sleet or fog that has the pH of 5.6 or 
lower. It forms when wood, coal or other fossil fuels are burned and 
produce sulfur and nitrogen oxides. These oxides react with H2O and 
form sulfuric and nitric acid that fall to the Earth with precipitation. 
Acid precipitation lowers the pH of aquatic ecosystems and affects the 
soil chemistry of terrestrial ecosystems. It leaches important minerals 
out of the soil and plants. It prevents the normal formation of shellfish 
shells and kills pH sensitive fish. In industrial countries, acid 
precipitation decreased in recent years. ​Pollutions​: Air, Water, Soil, Thermal, Noise, Light, Radioactive, (Organic, Inorganic) } can be point source (one source) or nonpoint 
source (many sources); characteristics: toxicity, concentration, persistence ​Toxins in the envmt:​ As we move up on the levels of a food web, toxins become more and more 
concentrated – biological magnification. 
Greenhouse effect ​– H2O vapor and CO2 
traps the infrared radiation that is reflected 
back from the Earth’s surface. As a result, 
more heat is trapped and global warming 
occurs. Global warming has many effects on 
the earth’s weather patterns, ocean currents 
and can cause flooding of the coastal areas. 
Depletion of Atmospheric Ozone​: Ozone is 
necessary to prevent living organisms from 
harmful UV radiation coming from the sun. It 
is located on the lower part of the 
stratosphere. The zone layer has been 
gradually thinning since the 1970’s because 
of the introduction of CFCs 
(chlorofluorocarbons) that were widely used. 
Chlorine from CFCs moved up to the 
stratosphere and changed ozone into 
oxygen in a chain reaction where chlorine is 
gained back at the end. As a result, one 
chlorine atom can react with hundreds of 
ozone molecules. Low levels of ozone result 
in increased skin cancer rate and increased 
cataracts in humans, while other living organisms will also have seriously damaged DNA with unforeseen consequences. ​Loss of Biodiversity​: Loss of habitat of many living organisms because of the overppltn by humans. Biological magnification can poison organisms on the top of the food chain (top 
predators) Global clmt change alters the pH, salinity, CO2 concentration in the ocean, alter the tmptr and precipitation in terrestrial ecosystems. Exploitation and Overuse and Human Activities ​Acid Rain​: Precipitation with pH < 5.6; Leaches nutrients, loss of biodiversity ​Soil Layers:​ ​O) ​Organic matter​: 
Litter layer of plant residues in relatively undecomposed form. ​A) ​Surface soil​:​ Layer of mineral soil with most organic matter accumulation and ​soil life​. This layer eluviates (is depleted of) ​iron​, ​clay​, ​aluminium​, organic compounds, and other soluble constituents. When ​eluviation​ is pronounced, a lighter 
coloured "E" subsurface soil horizon is apparent at the base of the "A" horizon. A-horizons may also be the result of a combination of soil ​bioturbation​ and surface prcsses that winnow fine particles from biologically mounded ​topsoil​. In this case, the A-horizon is regarded as a "biomantle". ​B) ​Subsoil​:​ ​This 
layer accumulates iron, clay, aluminium and organic compounds, a prcss referred to as ​illuviation​. ​C) ​Parent rock​:​ Layer of large unbroken rocks. This layer may accumulate the more soluble compounds . ​R) B​edrock​:​ R horizons denote the layer of partially weathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile. 
Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses (as opposed to boulders) of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. Soils formed​ ​will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer. ​How soils form: ​Laterization: ​The weathering prcss by which soils and rocks are depleted of 
soluble substances, such as silica-rich and alkaline components and enriched with insoluble substances, such as hydrated aluminum and iron oxides. hot/rainy tropics ​ Podzolization ​ a prcss of soil formation especially in humid regions involving principally leaching of the upper layers with accumulation of 
material in lower layers and development of characteristic horizons- cool/moist clmts ​ Salinization ​ ​when H2O-soluble salts accumulate in the soil to a level that impacts on agricultural pdtn, envmtal health, and economics. In the early stages, salinity affects the metabolism of soil organisms and 
reduces soil productivity, but in advanced stages it destroys all vegetation and other organisms living in the soil, consequently transforming fertile and productive land into barren and desertified land- warm/dry loalphacations ​calcification ​a soil prcss in which the surface soil is supplied with calcium in 
such a way that the soil colloids are always close to saturation/ warm +semiarid ​Gleization ​a prcss of soil formation resulting in the development of a glei (or gley horizon) in the lower part of the soil profile above the parent material due to poor drainage condition (lack of oxygen) and where H2O logged 
conditions prevail. Such soils are called hydromorphic soils-​high rainfall/low-lying areas EDAPHIC - based on soil conditions DERIVED - humans 
 
Genetic Drift:​ ​The bottleneck effect is an extreme example of genetic drift that happens when the size of a ppltn is severely reduced. Events like natural disasters (earthquakes, floods, fires) can decimate a 
ppltn, killing most individuals and leaving behind a small, random assortment of survivors. 
The founder effect is another extreme example of drift, one that occurs when a small group of individuals breaks off from a larger ppltn to establish a colony. The new colony is isolated from the original 
ppltn, and the founding individuals may not represent the full genetic diversity of the original ppltn. That is, alleles in the founding ppltn may present at different frequencies that in the original ppltn, and 
some alleles may be missing altogether. The founder effect is similar in concept to the bottleneck effect, but it occurs via a different mechanism (colonization rather than catastrophe). 
GPP: Gross primary pdtn is the amount of chemical energy as biomass that primary producers create in a given length of time. 
Koppen things:  
A - Moist Tropical clmts B - Dry clmts W - arid or desert, are used with the B clmts. C - In Humid Middle 
Latitude clmts D - Continental clmts E - Cold clmts  
Further subgroups are designated by a second, lower case letter which distinguish specific seasonal 
characteristics of tmptr and precipitation. 
f - Moist m - Rainforest clmt s - There is a dry season in the summer of the respective hemisphere 
(high-sun season). w - There is a dry season in the winter of the respective hemisphere (low-sun season). 
To further denote variations in clmt, a third letter was added to the code. 
a - Hot summers where the warmest mth is over 22°C (72°F). These can be found in C and D clmts. 
b - Warm summer with the warmest mth below 22°C (72°F). These can also be found in C and D clmts. 
c - Cool, short summers with less than four mths over 10°C (50°F) in the C and D clmts. 
d - Very cold winters with the coldest mth below -38°C (-36°F) in the D clmt only. 
h - Dry-hot with a mean annual tmptr over 18°C (64°F) in B clmts only. 
k - Dry-cold with a mean annual tmptr under 18°C (64°F) in B clmts only. 
Niche partitioning ​is the process by which competing species use the environment differently in a way that 
helps them to coexist. If two species occupy the same niche, they will compete and become extinct. Two 
examples of organisms that demonstrate niche partitioning in deserts 
are the​ Mojave rattlesnake and the sidewinder​. They would normally 
compete for the same resources, but the Mojave rattlesnake is 
nocturnal while the sidewinder is diurnal/ crepuscular. 

Simpson’s Index: ​The probability of 

picking two different organisms at 
random. ​Simpson’s Index = D. D = 
Σn(n - 1) /N(N - 1) where N = the total number of 
organisms of all species n = the total number of 
organisms of a particular species. ​The value of D 
ranges between 0 and 1. 0 represents infinite diversity 
and 1 represents no diversity  
Simpson’s Diversity Index = 1 – D AND Simpson's 
Reciprocal Index = 1/D  
Advantages and Disadvantages of Simpson’s Index • 
Aids in understanding the biodiversity across 
communities. • Gives more attention to common 
species rather than rare species. • Works very well 
with small samples. • Does not require all species be 
represented • Measures chance that two individuals 
are from same species • Sensitive to changes in 
common species • Weighted towards most abundant 
species • Opposite of dominance 
Species diversity ​differs from species richness in that 
it takes into account both the numbers of species present and the evenness of species in relation to one another 
Shannon Weomer Index: H = ∑ (pl) |ln pl| Where (pl) is the proportion of the total number of individuals in the population that are in species “l” in the community. 
Should only be used on random samples taken from a large community where the total number of species is known. • Measures the order, or disorder, observed within a specific 
community. • Can be used to determine evenness, a measure of abundance similarity among the various species in the community. All species must be represented • Relatively easy to calculate • Sensitive to changes in rare species 
Species richness​: This is the simplest measure of species diversity. Simply count the number of species found in your sample area 
D = s √N where s equals the number of different species represented in your sample, and N equals the total number of individual organisms in your sample.  
Hamilton’s Rule ​= rB >C ​Energetic Hypothesis: ​Limits length of food chain due to scarcity of energy. ​Dynamic Stability Hypothesis:​ having large food webs are bad because small changes can multiply in effect as it travels up. ​Sorensen's coefficient of community (CC)​ - ​Based on species presence or 
absence​, CC = 2c/(s1+s2) where 2c= number of species common to both communities, s1= number of species in community 1, s2= number of species in community 2, CC ranges from 0-1, 1 when communities are identical  

Tall-grass Prairie:​ eastern unit – nearest to Eastern Deciduous Forests  Mid-grass Prairi​e: between Tall Grass and Short Grass – gradual change  Short-grass Prairi​e: western element, largest. Nearest to deserts of west US 
Tall grasses (3-4 ft or 1-1.5 m tall) with roots up to 6 feet dee  Grasses to 4 ft (1.5 m) tall, mixture of sod and "bunch" grasses.  Short grasses (less than 20 in or 50 cm tall) 
24-40 in (65-100 cm) precipitation annually  14-25 in (35-65 cm) precipitation annually  About 10 in precipitation annually.