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ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The tribological characteristics of sliding surfaces have been remarkably improved by surface Laser surface texture; texture
texturing. Surface texturing can be beneficial in many ways; for example, it can reduce friction and fabrication; grooved tool;
wear, increase load carrying capacity, and increase fluid film stiffness. The design process for surface friction; wear
texturing is highly correlated to the particular functions of any application for which texturing is
required. Texture quality is greatly affected by manufacturing methods, therefore, it is important to
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................2
2. Methods to create surface textures ........................................................................................................................................................3
2.1. Laser surface texturing.......................................................................................................................................................................3
2.2. Micro-electric discharge machining ...............................................................................................................................................4
2.3. CNC ultrasonic machining...............................................................................................................................................................5
2.4. Chemical etching ................................................................................................................................................................................5
2.5. Electrochemical Machining (ECM) ................................................................................................................................................5
2.6. Focused ion beam machining ..........................................................................................................................................................6
2.7. Shot blasting/abrasive jet machining ..............................................................................................................................................6
2.8. Vibromechanical texturing ...............................................................................................................................................................7
2.9. Micro grinding ....................................................................................................................................................................................7
2.10. Micro casting ......................................................................................................................................................................................8
2.11. Chemical-based adding material texturing ..................................................................................................................................8
2.12. Discussion ...........................................................................................................................................................................................9
3. Surface textured cutting tool ................................................................................................................................................................12
3.1. Mechanisms of performance enhancement ................................................................................................................................12
3.1.1. Micro–pool lubrication........................................................................................................................................................12
3.1.2. Debrs entrapment .................................................................................................................................................................12
3.1.3. Solid lubrication–filled textures .........................................................................................................................................13
performance up to a certain limit. For further increases 2.1. Laser surface texturing
in tool life and performance, new techniques must be
devised. Among the processes discussed in this article, laser sur-
In order to reduce friction and wear, cutting fluids are face texturing (LST) has recently become a competitive
often used during the machining process. The two main technique to create controlled structures to improve the
functions of cutting fluids are lubrication and cooling.85 roughness of surfaces. Compared to other techniques,
The lubrication effect of cutting fluid works better at low LST has been used extensively by researchers. LST uses
cutting speeds than it does at the normal cutting speeds high energy pulses to ablate material by rapid melting
used in turning and milling operations. At high cutting and vaporizing. Laser ablation can be defined as the
speeds, a short amount of time is available for cutting removal of material by direct absorption of laser energy.
fluids to cool the tool-workpiece interface. As a result, The start of ablation occurs above the threshold fluence.
various external cooling methods, such as high-pressure This threshold depends on the micro-structure, mor-
water jets and liquid nitrogen, are being used in machin- phology, absorption mechanism, material properties and
ing to effectively remove heat. Some internal cooling and defects, and laser properties, such as wavelength and
lubrication methods are also being used, including ther- pulse duration.88 Laser ablation can be divided into the
mosyphon cooling and heat pipe cooling.86,87 All these following two categories depending upon the interaction
methods focus on removing the heat generated at the of laser energy with the material: pyrolytic and photolytic
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interface, rather than reducing the friction that generates processes.89 In the pyrolytic process, laser energy is
this heat. In order to reduce the friction heating, some absorbed by the material and then transferred into heat,
researchers have been working on lubricating the tool- which causes an increase in temperature. As a result, the
workpiece interface by creating textures on the tool face. material melts and evaporates from the surface. In the
Although surface texturing is a relatively new technique, photolytic process, the photon energy absorbed induces
the concept of using surface texturing to reduce friction chemical reactions to overcome the chemical binding
at the contact is not new, as it was introduced by Hamil- energy of molecules; this is also called “cold ablation.”89
ton et al. in 1966.36 Contrary to the belief that smooth The way in which the laser beam is projected to the
surfaces are necessary to reduce friction, surface textur- substrate determines the texture accuracy. The methods
ing increases the roughness in a specific manner to used in this regard are as follows.
improve the tribological performance at the contact. 1. A fast-revolving perforated disk is used to practi-
The benefits of using textured tools for cutting cally chop an unfocused laser beam in order to cre-
purposes have been demonstrated in several studies con- ate patterns; however, this technique is generally
ducted over the past few years. These benefits include a avoided due to its limited resolution, flexibility,
reduction in the coefficient of friction, a reduction in the and accuracy.90,91
adhesion of a material, and a reduction in cutting forces 2. A patterned mask is used to split the laser beam
by minimized friction at the tool-chip interface and projected onto the sample. This technique is flexi-
smooth chip removal.25,47-63 ble, fast, accurate, and allows the creation of vari-
In a previous article, the tribological effect of surface ous shaped micro-features. The production cost of
texturing on piston ring/cylinder and mechanical seals the mask is the main drawback of this technique.
was reviewed.39 In this article, the authors intend to 3. A laser beam can be projected by the use of a galva-
review the effects of surface texturing on the cutting tool nometric scanner and a computer numerical con-
application. The article is organized as follows: first, the trol (CNC) system, which maneuvers the beam
major techniques used to create surface textures are over the sample.92 This technique is extremely
explained, including both advantages and disadvantages; accurate due to the very short pulses (duration of
second, the mechanism of the surface textures is pulse fs and ns). The main drawback is that this is
described; and third, the effects of surface texture on cut- a time-consuming process, as each texture is
ting tool performance are reviewed. machined separately.91
Some of the important issues regarding LST are: the
heat-affected zone (HAZ), surface defects (burrs or
2. Methods to create surface textures bulges), and the formation of periodical surface struc-
The methods which have been used to create micro-tex- tures. Laser beam heat can affect the substrate and cause
tures and grooves are briefly explained below. The tech- variations in its metallurgical properties. For example, for
niques discussed here are limited to those that have been a pore area ratio of 14–22.5%, the area ratio of the HAZ
used in the past decade with the interest of investigating reaches 50–100%, while HAZ diameter varies from 300–
the tribological effects of textured surfaces. 450 mm around the dimples for SiC rings.93 Similarly,
4 A. ARSLAN ET AL.
dimensions of the thermally affected area surrounding the during the flushing process, thus preventing a short cir-
hole with a diameter of 10 mm produced using Nd:YAG cuit due to developing particle.91,103
pulses are less than 10% of the texture diameter.94 Surface Micro-EDM is an application of electric discharge
defects (burrs or bulges) are another main problem. Fric- machining.104 It has been developed to make micro-size
tional behavior is affected by bulges, as they have signifi- parts and structures. Micro-EDM requires miniature
cant height, i.e., 3.5–4.5 mm.95 This volume of material is electrodes and electric discharge energy lower than
commonly removed from the textured surface by grind- 100 mJ per discharge.105 There are various types of
ing, surface polishing, and lapping. Another issue that has micro-EDM, including micro-wire EDM, die-sinking
been observed in ns and fs laser-textured substrate is the micro-EDM, micro-electric discharge milling, and
formation of periodical surface structures, such as, ripples micro-electric discharge drilling. Micro-die-sinking
that cause an increase in the roughness of the surface. EDM is basically a replication of the shape of the tool
This is recognized as surface acoustic waves or an interfer- into the workspace. The tool path motion exists in a sin-
ence phenomenon.91 Researchers have used this issue of gle axis. In order to achieve a high-quality surface,
LST to their advantage to create periodical structures for machining is done in several steps.
controlling hydrophobicity of metals96 and friction and Compared to a mechanical process like micro-drilling,
wear properties of cutting tools.48 utilizing EDM for texture creation offers important
Previously, surface structures have been created advantages, such as smaller feature dimensions (less than
through the use of long pulse lasers, such as nanosecond 100 mm); lower machining force compared to the
Nd:YAG lasers, nanosecond excimer lasers, picosecond mechanical processes; complex geometrical structures
Nd:YAG lasers, and sub-picosecond excimer lasers. (with sharp angles and internal corners); smoother surfa-
Recently, femtosecond lasers have become an advanced ces; absence of mechanical stress on the workpiece
tool for ultra-fast laser techniques.97 In pulsed femtosec- because the process does not require any rotation; greater
ond laser systems, pulsing is achieved by the mode cou- precision; and a wider choice of tool material compared
pling of an advanced broadband laser source. The to mechanical processes.106-108 However, EDM has limi-
bandwidth exceeds several tens of nm, which allows tations; the material removal rate is low, which restricts
pulse durations well below 100 fs. In this case, peak the size of the workpiece; small values of roughness are
powers of more than 15 GW can be achieved.89 The achieved with long processing intervals; heat-affected
generic set up for a femtosecond micro-machining zones on the surface can cause molten material to reso-
system is shown in Figure 1. This laser system produces lidify by cooling on the surface; and the inability to
a smaller HAZ and less debris around the ablated spot, ensure that the workpiece dimensions as the tool do not
and it is very precise compared to nanosecond or pico- come in contact with the workpiece.105
second laser systems.98-100 Micro-die-sinking EDM has been utilized recently by
Laser surface texturing has been successfully used to Koshy et al.52 to create micro-textures on cutting tools to
reduce friction and wear at cutting tools,48 bearings,23 analyze cutting and tribological performance. Pal et al.108
piston/cylinder,4 biomedical application,101 mechanical also used micro die sinking EDM for creating square tex-
seals,45 and magnetic storage devices.74 tures on steel and titanium. Kim et al.109 created linear
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN SOLID STATE AND MATERIALS SCIENCES 5
grooves with depth and width of 50 mm and 110 mm. In USM. The tool used in CNC RUM rotates and produces
order to obtain a flat surface, machining was done layer ultrasonic motion. RUM is more suitable and cost effec-
by layer, and the depth of layer was kept small. The tex- tive than EDM or laser technology for brittle and hard
tures created by EDM technique on tool surfaces materials, such as titanium alloys and ceramics.114
enhanced the cutting performance.52,108 Zavos et al.110 Tribological investigation of textured bearing steel
created micro-textures with a width of 1,000 mm and a created using USM has been conducted by Shin et al.113
depth of 4 mm for improving the friction and wear prop- They created textures with a diameter of 0.53 mm, a den-
erties of a piston ring/cylinder assembly using the EDM sity of 1.37–2.23%, and a depth of 2–4 mm. They
process. The authors observed an improvement in oil observed a friction coefficient reduction using a density
film thickness of about 27%. of 1.77% and a depth of 2 mm.
structure of micro-USM is shown in Figure 2. The shape and the process of corrosion. These methods change the
and dimensions of the tool determine the shape and surface topography of a material, rather than its mechan-
dimensions of the workpiece. As in USM, material ical properties. In order to remove material from selected
removal is based on brittle breakage, which makes it par- areas, chemical etchants are used. Etching can be done in
ticularly suitable for machining brittle materials, such as specific areas by masking or employing the self-assembly
ceramic, glass, graphite, and silicon.112 Various texture of particles to create a mask.117 The two main materials
shapes (circular, rectangular, hemispherical) with differ- used in chemical texturing are maskants and etchants.
ent dimensions (width: 50 mm to a few mm; depth: The resolution of the features that compose the texture
1–10 mm) can be obtained with a high degree of accu- depends strongly on the method used to mask the sur-
racy. Although the microscopic removal phenomenon of face.91,118 The speed of these procedures is related to the
micro-EDM is very different from USM, micro-tools are printing and etching process. Variation in etching time
provided in the same way in micro-EDM because the controls the depth of texture (greater feature depths
shape of the product is determined by the same type of result from longer exposures acid); texture depths rang-
the tools.113 ing from 0.5 mm–1 mm are possible with this method.119
The main issues related to CNC USM include: mate- Texture width ranging from 5 mm–4 mm can be pro-
rial selection (unable to texture hard material because of duced.53,69,120 This technique can be applied to both
micro-drill failure); it is very expensive; and a complex plane and cylindrical substrates.120 The advantages of
5 axis-CNC control system is required for texturing com- chemical etching are that mechanical properties do not
plex 3D surfaces. change, and there is zero machining force or surface
Rotary ultrasonic machining (RUM) is another type damage.118 This process can be used for texturing a vari-
of CNC USM that combines diamond grinding and ety of materials, including steel121 and Cu.122 Compared
to the texture profiles of LST and EDM, there is less
roughness and fewer irregularities in micro-holes with
chemical etching. The limitation of chemical etching is
the time consumption in printing masks and etching.
Chemical etching has been used to create textures for
friction and wear reduction in following applications:
bearing,120 cutting tools,53 and hydraulic motor.69 The
researchers using chemically etched textures have
observed reduced friction and wear.
machining shape of ECM is determined by the shape of roughness, relatively poor fatigue properties, and diffi-
the electrode. ECM has some remarkable benefits. The culty achieving sharp corners.
machined surface of ECM is very smooth and machining ECM has been used to fabricate micro-textures on
does not affect any layer. This characteristic of ECM bearing steel for tribological performance enhancement.
makes it suitable for smoothing micro-metallic products. Byun et al.127 created textures with diameter and depth
A low current and a short pulse are required to adjust of 300 mm and 5 mm. They found reduced friction coeffi-
suitable amount of micro-material removal. The use of cients using textured bearing steel.
high-resistance electrolytes can also produce a low
current.124 An electrolyte jet has been used in place of
2.6. Focused ion beam machining
metal as a micro-tool. Electrochemical dissolution can be
localized by using a high-speed jet. This enables the Recently, focused ion beam (FIB) machining has
machining of micro-indentations with controlled dimen- attracted a great deal of attention in the production of
sions by switching the current synchronously to the micro-structured surfaces. FIB milling is the process of
movement of the workpiece. Micro-grooves with submi- transferring patterns by direct impingement of the ion
cron width can be obtained by using the scanning beam on the substrate material.128 FIB can be used for
tunneling microscope (STM) technique with ECM, since local extraction or deposition with a resolution of
removal of material in ECM is essentially an atom-by- 100 nm. One of the advantages of the FIB method is that
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atom process.125 Due to its low production cost, high it can create micro-structures without using complicated
efficiency, absence of a heat-affected layer, and lack of and costly masking and pattern-transfer procedures. The
tool wear, ECM is more advantageous than other texture focused ions penetrate the workpiece material and lose
machining techniques. their energy while removing workpiece atoms. Chang
ECM can create surface textures through mask-less or et al.50 created micro-grooves on a milling tool using FIB
removal of through-mask material. Through-mask ECM with liquid gallium ion sources. Slot milling trials showed
is more common and is achieved by producing micro- that micro-groove structures improve tool wear resis-
surface features using photolithography through pro- tance. Nakano et al.129 also used FIB milling for friction
cesses that involve the development of photoresist and reduction. Using this technique, they created micro-dim-
exposure to ultraviolet radiation.126 Figure 3 shows the ples with a diameter of 30 mm and a depth of 11 mm.
process involved in through-mask ECM. Through-mask The following key advantages can be obtained from
ECM is similar to photolithography in that it produces a FIB: high resolution; no restraints on the choice of sub-
surface texture pattern on photoresist-coated substrates strate material; less surface roughness, particularly when
and develops photoresist through exposure to ultraviolet FIB is employed for smoothing;130 and an ion beam spot
radiation and baking.126 This process selectively dissolves diameter that provides lateral dimensions to texture
metal. When considering this process for manufacturing, (for smaller currents, it descends to 8 nm, although a
the drawbacks should considered, including high surface small current results in long processing time). The use of
FIB is limited to small-dimension workpieces, as this
technique has slow processing speed.
Figure 6. Micro-grooved tool created by micro grinding process. Prior to actual treatment, a preparatory step is required
(© Springer. Reprinted with permission from J. Xie et al.57 Permis- for any deposition texturing process or chemical conver-
sion to reuse must be obtained from the rightsholder.) sion. First, a special ink is used to print a pattern directly
onto the substrate. The purpose of this ink is to provide
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the fabrication of 2D/3D micro-cavities.139 A tool with a a patterned coating which supports or prevents any elec-
micro-size tip is required for this. The aspect ratio of the trochemical or chemical reactions during the actual pro-
tool must be very low because of the extensive grinding cess.91 In the case of a metallic substrate, electric
force. Therefore, deep narrow cavities or deep micro- discharge between the deposited material and the sub-
holes cannot be obtained by using micro-grinding. strate is avoided by depositing a very thin coating on
Figure 6 shows the micro-grooves created on the tool substrate prior to the masking step and the final textured
rake face with a diamond wheel V-tip.57 Textured tools coating.
created through micro-grinding have been found to Main advantageous feature of CVD is flexibility of
reduce tool wear in dry cutting by Xie et al.57 textured geometry, as larger variety of microholes and
micro pillars of different shapes can be textured. Tex-
tures with height ranging from few mm to tens of nm
2.10. Micro Casting
and less than few micrometer length can be obtained.
Micro-casting to produce micro-textures is a relatively This method is equally applicable for planar as well as
new technique. Figure 7 shows the casting method intro- cylindrical substrates, however its resolution depends on
duced by Canon et al.140 In this method, metal has been masking process. Main disadvantage attributed to this
cast into flexible silicone molds formed with micro-fabri- process is that it requires extensive chemical information
cated silicone templates. Canon et al.140 showed that this for selecting deposited material, inhibitors, and substrate
process has the potential to create holes within the range materials. Textures height is restricted for only compati-
of 10–100 mm and to replicate ridges with a periodicity ble components and depends on material of substrate.
Another drawback is due to limitation of work piece
dimensions in reaction chamber, only small and medium
sized substrates with dimension less than 500 mm can be
textured. Moreover, use of toxic gasses in this process
makes it highly unfriendly for environment.141,142
The main advantage of CVD is the flexibility of tex-
tured geometry, as a larger variety of micro-holes and
micro-pillars of different shapes can be textured. Tex-
tures with heights ranging from a few mm to tens of nm
and less than few micrometers in length can be obtained.
This method is equally applicable to planar as well as
cylindrical substrates. However, its resolution depends
on the masking process. The main disadvantage attrib-
Figure 7. Micro-casting process for creating micro textures. (©
uted to this process is that it requires extensive chemical
IOP Publishing. Reprinted with permission from A. H. Cannon and information for selecting deposited material, inhibitors,
W. P. King.140 Permission to reuse must be obtained from the and substrate materials. Texture height is restricted to
rightsholder.) compatible components and depends on the substrate
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN SOLID STATE AND MATERIALS SCIENCES 9
material. Another drawback is that only small- and material processes is that, compared to forced removal
medium-sized substrates with dimensions less than processes, very little machine force is required, as a small
500 mm can be textured, due to the limitation of work- force can remove molten materials. However, these pro-
piece dimensions in the reaction chamber. Moreover, the cesses have limitations. One major drawback is that the
use of toxic gases in this process makes it highly workpiece and the tool do not come into mechanical
unfriendly to the environment.141,142 contact with each other, which results in uncertain work-
Enomoto et al.49 created a segmented DLC-coated piece dimensions. Compared to forced removal, dissolu-
tool using chemical-based adding material technology. tion, adding material, and solidification techniques, the
Segments with a dimension of 150 £ 150 mm and a disadvantage of melting and vaporizing material removal
depth of 0.8 mm were created on the rake face of the processes is generation of a heat-affected layer on the
tool. They observed that the adhesion of aluminum was machined surface. As all molten parts of the workpiece
not reduced using the segmented textured tool. In cannot be removed, a layer of molten material remains
another study conducted by Aoki et al.141 the tribological on the surface of the workpiece, which solidifies again on
performance of segmented DLC was evaluated. They cooling. Heat changes the structure of the immediate
observed friction and wear reduction in the case of seg- inner layer, which may cause problems in the future use
mented DLC as compared to smooth DLC. of the product.
Heat-affected areas are also produced in ablation
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10
Laser surface texturing High precision Heat-affected zone (HAZ) Piston ring/cylinder liner4
Dimensional accuracy Surface defects (burrs or bulges) Tribological investigation for texture
No contact force required Formation of periodical surface structures performance181
Low machining speed Mechanical seals45
High cost of equipment Bearings23
A. ARSLAN ET AL.
Table 1. (Continued).
Technique Benefits Limitations Application/Purpose
Vibromechanical texturing Cost effective Can produce depth of 2–50 mm and pore Creation of textures for reducing
Produces less surface damage diameters of 100–500 mm friction135
Very precise
Micro grinding Tool is in contact with workpiece A tool with a micro-sized tip is required Cutting tools57
Simple and inexpensive process for this
The aspect ratio of the tool needs to be
very low because of the extensive grind-
ing force. Therefore, deep narrow cavities
or deep micro-holes cannot be obtained
using micro-grinding
Micro casting Can be used at mass commercial scale When curing process is necessary after Tribological investigation for texture
The requirement of further machining is molding, deformation by curing is a performance37
reduced by this technique. major problem
Bubble formation is an issue during
processing
Chemical-based adding material Flexibility of textured geometry, as larger Environmentally unfriendly as it requires Cutting tools49
texturing variety of microholes and micro pillars of dif- the use of toxic gases Tribological investigation for texture
ferent shapes can be textured Reaction chamber imposes constraint on performance91,141
Textures with height ranging from few mm work piece dimensions, so only small and
to tens of nm and less than few micrometer medium substrates can be textured
length can be obtained (<500 mm)
Can texture planar as well as cylindrical Texture height is limited and dependent
substrates on substrate material
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN SOLID STATE AND MATERIALS SCIENCES
11
12 A. ARSLAN ET AL.
compatible with the dimensions of the workpiece, com- 3. Surface textured cutting tool
patible with the required shapes and dimensions of tex-
3.1. Mechanisms of performance enhancement
tures, accurate, safe for substrate material, meets
required production rate, and suitable cost.91 3.1.1. Micro-pool lubrication
Techniques such as laser surface texturing, micro- In micro-pool lubrication or micro-plasto hydrodynamic
EDM, CVD, chemical etching, and micro-grinding lubrication, trapped lubricant permeates through small
have all been used for the fabrication of textures on cavities and as a result, a thin film of hydrodynamic
cutting tools. Among these techniques, micro-grind- lubricant is generated on the upper surface of asperities,
ing is the easiest and cheapest way to make textures which is nearly one order smaller than the actual asperity
on tools. However, this technique has only been used height.87,143 This effect has been proven experimentally
to manufacture a groove-type texture, whereas and theoretically in the forming process.144-149
researchers have found micro-pit type textures more The hydrodynamic lubrication mechanism can be
suitable for friction and wear reduction in sliding explained by a one-dimensional model of a single dimple
contacts. The reason for this better behavior is dis- in the existence of fluid film, as shown in Figure 8. An
cussed in the next sections. Most of the researchers anti-symmetric pressure profile was created around the
have used LST for the fabrication of textures on tools micro-dimple due to the movement of the slider with
because it is not harmful to the environment, it is velocity (V), as shown in Figure 8a. A decrease in pressure
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dimensionally accurate, and it possesses a high con- occurs in the diverging portion; in the converging portion,
trol of shape and size. However, due to slow speed it increases for incompressible fluids. The load support
and high cost of equipment and adjustments, it is not will be zero and there will be no separating force, since the
viable for mass scale production. pressure profile is anti-symmetric, as is clear by the area
under the curve. The cavitation phenomenon can explain
this contradiction to the experimental findings. Isobaric
conditions exist in the cavitating negative pressure region.
The pressure in this portion cannot be less than the cavity
pressure, which is the vapor pressure of the fluid. As a
result, the net area under the curve is positive (Figure 8b),
thus generating a hydrodynamic effect.150 The ability of
the lubricant to form a micro-hydrodynamic film is deter-
mined by the product of the relative sliding speed and
lubricant viscosity. Hydrodynamic lubrication is present
in mixed and full film lubrication; however, it is not pres-
ent in case of boundary lubrication. The lubricant provid-
ing ability of textures and formation of hydrodynamic
film are both important in reducing friction and wear at
the cutting tool/workpiece interface.
Under the high interface temperature at the tool-chip
interface in machining, the difference in the coefficient
of thermal expansion between the tool material and the
oil lubricant also helps bring the lubricant to the tool-
chip interface.47 Due to this thin film, there is no direct
contact between the tool and the chip. This reduction in
the direct contact area at the tool-chip interface results
in less friction force.47,54 Due to this phenomenon, a
reduced friction coefficient, a reduced chip-tool contact
length, and reduced cutting forces have been observed by
researchers.
material. Both 2nd body and 3rd body abrasion are gen- at the tool-chip interface; this reduction in contact length
erated according to the morphology of abrasive phases. leads to reduced friction force.
In the case of complex morphologies, 2nd body abrasion
is realized, while 3rd body abrasion is possible for simple
3.2. Effect of textures on cutting tool performance
morphologies; and (2) adhesive wear: adhesive wear
takes place when a surface slides against another surface, Researchers have used texturing to reduce the friction,
causing shards of one surface to stick to the other surface wear, and adhesion of chip and cutting forces in cutting
and eventually pull out from the original surface. Strong operations. Tool performance and the quality of the
adhesive forces, which come into existence when atoms finished product are greatly affected by these issues.
come in close contact with one another, mainly cause Adhesion of chip material to the tool surface during
adhesive wear.151 At interfacial pressure or high temper- cutting processes causes tool failure.79 The increase in
ature, a strong bond can be formed between debris and tool wear increases the tool-chip and tool-workpiece
tool material. Adhesion is promoted by the continuous contact areas, which causes an increase in friction.154,155
formation of fresh surfaces free of oxide in machining Various techniques, including coatings156 and changing
soft materials such as aluminum alloy.152 the tool geometry, have been applied to reduce the fric-
During metal cutting processes in which uncoated tion, wear, adhesion of chip and cutting forces. Although
tools are involved, 3rd body formation is mainly due to coatings such as DLC can reduce adhesion and make
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the removal of tool material when adhesive junctions are tools wear resistant, improvements can be made in this
broken. These different sized and shaped particles are regard. Researchers have used surface textured tools to
moved along the contact by the flow of work material improve tool performance in aluminum, steel, and
and cause various wear mechanisms, such as adhesion titanium.48,54,62
and abrasion near the cutting edge.153
Surface texturing can prevent 3rd body abrasion by 3.2.1. Effect of micropool lubrication and debris
trapping wear debris generated at the tool-chip inter- storage
face.54 The entrapping ability of the wear particles of sur- Micro-textures are expected to retain cutting fluid at the
face texturing works equally well in dry and lubricated interface, thereby providing lubrication and cooling
conditions.4,26-35,63,76 effects. These effects reduce friction and temperature at
the interface. Another function of micro-textures is
reducing the plowing wear by removing wear debris; this
3.1.3. Solid lubricant-filled textures is important because debris present at the interface
In order to improve cutting tool performance in dry cut- causes abrasive wearing.157,158 Various types of structures
ting, researchers have combined solid lubricants with were created on the rake face of the tools to explore these
textures. Solid lubricants play an effective role in the per- effects on improving cutting tool performance, includ-
formance of textured tools. Some of the most common ing: micro-textured segments;159 DLC-coated sine wave-
examples of solid lubricants include tungsten disulfide shaped grooves;48 DLC-coated banded grooves in which
(WS2), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), calcium difluoride textures were sandwiched between polished areas to
(CaF2), titanium dibromide (TiB2), and graphite. Tex- ensure that lubricant leakage was prevented;48 DLC-
tures that act as reservoirs for storing solid lubricants coated micro-stripe textured tools;54,77 linear grooves;160
create a self-lubricating layer between the chip interface and rectangular textures.62
and the tool. This mechanism is the key reason for the Comparison of the sine wave grooved tool (Figure 9)
usefulness of solid lubricant in textured tools. and the banded grooved tool (Figure 10) in face milling
MoS2-filled textured tools have been found to enhance experiments was conducted in dry and wet cutting con-
cutting performance in dry cutting conditions.55,56,59 ditions in order to analyze the effect of the lubricant stor-
Jianxin et al.55 and Wu et al.56 found reduced friction age ability of textures.48 The cutting conditions and
coefficients, cutting forces, and cutting temperature. Two texture dimensions can be seen in Tables 2 and 3, respec-
mechanisms responsible for such enhancement: (1) dur- tively. The aluminum atom concentration in EDX-Al
ing the dry cutting process, MoS2 is released from the imaging was measured in order to quantitatively analyze
textures and forms a dynamic lubricating film at the aluminum adhesion. In the case of wet cutting, the con-
tool-chip contact. The shear strength of MoS2 is lower centration of aluminum atoms for banded grooved tools
than that of carbide tools, which causes lower friction was lowest, as compared to sine wave (parallel and per-
force at the tool-chip contact. The reduction of friction pendicular) grooves and un-textured tools (Figure 11). A
force in turn results in a reduction of cutting forces; and reduction of friction coefficient has also been found
(2) MoS2-filled textured tools reduce the contact length using the banded grooves at the tool rake face, as
14 A. ARSLAN ET AL.
16
Table 2. (Continued).
Tool/
Reference Process workpiece material Cutting conditions Topics Investigated Major findings
(Jianxin et al., 2012)55 Turning WC/Co cemented carbide/ Carbon Cutting speed D 60–300 m/min Investigation of cutting performance of Elliptical textures showed lower fric-
Steel Depth of cut D 0.5 mm MoS2 filled rake face textured tool tion coefficient, cutting temperature,
Feed rate D 0.1 mm/rev with different geometrical texturing and cutting forces than other tex-
Lubrication condition D dry parameters tured and un-textured tools
A. ARSLAN ET AL.
Table 2. (Continued).
Tool/
Reference Process workpiece material Cutting conditions Topics Investigated Major findings
(Ma et al., 2014)162 Orthogonal cutting WC/Co cemented carbide/AISI Cutting speed D 120 m/min FEM simulation and experimental Friction reduction of more than 30%
1045 steel Depth of cut D 1 mm investigation was conducted for and flank wear reduction of more
Feed rate D 0.3 mm/rev textured tool friction and wear than 30% was observed with textured
Lubrication condition D Dry characteristics compared to un- tool
textured tool Contact length reduction was consid-
ered main reason for reduced friction
and wear
(Xing et al. 2014)166 Turning WS2/Zr coated Al2O3/TiC ceramic/ Cutting speed D 80–260 m/min The effect of WS2/Zr composite-coated WS2/Zr composite-coated textured
AISI 1045 hardened steel Depth of cut D 0.2 mm textured Al2O3/TiC ceramic tool Al2O3/TiC tool showed lower friction,
Feed rate D 0.2 mm/rev with regard to friction, wear, and wear and cutting temperature com-
Lubrication condition D Dry cutting temperature was pared to un-textured WS2/Zr compos-
investigated in dry cutting study ite-coated Al2O3/TiC tool.
Formation of WS2 film and reduced
contact length at chip/tool interface
were found to improve the cutting
performance
(Kim et al., 2015)172 Turning Cubic boron nitride insert/ Cutting speed D 182 m/min FEM simulation and experimental Parallel textured tools (parallel to cut-
AISI52100 steel Depth of cut D 0.203 mm investigation was conducted to ting edge) reduced cutting force by
Feed rate D 0.152 mm/rev evaluate the performance of 6%, whereas effective friction coeffi-
Lubrication condition D Dry various textured tools in hard cient by 25% (predicted values) com-
turning pared to un-textured tool
An edge distance of 100 mm, pitch
size of 100 mm, texture height of
50 mm, and friction factor of 0.6
showed the minimum cutting force
(Kummel et al., 2015)171 Turning Uncoated cemented Cutting speed D 100 m/min Wear at rake and flank face was Wear rate decreased by using dimple-
carbide (K10)/SAE 1045 plain Depth of cutD 1 mm measured with various textured textured tool compared to groove
carbon steel Feed rate D 0.05 mm/rev tools type-textured tool
Lubrication condition D Dry
(Yu et al., 2015)170 Turning Uncoated carbide tool/ Aluminum Cutting speed D 1000 r/min Simulation and experimental Reduction of tool wear and change in
alloy AL6061 Depth of cutD 5–25 mm investigation of textured tool with chip morphology was found
Feed rate D 0.005 mm/rev respect to tool wear, cutting forces,
Lubrication condition D Dry and cutting temperature in turning
operation
(Zhang et al.,2015)160 Turning Cemented carbide/AISI 1045 Cutting speed D 40–200 m/min Cutting forces, friction coefficient, and In better lubricant conditions, the cut-
hardened steel Depth of cutD 0.3 mm tool wear was investigated in ting forces were reduced by 21.2–
Feed rate D 0.1 mm/rev different lubricant regimes 34.7% at high cutting speed, whereas
Lubrication condition D Wet/Dry in worse lubrication conditions, the
cutting forces reduction was 2–8%
(Kim et al., 2016 )109 Turning Cubic boron nitride insert/ Experiments for cutting force and Investigation of textured tool in hard Improved tool life can be obtained
AISI 52100 friction turning of steel was conducted with with textured tool inserts in hard
Cutting speed D 182.9–382.9 m/min respect to cutting forces, friction turning operation
Depth of cut D 0.103 mm coefficient, and tool wear Friction reduction of 9.5–34.5% and
Feed rate D 0.152–0.352 mm/rev cutting force reduction of 2.7–10.5%
Lubrication condition D Wet/Dry was observed at varying feed rates.
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN SOLID STATE AND MATERIALS SCIENCES
18
A. ARSLAN ET AL.
Table 2. (Continued).
Tool/
Reference Process workpiece material Cutting conditions Topics Investigated Major findings
Cross patterned 49
Segment size D 150 £150 mm This shape of textures did not reduce adhesion in
aluminum cutting as the chip material clogged the
textures and increased the friction coefficient. The
chosen width was high, hence why the grooves were
clogged. Reducing the width may solve the problem
Linear grooves 52
Depth D 100 mm, Reduction in feed force and cutting force was observed
Width D 100 mm
63
Depth D 5 mm Maximum friction reduction was found with linear
Width D 20, 50, 100 mm grooves parallel to the cutting edge, compared to un-
textured tools
25
DepthD 1.5 Principle, feed, and thrust force was decreased compared
Pitch D 10 mm to un-textured tools
53
Width D25,50 mm Normal and friction force reduction was seen compared
Depth D0.5, 1, 1.2 mm to dot type, pit type, and un-textured tools
162
Width D 200-400 mm Flank and crater wear decrease was observed with the
Depth ratio D 1–8 mm decrease in groove width and are strongly dependent
on depth ratio
55
Width D 50 mm Cutting performance of solid lubricant filled textured tool
Depth ratio D 20 mm was higher than un-textured tool. Grooved tool
showed higher COF, cutting temperature, and cutting
forces compared to elliptical textures.
59
Width D 50 mm Tool life improvement has been observed with flank
Depth ratio D 150 mm textured tool
166
Width D 350–400 nm Coated textured tools showed improved cutting
Depth D 120–150 nm performance compared to non-coated un-textured
tools
172
Pitch D 100 mm Parallel textures showed 6% reduction in cutting forces
Height D 50 mm and 25% reduction in friction coefficient compared to
un-textured tools
171
Width D 50 mm Linear textures did not provide lower tool wear rate
Depth D 20 mm compared to pit-shaped grooves
170
Width D 65 mm Linear grooves reduced cutting forces, surface roughness
Depth D 19 mm of workpiece, and tool wear compared to un-textured
tools
160
Width D 50 mm Cutting forces, tool wear, and surface roughness were
Depth D 50 mm reduced by textured tools compared to un-textured
tools. This reduction was higher in the case of better
lubrication than in the starved lubrication condition.
This was due to the effect of the texture as a fluid
reservoir
109
Width D 110 mm Friction reduction of 9.5–34.5% and tool wear of 9.7–
Depth D 50 mm 11.4% was observed using textured tools compared
to un-textured tools
(Continued on next page)
20 A. ARSLAN ET AL.
Table 3. (Continued).
Shapes Reference Dimension Comments
Pit Shaped 53
Width D 25,50 mm Pit-type textures reduced friction and normal force
Depth D .5,1, 1.2 mm compared to un-textured tool, but reduction was less
compared to parallel-grooved tools. As parallel groves
to the cutting edge can reduce contact at the area,
they can retain cutting fluid
180
Width D 200-250 mm Micro hole textured tool showed lowest friction
Depth D 250 mm coefficient, wear and cutting forces compared to un-
textured tool
172
Depth D 100 mm Pit-type textures reduced friction compared to un-
Pitch D 150 mm textured tool; however, it was higher than linear
grooves in both parallel and perpendicular direction
to the cutting edge
171
Diameter D 50 mm Reduced wear can be observed by dimpled textures
Depth D 20 mm compared to linear grooves
Dot Shaped
53
Width of Texture D 25,50 mm Dot-type textures reduced friction and normal force
Depth of Texture D 0.5,1, 1.2 mm
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Banded Grooves
48
Width D 50 mm Improvement in the anti-adhesion property of tools with
Depth D 100–200 nm banded grooves in aluminum cutting was found
compared to sine wave-shaped and cross pattern-
textured tools due to oil retention ability and reduced
contact area
Depth D 155 mm Quickly worn out, as the tool strength was weakened due
57
Groove interval D 45.6 mm to textures
55
Width D 50 mm Elliptical shaped textures showed the lowest COF, cutting
Depth D 200 mm forces and cutting temperature compared to linear
grooves and un-textured tool
59
Width D 110 mm Improvement in tool life, reduction in cutting forces and
Depth D 50 mm cutting temperature was observed with elliptical
textures compared to un-textured tool.
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN SOLID STATE AND MATERIALS SCIENCES 21
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Figure 12. Coefficient of friction on rake face of cutting tool for Figure 15. Micro stripe textured tool with varying stripe direc-
various tools. (© Elsevier. Reprinted with permission from T. Sugi- tions to cutting edge. (© Elsevier. Reprinted with permission
hara and T. Enomoto.48 Permission to reuse must be obtained from T. Sugihara and T. Enomoto.77 Permission to reuse must be
from the rightsholder.) obtained from the rightsholder.)
22 A. ARSLAN ET AL.
Figure 16. Friction coefficient with varying speed under (a) full fluid lubrication (b) starved lubrication. (© Elsevier. Reprinted with per-
mission from K. Zhang et al.160 Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rightsholder.)
been achieved in the cutting of hard materials like steel. cutting for 300 m, the crater wear for the un-textured
Sugihara et al.63 and Enomoto et al.54 used a micro-stripe tool was 9 mm deep and 200 mm wide (Figure 17a), while
grooved tool in milling steel. The associated cutting con- the tool with striped textures parallel to the cutting edge
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ditions and texture dimensions can be found in Tables 2 (depth, width, and space: 5 mm, 20 mm, and 20 mm) pro-
and Table 3, respectively. The cutting experiment duced a shallower crater wear depth of 3 mm
showed that the stripe grooves with 5 mm depth and (Figure 17b). A reduction of crater wear was also found
20 mm width, oriented parallel to the cutting edge, with dry cutting.
reduced the crater wear scar from 8 mm to 3 mm, Flank wear is considered an important measure for
whereas the grooves with 1 mm depth has the crater tool life, as it determines the machining reliability and
wear scar depth as the un-textured tool. Sugihara et al.63 dimensional accuracy. Ma et al.162 observed a reduction
in lubricated cutting, observed less crater wear in the tex- in flank wear of over 30% in a turning operation. Sugi-
tured case. Figure 17 shows the sectional and three- hara et al.63 also witnessed such a reduction. Sugihara
dimensional profiles of an un-textured (conventional) et al.63 observed reduction of flank wear after wet cutting;
tool and a micro-stripe grooved (MS-1) tool. After in dry cutting, however, it was not observed. Figure 18
shows the sectional and three-dimensional profiles of the
Figure 17. Flank face profiles of cutting tool after cutting for Figure 18. Flank face profiles of cutting tool after cutting for
300 m (a) un-textured (conventional) tool (b) micro-stripe 300 m (a) Un-textured tool (conventional tool) (b) Textured tool
grooved (MS-1) tool. (© Elsevier. Reprinted with permission from (MS-1F). (© Elsevier. Reprinted with permission from T. Sugihara
T. Sugihara and T. Enomoto.63 Permission to reuse must be and T. Enomoto.63 Permission to reuse must be obtained from
obtained from the rightsholder.) the rightsholder.)
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN SOLID STATE AND MATERIALS SCIENCES 23
Table 4. Number of holes drilled and drill bit condition after experiment.163
Drilling speed (m/min) Substrate condition Number of Drilled holes Drill condition at the end of the experiment
tool flank face after cutting for 300 m. The flank face of and torsion moment due to the increase in flank wear.
the un-textured tool showed severe wear of nearly The underlying phenomenon causing the greater perfor-
170 mm in width (Figure 18a), whereas for the textured mance of the textured drill bits was increased adhesion
tool it was 120 mm (Figure 18b); this can be attributed to of TiN coating on these drill bits compared to un-tex-
the function of grooves as lubricant reservoirs. Flank tured drill bits. The enhanced roughness of the textured
wear reduction cannot be linked to the ability of textures drill bit after laser ablation of the steel provided a
to entrap wear debris as, with dry cutting, similar wear mechanical anchoring for the coating layer, which
was observed in both textured and un-textured tools. improved the adhesion of the TiN coating to the surface.
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The affinity of austenite to carbon causes loss of WC This study shows that textures cannot only act as lubri-
crystals in the carbide tool under elevated temperatures, cant reservoirs and debris traps; they can also boost cut-
which reduces the WC grains and allows flank wear to ting performance by increasing coating adhesion.
progress. The presence of lubricant at the interface hin- A reduction in adhesion, the friction coefficient, and
ders this phenomenon and prevents wear. cutting forces, due to the mechanism of textures, was
An increase in tool life, thanks to a reduction in flank also observed by Ling et al.62 in drilling operations.
wear, has been found in drilling operations with surface They created rectangular textures with a depth, width,
texturing. Neves et al.163 investigated the use of surface- and length of 4 mm, 50 mm, and 450 mm, respectively,
textured drill bits; cutting conditions and texture dimen- on the margins of drill bits (Figure 19). Cutting condi-
sions can be seen in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. The tions can be seen in Table 2. The results showed that
drilling speed was from 22–33 m/min, and the number the tool with a 10% textured area produced an average
of holes drilled and the wear on textured and un-textured of 64.3 holes, compared to the 47.3 holes produced by
drills were compared; Table 4 shows the results of these un-textured tools. The drill bit with a 20% textured
experiments. At drilling speeds of 27.5 and 33 m/min, area produced an average of 57.7 holes, which is
the textured drill showed a higher performance; at 22 m/ greater than the number for un-textured tools, but
min, although the number of holes drilled was the same, lower than for the tool with a 10% textured area. The
the flank wear was lower for the textured drill bit. The difference between the tool life for both textured tool
drill bits with no textures showed an elevated feed force types is very small. The reason for this improvement
Figure 19. Micro-textured drill bit. (© Springer. Reprinted with permission from T. D. Ling et al.62 Permission to reuse must be obtained
from the rightsholder.)
24 A. ARSLAN ET AL.
Figure 20. SEM images of rake face (a) micro textures, (b) nano-textures, (c) 2D sectional profile of micro-textured tool (d) 2D sectional
profile of nano-textured tool. (© Elsevier. Reprinted with permission from N. Kawasegi et al.25 Permission to reuse must be obtained
from the rightsholder.)
drill bit, the strength of this adhesion increases and to enhance cutting tool performance in turning, milling,
causes chip material buildup. At the same time, the and drilling operations. This enhancement is even
tangential force pushes the adhered material to spread greater in the presence of cutting fluids. Improvement in
on the margin and other areas. Due to texturing, the cutting performance depends on the size, orientation,
tangential component of adhesion decreases compared shape, and placement of textures. If these factors are
to the tangential force that maintains the motion of optimum, textures can yield significant advancements;
the chip. This, in turn, causes the chips to shed, otherwise, they can prove detrimental. These factors will
thereby reducing chip material adhesion. Additionally, be discussed in detail in the next sections.
due to the squeezing out of lubricant from the tex-
tures, a thin lubricant film forms on the contact sur- 3.2.2. Effect of micro-/nano-textures
face, slowing the build-up of friction. Friction at the tool/chip interface causes heat and plastic
Such evaluations of the performance of textured dril- deformation of the work material and controls the
ling tools have so far been conducted in wet conditions; machinability of the workpiece material. Machinability
their capabilities in the dry have yet to be investigated. In can be improved by lowering friction through textures,
today’s world, it is important to look into drilling materi- but this depends on the size of the latter. A greater reduc-
als that do not use any cutting fluid, because they can tion can be achieved if the size of the textures is on a
help in reducing the cost of operations, environmental micro-/nano-scale, rather than sub-millimeter.
pollution, and health hazards.164,165 The effects of tex- Kawasegi et al.25 compared nano- and micro-textures
tured tools in terms of improving dry drilling perfor- in turning aluminum alloy A5052; the cutting conditions
mance form an important research topic that should be and texture dimensions can be seen in Tables 2 and 3.
Nano- and micrometer-scaled textures were created on
the rake face of the tool by the Ti: Sapphire laser system;
Figure 20 shows the SEM images of nano- and micro-
textured rake faces. In the case of micro-textures, the
depth and pitch were 1.7 mm and 10 mm, respectively,
while with the nano-textures, the depth and pitch were
1.5 mm and 800 nm. Cutting experiments showed that
the nano-textures on the tool rake face were not buried
by the work material; however, the micro-textures were
almost buried. This was due to the size and waviness of
the nano-textures. The micro-textures were wider, caus-
ing the work material to adhere to the micro-textured
rake face. Due to this, the cutting forces increased in the
Figure 21. Comparison of the cutting forces for micro-textured
and nano-textured cutting tools. (© Elsevier. Reprinted with per- micro-textured tool. As shown in Figure 21, the princi-
mission from N. Kawasegi et al.25 Permission to reuse must be ple, feed, and thrust force were lower for the nano-tex-
obtained from the rightsholder.) tured tool due to the lower adhesion of workpiece
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN SOLID STATE AND MATERIALS SCIENCES 25
material compared to the micro-textured and un-tex- they can easily be filled up by the workpiece material.
tured tools. The nano-textured tool showed a lower Conversely, in the case of cutting harder materials such as
adhesion at high speeds of 600 m/min, causing the feed steel, greater cutting forces are required, causing tempera-
force to be lower; however, at speeds lower than 420 m/ ture increases and ultimately leading to exacerbated
min, feed force was similar to the un-textured tool due to mechanical and thermal wear; in this case, a higher lubri-
the adhesion of aluminum (Figure 22). Obikawa et al.53 cant-storing ability and the capture of micrometer-sized
also observed that at low speed; the friction force was particles becomes more important for micro-textures than
highest due to higher adhesion. for nano-textures. The latter can be used to cut hard
Enomoto et al.49 also found a reduction of adherence materials if they are coated with soft coatings such as
through nano-textures when cutting aluminum. The cut- WS2 and MoS2 or filled with solid lubricants. In this case,
ting conditions and texture dimensions can be seen in the formation of a low shear strength solid lubricant layer
Tables 2 and 3, respectively. This team created nano-tex- prevents tool wear and higher friction.
tures of 100–150 nm in depth and 700 nm apart. Adhe-
sion was reduced by the intermittent contact of chip and 3.2.3. Effect of various texture orientations
tool rake faces. The nano-textured tools also allowed a The orientation of textures relative to the cutting edge can
reduction in friction due to the supply of lubricant at the enhance or deteriorate the cutting performance; this has been
tool/chip interface. Enomoto et al.54 observed that the studied by various researchers in terms of sliding contacts.
Downloaded by [University of Oregon] at 18:51 05 August 2016
same nano-textures which provided high resistance to Petterson et al.167 studied grooves that were parallel, perpen-
tool wear in aluminum cutting did not provide any such dicular, and at a 45 angle to the sliding direction on the tribo-
benefit with steel cutting. Because textures with more logical performance in boundary lubrication; they found that
lubricant storing ability is required for steel cutting (as by varying the orientation, the lubricant pressure buildup
discussed in Section 3.2.2). In contrast, in another study from the textures was disturbed. They also observed that if
conducted by Xing et al.,166 WS2/Zr soft coated nano- the contact width is smaller than the distance between the
textures showed lower COF, cutting forces, and tool parallel grooves, there is less chance of crossing an oil-filled
wear in cutting steel workpiece. The cutting conditions groove. Costa et al.168 also studied this effect, finding that for
and texture dimensions can be seen in Tables 2 and 3, higher loads, perpendicular textures to the sliding direction
respectively. The difference could be due to the soft coat- showed greater film thickness, while parallel grooves had
ing, which forms lubricant film upon contact. thinner film. This was because, in a parallel groove, the lubri-
cant is channeled away from contact, thereby reducing film
thickness and tribological performance. This channeling of
lubricant was also observed by Steinhoff et al.169 in the sheet-
forming process. Zhang et al.4 observed that the angle of tex-
tures is important because it affects the lubricant providing
and wear particle capturing ability. The above studies indicate
that the orientation of textures relative to the sliding direction
is important, as it directly affects the mechanism of textures,
which enhances the tribological performance on a tribo con-
tact (mechanisms discussed in Section 3.1).
Texture orientation studies have been conducted on cut-
ting tools by Enomoto et al.,49,54 Xie et al.,57 Kawasegi
et al.,25 Sugihara et al.,77,63 Xing et al.,166 Yu et al.,170 Kummel
et al.,171 and Kim et al.172 In general, three orientations were
Figure 22. Effect of change in cutting speed on feed force. studied: parallel, perpendicular, and at 458 to the cutting
(© Elsevier. Reprinted with permission from N. Kawasegi et al.25 edge. Some researchers define the direction of textures based
Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rightsholder.) on chip flow direction,25 while others base it on the cutting
edge.49,63,77 In this article, the orientation of texture will be
discussed relative to cutting edge. The cutting conditions
At the micro- and nano-scales, the textures reduce fric- and texture dimensions of these studies can be seen in
tion, wear, forces, and adhesion by providing lubricant, Tables 2 and 3, respectively.
reducing the contact area, and capturing wear particles. In Enomoto et al.49 compared textures which were paral-
the case of soft materials such as aluminum which are lel and perpendicular to the cutting edge. They found
ductile and in which adhesion is considered a major issue, that by using DLC-coated parallel textured tools, both
nano-textures are more helpful than micro-textures as adhesion and COF reduction were greater when
26 A. ARSLAN ET AL.
Figure 25. Schematic diagram of coated nano-textures with varying geometry. (© Elsevier. Reprinted with permission from Y. Xing
et al.166 Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rightsholder.)
cutting edge for the enhancement of cutting perfor- of improving fluid film stiffness between interacting seals,
mance. However, other orientations may also produce the performance of spherical dimples was much better
positive results. than that of hemispherical dimples.
A variety of dimple shapes, including triangular,
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3.2.4. Effect of various texture shapes circular, square, diamond-shaped, and hexagonal, were
Few researchers have investigated the effects of various numerically studied by Siripuram et al.173 The maximum
shapes of textures on cutting tool performance. Shapes amount of side leakage was reduced by triangular shapes.
can generally be divided into two types: connected types In another study, Xie et al.174 experimentally compared
of textures, such as grooves, and disconnected or inter- the performance of circular and triangular dimples. The
mittent types, such as pits and dots. Various studies, in triangular dimples were arranged clockwise and anti-
which shapes have been varied, are listed in Table 3. clockwise to the sliding direction; the results revealed
Researchers have mostly used connected types of tex- that the hydrodynamic load-carrying capacity was
tures in cutting tool performance investigation, while increased by the triangular dimples, the apex of which
few have used disconnected types. faced away from the sliding direction. This was because
Lubricant escape from the tribological contact is easier hydrodynamic lift and the cavitation area are affected by
with connected textures.28,168 Groove-type textures shape. As the fluid enters the divergent areas, pressure at
reduce the generation of hydrodynamic pressure,133 the upstream area (edges of pore) is reduced, and cavita-
which is an important mechanism of micro-textures for tion may occur when this is not compensated for by the
friction reduction. In lubricated cutting, these textures surrounding pressure. When fluid comes out of the pore
might reduce tool/chip contact and enhance anti-adhe- (convergent areas), the pressure at the edge of the down-
sive properties, which is why the performance of discon- stream region is higher. For triangular dimples, the apex
nected textures should be compared to the use of cutting is situated at the edge of the pore, i.e., at the downstream
tools with connected textures. position, hindering the outer flow; as a result, pressure is
Kawasegi et al.,25 Obikawa et al.,53 and Kim et al.172 higher compared to circular shape and triangular shape
observed that connected textures showed better cutting which has its base toward the downstream position.
performance than disconnected textures. In contrast, In the case of sliding conformal contacts, shapes have
Kummel et al.171 found that reduced wear could be been theoretically optimized in previous studies.175-177
observed with disconnected dimpled textures, compared However, until now, the approach used to optimize shapes
to linear connected grooves (Figure 24). This difference for cutting tools has been “hit and trial.” Researchers
can be attributed to the shape of disconnected textures. It should focus more on this aspect of textured cutting tools.
has been observed by researchers that one of the main Although extensive research work has been conducted
functions of textures i.e. increased hydrodynamic load- to investigate the effects of textured tools’ geometrical
carrying capacity is affected by their shape.20 Etsion parameters on cutting performance in machining alumi-
et al.20 investigated the effect of shape on conformal num, the main focus has been on areal or continuous lin-
sliding contact. The authors modified the previous mathe- ear grooves. Intermittent textures such as pits and dots
matical models of hemispherical shape to analyze different have received relatively little attention. In addition,
pore shapes. For hydrodynamic pressure distribution, the under varying experimental environments, different tex-
Reynolds equation was applied; and, under different oper- tures have demonstrated diverse behaviors. For this rea-
ating conditions, the average pressure in the sealing dam son, the shape of textures must be further investigated,
was measured. The researchers showed that in the context both theoretically and experimentally.
28 A. ARSLAN ET AL.
3.2.5. Effect of texture placement and dispose of these fluids. Due to these factors, and
Proper placement of the textures relative to the cutting strict environmental laws, researchers are keen to find
edge is important. If the placement is wrong, the surface ways to minimize or avoid the use of cutting fluids.178,179
integrity may be reduced or the cutting forces may be This has led to machining operation without coolants
increased. Lubricant cannot penetrate into the contact (dry machining). It has many advantages such as a lack
vicinity of the cutting edge, even at speeds approaching of bad impact on the environment and water bodies,
zero,52 so texturing this region may not be beneficial. reduced cleaning and disposing costs, and safety for
Koshy et al.52 in investigating the placement of textures, humans.
observed that if the placement of textures is right at the As tools and workpieces are exposed to higher tem-
edge, the cutting forces are increased, compared to an peratures in dry machining, there is greater adhesion
un-textured tool. The cutting conditions and texture and higher friction between the two. As a result, tool life
dimensions are given in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. In is reduced due to increased wear. It is believed that these
aluminum cutting, Obikawa et al.53 placed the textures problems can be tackled by employing advanced cutting
100 mm and 150 mm from the cutting edge; the width tool materials, which can reduce heat generation and,
and depth (or height) of the textures was 50 mm and consequently, the friction coefficient. For the implemen-
1 mm. The cutting conditions and texture dimensions tation of dry machining, a variety of methods can be
are given in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. The cutting adopted such as using new materials, changing the
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results showed that the friction force reduction was geometry of tools, and using solid lubricants coatings.179
higher in the case of the tool with a texture located Designing self-lubricated tools by introducing an in-situ
100 mm from the cutting edge, compared to the one that tribological film system (generation of low friction film
was 150 mm from the edge. The authors found that if the between tool and work material) can be an efficient
textures are placed at 100 mm from the cutting edge, the approach to the development of dry machining.
lubrication condition will be improved and adhesion will Recently, researchers have combined surface textures
be reduced. In another study, FEM analysis showed that and solid lubricants to harness the benefits of both
if the textures are placed 100 mm from the edge, the cut- techniques.
ting forces are reduced more effectively than at distances Jianxin et al.55 and Silva et al.60 conducted turning
of 50, 150, and 200 mm. The chip angle is reduced at a operations on steel material; the cutting conditions
100 mm edge distance, which helps the chip to easily and texture dimensions are given in Tables 2 and 3.
escape from the rake face.172 The cutting conditions and Jianxin et al.55 created three types of grooved tools;
texture dimensions are stated in Tables 2 and 3, elliptical shaped grooves, parallel, and perpendicular
respectively. grooves to the cutting edge. The textures were filled
Through FEM analysis of textured and un-textured with MoS2 to evaluate the effects of solid lubricant-
tools, Jianxin et al.55 found that if the texture is away filled textured tools in dry cutting. The turning experi-
from the cutting edge, the von Mises stresses are similar ments showed that the cutting forces were reduced to
for both types of tools. This similarity means that if the 15–25% by solid lubricant-filled textured tools. In
textures are not created right at the edge, the mechanical another study conducted by Jianxin et al.,180 micro-
strength of the tool may not be affected. The cutting con- holes were created on the rake and flank face of a tool.
ditions and texture dimensions are given in Tables 2 and MoS2 was filled into the holes; the cutting conditions
3, respectively. Further research must be conducted on and texture dimensions are stated in Tables 2 and 3. A
the placement of textures relative to the cutting edge for reduction in cutting forces, friction coefficient, and
various types of tools and cutting conditions. wear was observed with MoS2-filled textured tools
compared to un-textured tools. Similar results have
3.2.6. Effect of solid lubricant filled textures been found by other researchers.56
The performance of tribological processes (which come Ze et al.59 created elliptical grooves on the rake face of
into existence when two surfaces, i.e., a workpiece and one cutting tool and linear grooves on the flank face of
tool, come into contact with each other) can be improved another tool (Figure 26). The cutting conditions and tex-
by employing cutting fluids in machining operations. ture dimensions are given in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.
Many advantages can thereby be gained such as The grooves were filled with MoS2 solid lubricant. Dry
increased tool life and a better surface condition of the cutting of titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V showed a reduction
workpiece. At the same time, cutting fluids have some in cutting forces. A reduction in the main cutting, radial,
negative effects; most have chemical components that and axial thrust forces of 5–35%, 5–20%, and 5–20%,
are harmful to the environment. It is difficult to recycle respectively, were found with rake-textured tools
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN SOLID STATE AND MATERIALS SCIENCES 29
Figure 26. Solid lubricant-filled textures (a) rake textures and (b) flank textures. (© Elsevier. Reprinted with permission from W. Ze et
al.59 Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rightsholder.)
compared to conventional tools. The wear resistance of is affected by texture orientation in sliding con-
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flank- and rake-textured tools was increased by 10–30% tacts, studying and optimizing the orientation may
and 10–15%, respectively. improve the performance at the tool/chip interface.
The solid lubricant present in the textures is released This may be an interesting topic for further
during cutting and spread on the contact surface, form- research.
ing a dynamic film. This reduces friction and adhesion, 3. In the case of performance evaluation of textured
and is due to easy shearing along the basal plane of the drilling tools, few studies have been found; in the
hexagonal crystalline structures. Additionally, the con- few that have, the researchers focused on drilling
tact length is reduced due to the presence of these solid in wet conditions. The performance of textured
lubricant-filled textures. The mechanism of performance drilling tools in dry environments has not yet been
enhancement is similar for all studies. Although a combi- evaluated. This is an important objective, as dril-
nation of both solid lubricants and textures has proven ling without cutting fluid has several benefits in
beneficial, the dimensions, orientation, shape, and place- terms of health and environmental issues.
ment of textures are the factors that should be studied in 4. No theoretical model for evaluating the optimum
conjunction with presence of solid lubrication. This will orientation, shape, depth, width, and placement of
optimize and enhance the performance of these tools, textures has yet been constructed. The researchers
relative to their various operating conditions. are using a “hit and trial” approach to determine
the optimum texturing parameters for various
3.2.7. Suggested future work conditions.
1. In wet cutting at low speeds, textured tools do not 5. Disconnected micro-structures, often referred to as
reduce friction and wear in aluminum, as the “textures”, have been successfully used to reduce
adherence of material is high under these condi- friction and wear in conformal sliding contacts,
tions. Therefore, the usage of textured tools in cut- such as piston ring/cylinder liner contact and
ting materials with a low melting point and high mechanical seals. For cutting tools, most research-
ductility, such as aluminum, at low speeds, is lim- ers have used connected types of structures known
ited at this point. This may change if the texture as “grooves.” The use of disconnected textures on
dimensions are modified; this can be further cutting tools may increase performance.
investigated.
2. When determining the optimum orientation for
4. Summary and conclusions
cutting tools, researchers have mostly considered
textures that are parallel and perpendicular to the This article reviewed the existing techniques that can be
cutting edge.25,48,49,53,77 Placing textures parallel to used to create micro-textures for tribological applica-
the cutting edge has been found to improve cutting tions, and discussed the investigations into improving
performance, compared to perpendicular textures. the cutting performance of turning, milling, and drilling
Few researchers found orientation other than par- tools using surface texturing.
allel and perpendicular to be better. As the lubri- 1. Surface texture manufacturing techniques have
cant-providing and wear particle-capturing ability advantages and disadvantages. The selection of
30 A. ARSLAN ET AL.
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