CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Athletics have come to play a major role in the life of high schools and

universities across the U.S. today. For several generations, athletics and education have

been identified with each other, with the result that sports culture has become embedded

within academic culture on many levels. The promotion of sports as a path toward

maturity was supported by studies that have found that “participation in extracurricular

activities….affect academic performance, attachment to school and social development”

among high school students. Participation in sports and related physical education

activities “provide opportunities for students to learn the values of teamwork…and the

opportunity to apply academic skills in other arenas as part of a wellrounded education”.

As a result of studies and beliefs like these, high school sports have become a

pervasive and powerful presence in most major high school life.

The goal of interscholastic athletics is to provide both boys and girls the

opportunity to develop mental and physical abilities while cultivating good habits and

lifelong skills (Singer, Hausenblas, & Janelle, 2001).

The consistency in academic performance suggests that the student-athletes were

able to handle the oftentimes difficult challenge of balancing academic responsibilities

and athletic duties. Role conflicts in Academic preparation is a strong, if not the primary,

contributor to academic success in the college environment (Fields 2001). Due to this

consideration, coaches usually prefer recruiting student-athletes who have passed the

UPCAT. Being one of the universities with the highest standards of academic excellence
in the country, it is often difficult to find very talented student-athletes that are

academically prepared to compete in the classroom setting. However, if academic

performance consistency is to be considered a form of academic success then, by

definition, college student-athletes in UPD are successful students.

Student-athletes participants were asked on their perception regarding

improvement on their academic excellence, mental processes, logic, patience, and class

attendance. Result of this study validates the study of Prasad that male students who

participated in sports demonstrated higher level of academic achievement than female

student-athletes.

Students who participated in sports have higher level of academic achievement

between male and female.

In the statement of “my mental processes improves” majority of the student-

athletes (50%) males and (38%) females strongly agreed. This result supported Bailey,

Coe and colleagues, Mahar colleagues , Taras , Miller and colleagues , and Darling and

colleagues that participation in sports and physical activities increase the blood flows to

the brain increases individual’s mental alertness, improves learning and memory, self-

esteem, self-confidence, social development, and reduces feeling of boredom and

depression. On the other hand, the statement “I am more logical” 55% male while 13%

female student-athletes strongly agreed. Result indicated that male athletes perceived

more logical than female, this was due to the fact that male were less emotional than

female. In relation to sports, male tend to easily accept why he or his team lost a game

and be able to recover in a short period of time, while female were more emotional, most

of the time blamed herself or themselves why she or her team lost a game.
 There were many early studies about student age adults as subjects. College

students appear to regard fitness more favorably as compared to younger students and

they indicated that physical fitness is a very important reason for participating in physical

education classes. They represent the final link in school physical education and are one

source that may provide valuable insight into students' positive and negative perceptions

of physical education. One of the major causes that the researcher has been looking into

in students' performance is socio-economic factors. A number of studies have been

carried out to identify causal factors of poor academic performance in a number of

institutions worldwide. Most of the studies focus on the three intervening elements:

parents (family causal factors), teachers (academic causal, factors), and students

(personal causal factors). One of the studies from a secondary school level revealed that

socioeconomic status (SES) and parents' education have a significant effect on students'

overall academic achievement, as well as achievement in the subjects of Mathematics and

English. In fact, intelligence tests or IQ tests are measures of general aptitude: scores on

these test represents a composite of cognitive abilities and can be used to forecast

achievement and other behavior in a wide range of situation. The importance physical

education aptitude is basic among institution they are using this sporting aptitude as a part

of admission process. The sessions takes place in PE lessons and consists of a variety of

advanced physical education sessions to cover sports psychology, physiology and skill

acquisition.

According to Professor Ian Henry, director of the Centre for Olympic Studies and

Research at Loughborough University (2014), having an outlet of interest other than sport

helps athletes "to put their training and performance into perspective, allowing them to
deal more effectively with the challenges of sport, including setbacks and injury".

Opportunities to get involved with sport at university are plentiful and the UK has some

world-class sporting institutions. Loughborough University has dominated the British

Universities and Colleges Sport (BUCS) table, which ranks institutions based on sporting

achievements, for the last decade.

It has boasted 25 student competitors in last week's Commonwealth Games. If it

was a country it would have come 11th overall.

"Their weeks are very pressurized, so top sportspeople are extremely organized,

disciplined and efficient with their time, which are useful skills in the academic side of

their lives," says Stephen Baddeley, director of sport at the University of Bath, which had

11 current students at the Games.

Self-discipline lends itself well to academic focus, helping to banish

procrastination. "The mind wanders when doing essays, but if you develop a focus and

know you have to use your time efficiently then it's a very transferable skill," (Baddeley,

2014).

Luke Belton, a geology student at Durham University who smashed two island

records swimming for Guernsey at the Commonwealth Games, says he is a better student

because of his sport.

"When I've got to do work I just sit down and do it. I don't do much less than your

average person because I still get it done and so far my results haven't suffered. Maybe I

don't do as much reading around the subject as other people, but I don't think that matters

too much at this stage."

 Pushing himself to the limit physically has also boosted his academic

commitment and perseverance. "If I'm not enjoying the work, it helps to be able to just

get through and finish it. Sometimes you're in the pool for an hour for a horrible session

but you do it. When it's done you feel really good."

The concern over student athlete success has culminated into millions of dollars

being spent at universities for academic support of their athletes along with new NCAA

regulations over academic affairs, hours spent practicing, and days off. Burns, Jasinski,

Dunn and Fletcher (2013) conducted a survey focused on determining the effects of

academic support services on career decision-making skills for athletes. They conducted

a study of 158 Division 1 student athletes from 11 different universities. All student

athletes in this study were required to attend academic support programs at their

universities during their freshman and sophomore years. All programs were based on the

NCAA Challenging Athlete’s Minds for Personal Success (CHAMPS) program and

contained an online vocational assessment, access to career counselors, and workshops

on career planning, resume writing and internships. The results were calculated by

surveys that were distributed by coaches to the specific athletes. Satisfaction with

academic support services was measured with the Reimer and Chelladurai’s Athlete

Satisfaction Questionnaire whereas the Betz, Klein and Taylor’s career decision-making

self-efficacy scale was used to measure confidence in making career decisions. The

results showed a positive correlation between people who believed academic support

services were helpful with confidence in career direction. These CHAMP programs make

people feel more confident about their life skills, and certain of their career decisions

through resume development and experience in that specific field through internships
(Burns et al, 2013). Although these academic support services are an expensive

commodity for universities, it is necessary to provide designated people to work with

athletes. This will balance both athletics and academics to create a situation that helps

athletes succeed in both fields.

Student athletes should be relieved to learn that, according to researchers at the

Brown Center on Education Policy, a commitment to school sports does not have to

translate into compromised academic performance. Although these students often feel

substantial pressure to perform both on the field and in the classroom, the benefits of

athletic endeavors seem to counterbalance the challenges they present. Nevertheless,

many youth athletes become increasingly stressed as they strive to maintain academic

eligibility while advancing through their school years.

Time Management

In a 2005 analysis of stress levels in college athletes, Dr. Gregory Wilson and Dr.

Mary Pritchard reported that time management factors were a significant source of

academic-related stress. Many student athletes expressed concern over having insufficient

time to study for exams and write term papers. Team travel was also cited as a stress

factor because of missed classes and assignments.

Some student athletes, however, seem to thrive on the pressure caused by tight schedules.

During her senior year at Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine, field hockey player

Leah Ferenc reflected on the role athletics play in academic achievement. “Most of my

peers believe that they perform at a higher academic level while participating in their
sport and have felt more organized and motivated during their seasons to do well

academically. I am more successful at completing my assignments during the season,

because I know that I only have a certain amount of time to do so.”























Cognitive Function

Children and adolescents who pursue sports activities have been shown to exhibit

more active brain function, better concentration levels and classroom behavior and higher

self-esteem than their less-active counterparts. Understandably, all of these factors seem

to support better academic performance. In 2002, the California Department of Education

examined whether any correlation existed between standardized test scores and results

from a state-mandated physical fitness exam. In its analysis of data from over 954,000

fifth, seventh and ninth grade students, the study found that students with higher levels of

fitness performed better in school. Students who met three or more physical fitness

standards experienced the greatest academic gains.

Socioeconomic Differences

In a 2002 Brown Center report on American school performance, schools with

top-ranked baseball, basketball and football teams were found to have better state

achievement exam scores than those with less successful sports programs. Not

surprisingly, public schools with both successful athletic teams and high academic

achievement are found in areas with better financial resources: wealthy, suburban

neighborhoods with predominantly white, non-Hispanic populations. According to the

report, such advantaged schools are better able to integrate excellence at sports into a
broader culture that encourages achievement.

Gender Differences

Academic performance in student athletes does vary between boys and girls.

Results of the California Department of Education study showed that all of the girls’

teams had significantly higher grade point averages than their male counterparts. A 2010

study published in “The Sports Journal” reinforced these findings and showed some

interesting between-sport comparisons. Boys on the cross-country team had among the

lowest grades of all the sports examined, but girls’ cross-country teams had among the

highest. Male students on the golf and track teams were able to maintain high grades but

girls committed to these two sports fared worse academically.

A Magna Carta whether for labor, teachers, medical practitioners or whatever

sector encompasses all the rights and safeguards all the so-called freedoms of that sector.

In this case, therefore, we are not talking of a Magna Carta for students in general, we are

dealing with a presumably small (perhaps not even five percent of a school’s total

population) and very specific sector engaged in a very specific activity.

It is therefore understandable when the bill states, that, “as a bill of rights for

Student-Athletes, it endeavors to address issues and concerns encountered for many years

by many “Student-Athletes past and present as there is no existing law that promotes and

protects their overall welfare.”

The purpose of this bill is even more pointed: “It is the purpose of this bill to

provide appropriate recognition and protection to the rights and general welfare of
Student-Athletes encompassing academic, amateur sports, mental and physical health

aspects. On the other hand, it also acknowledges that these Student-Athletes are in a

specific; situation and thus the bill also specifies the accompanying responsibilities that

they have to fulfill to this end. Schools, athletic associations, Student-Athletes and their

parents recognize and uphold the amateur nature of the programs and competitions that

Student-Athletes participate in.”

STUDIES

Local:

1. http://lpulaguna.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Factors-Affecting-Students-

Performance-in-Physical-Education-Class-in-LPU-Laguna.pdf

2. http://www.sapub.org/global/showpaperpdf.aspx?doi=10.5923/j.edu.20170703.03

3.

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christian_Wisdom_Valleser/publication/295601400

_In-_and_off-season_academic_performance_of_college_student-

athletes_in_team_sports/links/58deb8dd92851c36954572db/In-and-off-season-academic-

performance-of-college-student-athletes-in-team-sports.pdf

Foreign:

1.https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Flib.dr.iastate.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcon

tent.cgi%3Farticle%3D9437%26context%3Drtd&h=ATOIM2254xWp0Xifq6mpQcuWD

wekbpESdZsUDhNRuanKojkkkiXVz68YStaK06GCHmtpv3Ewio-

_xaNER1puQZgg3H5WdN6eAfTzgQhDUPjUNwBqRQuPprDQuiDmIb6R8Qkb4O5C4

HjTlw

2.https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.liberty.edu%2Fcgi%

2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1115%26context%3Ddoctoral&h=ATOIM2254xWp0

Xifq6mpQcuWDwekbpESdZsUDhNRuanKojkkkiXVz68YStaK06GCHmtpv3Ewio-

_xaNER1puQZgg3H5WdN6eAfTzgQhDUPjUNwBqRQuPprDQuiDmIb6R8Qkb4O5C4

HjTlw
3. https://tamucc-ir.tdl.org/tamucc-

ir/bitstream/handle/1969.6/514/Dissertation%20Kelly%20J.%20Manlove.pdf?sequence=

LITERATURE

Foreign:

1.https://www.google.com.ph/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=0ah

UKEwidzJ7qo83XAhXBGJQKHYdWDb4QFggnMAE&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.th

eguardian.com%2Feducation%2F2014%2Faug%2F04%2Fsport-at-university-do-

athletes-make-better-students&usg=AOvVaw1Wg4yoygqh9lwI_ZQMi97q

2.https://www.google.com.ph/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=6&ved=0ah

UKEwidzJ7qo83XAhXBGJQKHYdWDb4QFghJMAU&url=http%3A%2F%2Fopenprai

rie.sdstate.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1014%26context%3Djur&usg

=AOvVaw1Z3dfD1KnriNT4OLT2ERV1

3.https://www.google.com.ph/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=10&ved=0a

hUKEwidzJ7qo83XAhXBGJQKHYdWDb4QFghjMAk&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.li

vestrong.com%2Farticle%2F540517-does-participation-in-sports-negatively-affect-

academics%2F&usg=AOvVaw28dH1r0m_gw5i-ZzdbWki5

Local

http://www.philstar.com/sports/2014/04/09/1310514/support-protection-student-athletes