Pumps and compressors

Pumps and compressors

Sub-chapters
• 9.1. Positive-displacement
pumps
• 9.2. Centrifugal pumps
• 9.3. Positive-displacement
compressors
• 9.4. Rotary compressors
• 9.5. Compressor efficiency
ƒ In Chapters 4, 5, and 6, we have written
energy balance equations which
involve a dWa,o term (see Sec. 4.8 for a
definition of dWa.o).
ƒ For steady-flow this term generally
represents the action of a pump, fan,
blower, compressor turbine, etc.
ƒ This chapter discusses the fluid mechanics
of the devices which actually perform that
dWa,o
POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
• Pumps work on liquid and compressors
work on a gas.
• Most mechanical pumps are one of these:
1. Positive-displacement
2. Centrifugal
3. Special designs with characteristics
intermediate between the two
4. In addition, there are nonmechanical pumps
(i.e., electromagnetic, ion, diffusion,jet, etc.),
which are not considered here.
• Positive-displacement (PD) pumps work
by allowing a fluid to flow into enclosed
cavity from a low-pressure source,
trapping the fluid, and then forcing it out
into a high-pressure receiver by
decreasing the volume of the cavity.
• Examples are the fuel and oil pumps on
most automobiles, the pumps on most
hydraulic systems, and the hearts of
most animals.
• Figure 9.1 shows the cross-sectional view
of a simple PD pump
The operating cycle of such a pump is as
follows, starting with the piston at the top
• The piston starts downward, creating a
slight vacuum in the cylinder.
• The pressure of the fluid in the inlet line is
high enough relative to this vacuum to
force open the left-hand valve, whose
spring has been designed to let the valve
open under this slight pressure difference.
• Fluid flows in during the entire downward
movement of the piston.
• The piston reaches the bottom of its
stroke and starts upward. This raises the
pressure in the cylinder > the pressure in
the inlet line, so the inlet valve is pulled
shut by its spring.
• When the pressure in the cylinder > the
pressure in the outlet line, the outlet valve
is forced open.
• The piston pushes the fluid out into the
outlet line.
• The piston starts downward again; the
spring closes the outlet valve, because the
pressure in the cylinder has fallen, and the
cycle begins again
• Suppose that we test such a pump, using
a pump test stand, as shown in Fig. 9.2.
• With the pump discharge pressure
regulator (a control valve) we can regulate
the discharge pressure and, using the
bucket, scale, and clock, determine the
flow rate corresponding to that pressure.
• For a given speed of the pump's motor,
the results for various discharge pressures
are shown in Fig 9.3.
• From Fig. 9.3 we see that PD pumps are practically
constant-volumetric flow-rate devices (at a fixed
motor speed) and that they can generate large
pressures. The danger that these large pressures
will break something so severe that these pumps
must always have some kind of safety valve to
relieve the pressure if a line is accidentally blocked.

• For a perfect PD pump and an absolutely

incompressible fluid, the volumetric flow rate equals
the volume swept out per unit time by the piston,
Volumetric flow rate = piston area x piston travel
x cycles/time (9.1)
• For an actual pump the flow rate will be
slightly less because of various fluid
leakages.
• If we write Bernoulli's equation (Eq. 5.7)
from the inlet of this pump to the outlet and
solve for the work input to the pump, we find
• − dWa,o ⎛P V2 ⎞ (9.2)
= ∆ ⎜ + gz + ⎟+F
dm ⎝ρ 2 ⎠
• The 1st term on the right represents the
"useful" work done by the pump: increasing
the pressure, elevation, or velocity of the
• The 2nd represents the "useless" work done
in heating either the fluid or the
surroundings.
• The normal definition of pump efficiency
is
∆ ( P / ρ + gz + V2 / 2) (9.3)
useful work
Pumpeff., η = =
total work −dWa,0 / dm

• This gives η in terms of a unit mass of

fluid passing through the pump.
• It is often convenient to multiply the top
and bottom of this equation by the mass
flow rate , which makes the denominator
exactly equal to the power supplied to the
pump:
η=
useful work
=
&
m.∆ ( P / ρ + gz + V 2
/ 2)
(9.4)
total work power sup plied
Example 9.1. A pump is pumping
50gal/min of water from a pressure of
30psia to a pressure of 100psia. The
changes in elevation and velocity are
negligible. The motor which drives the
pump is supplying 2.80 hp. What is the
efficiency of the pump?
• The mass flow rate through the pump is
50gal lbm lbm kg
&=
m .8.33 = 417 = 189
min gal min min
• so, from Eq. 9.4,
lbm 100lbf / in2 − 30lbf / in2 144in2 hp.min
417 . 3
. 2 .
min 62.3lbm/ ft ft 33,000ft.lbf
η= = 0.73
2.80hp
• From this calculation we see that the
numerator in Eq. 9.4 has the dimension of
horsepower. This numerator is often
referred to as the hydraulic horsepower of
the pump.
• η becomes equal to the hydraulic
horsepower divided by the total
horsepower supplied to the pump.
• For large PD pumps, η can be as high as
0.90; for small pumps it is less.
• One may show (Prob. 9.4) that for the
pump in this example the energy which
was converted to friction heating and
thereby heated fluid would cause a
negligible temperature rise. The same is
not true of gas compressors, as discussed
in Sec. 9.3.
• If we connect our PD pump to a sump, as
shown in Fig. 9.4, and start the motor,
what will happen? A PD pump is generally
operable as a vacuum pump. Therefore,
the pump will create a vacuum in the inlet
line which makes the fluid rise in the inlet
line.
• If we write the head form of Bernoulli's
equation, Eq. 5.11, between the free
surface of the fluid (point 1) and the
inside of the pump cylinder, there is no
pump work over this section; so
•. P1 − P2 V22 F (9.5)
z 2 − z1 = h = − −
ρg 2g g
• If, as shown in Fig. 9.4, the fluid tank is
open to atmosphere, then P1 = Patm. The
maximum value of h possible corresponds
to P2 = 0. If there is no friction and the
velocity at 2 is negligible, then
• . h Patm (9.6)
=
ρg
max

• For water under normal Patm and Troom,

hmax ≈ 34 ft = 10 m. This height is called
the suction lift.
The actual suction lift < that shown Eq. 9.6
because
• There is always some line friction, some
friction effect through the pump inlet
valve, and some inlet velocity.
• The pressure on the liquid cannot be
reduced to zero with causing the liquid to
boil. All liquids have some finite vapor
pressure. For water at room temperature,
it is about 0.3 psia or 0.02 atm. If the
pressure < 0.02 atm, the liquid will boil.
Example 9.2.
• We wish to pump 200 gal/ min of water at
150oF from a sump. We have a PD pump
which can reduce absolute pressure in its
cylinder to 1 psia. We have an F/g (for the
pipe only) of 4 ft. The friction effect in the
valve may be considered the same as that
of a sudden expansion (see Sec.5.5) with
the inlet velocity equal to the fluid flow
velocity through the valve, which is 10
ft/s. The atmospheric pressure at this
location >= 14.5 psia.
• What is the maximum elevation above the
water level in the sump at which we can
place the pump inlet?
 Answer
• The lowest pressure we can allow in the
cylinder P is 3.72 psia, the vapor pressure
of water at 150oF. If the pressure < 3.72
psia, the water would boil, interrupting the
flow. The density of water at 150oF = 61.3
lbm/ft3.
• Thus
(10ft / s )
2
14.5lbf / in − 3.7lbf / in 144in
2 2 2
lbm.ft
h max = 3 2
. 2
.32.2 2
− 2
− 4ft
61.3lbm / ft x32.2ft / sc ft lbf.s 2x32.2ft / s

• =19.8 ft = 6.04 m
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
• A centrifugal pump raises the pressure of
a liquid by giving it a high kinetic energy
and then converting that kinetic energy to
injection work. (pressure)
• As shown in Fig. 9.5. it consists of an
impeller (i.e., a wheel with blades) and
some form of housing with a central inlet
and a peripheral outlet.
• The fluid flows in the central inlet into the
"eye" of the impeller (point 1), is spun
outward by the rotating impeller, and
flows out through the peripheral outlet
(point 2).
• To analyze such a pump on a very
simplified basis, use Bernoulli's equation
(Eq. 5.7) between the inlet pipe (point 1)
and the outer tips of the impeller blades
(point 2)
• The elevation change and V1 ≈ negligible
(<<V2). We assume that the friction losses
also are negligible.
• Although P2 > P1, this term is small
compared with the change in kinetic energy
• V22 − dWa ,o (9.7)
= [approximately ]
2 dm
• This equation indicates that the pump
work, which enters through the rotating
shaft, principally increases the kinetic
energy of the fluid as it flows across the
impeller from the eye (point 1) to the tips
of the blades (point 2).
• The tangential velocity at any point is
tangential velocity = radius x angular
velocity (9.8)
• The angular velocity (2π rpm) is constant
for the whole impeller, but the radius Ê
from 0 at the eye to a significant value at
the tip of the blades. Max tangential vel. =
V2
• Use Bernoulli's equation from the tip of
the blades (point 2) to the outlet pipe
(point 3).
• The change in elevation is negligible, and
friction is neglected. No work on the fluid
between points 2 and 3. V3 ≈ negligible
(<<V2). Thus
P3 − P2 V22
= [approximately] (9.9)
ρ 2

• This equation indicates that the section of

the pump from the tip of the rotor blades
to the outlet pipe converts the kinetic
energy of the fluid to increased pressure
• Thus, the centrifugal pump may be
considered a two-stage device:
1. The impeller increases the kinetic
energy of the fluid at practically constant
pressure (from points 1 to 2).
2. The diffuser converts this kinetic energy
to increased pressure (from points 2 to 3).
• Equations 9.7 and 9.9 suggest that for a
given pump size and speed, ∆P/(ρg) should
be constant.
• Figure 9.6 shows the results of such a test
for a large, high-efficiency pump. As
predicted by the simple model, for low flow
rates, ∆P/(ρg) ≠ f(flowrate)
Example 9.3. A typical centrifugal pump
runs at 1800rpm (most electric motors
have 1800rpm). If the fluid being pumped
is water, what is the maximum pressure
difference across the pump for impeller
diameters of 1, 3, and 10 in?
• Using Eq 9.9 ρV ( ) ρ D
ω
2 2
⎛ ⎞
2
r
P3 − P2 = 2
=ρ = ⎜ 2π rpm ⎟
2 2 2⎝ 2 ⎠
• For impeller 1 in

2
⎛ ft 1800 ⎞ min
3 2
62.3lbm/ ft lbf.s2 ft 2
P3 − P2 = .⎜ π ⎟ . . .
⎝ 12 min ⎠ 3600s 32.2lbm.ft 144in
2 2
2
• = 0.41 psi = 2.86 kPa
• For 3-in dia impeller
2
⎛ 3 in ⎞
P3 − P 2 = 0 .4 1 p s i ⎜ ⎟ = 3 .7 p s i
⎝ 1 in ⎠

• For 10-in dia impeller

2
⎛ 10 in ⎞
P3 − P2 = 0.41psi ⎜ ⎟ = 41psi
⎝ 1in ⎠
• This example illustrates the fact that
centrifugal pumps supply small +∆P with
small impellers and high +∆P with large
impellers.
• When a large pressure rise is required, we
can obtain it by hooking several
centrifugal pumps in series (head to tail).
• The normal practice is to put several
impellers on a common shaft and to
design a casing so that the outlet from
one impeller is fed through a diffuser
directly to the inlet of the next impeller.
This is particularly true of deep-well
centrifugal irrigation pump.
The performance curve of a real pump,
shown on Fig. 9.6, indicates some the
limitations of our simple model:
• As the flow rate is large, the +∆P
decreases, which is not predicted by the
model.
• The model would indicate η = 100 % for
all flow rates, whereas the actual η varies
over a wide range, peaking near 90 % at
the design operating range.
• As in Example 9.3, we let the pump turn
at 1800 rpm and have an impeller of 10-in
diameter. If the pump is full of water, the
pump has a ∆P of +42 psi; so there is no
problem with the suction lift.
• When we start the pump, the fluid around
the impeller is air. Therefore, from Eq. 9.9
we find +∆P (V2 is kept constant due to tip
design) is
ρV22 ρair 0.75lbm / ft 3
P3 − P2 = = 41psi. = 41psi. = 0.05 psi
• 2 ρw 62.3lbm / ft 3
• If this pump is discharging into the atm
and the sump is open to atm, then the
pump, when full of air, can lift the water
only a height of
∆P 0.05lbf / in 2 32.2lbm.ft 144in 2
h= = . . = 0.1ft = 0.03 m
ρg 62.3lbm / ft x32.2ft / s
3 2
lbf.s 2
ft 2

• To get a centrifugal pump going, one must

replace the air in the system with liquid.
This is called priming (Ind: mancing).
• Centrifugal pumps are often used to pump
boiling liquids, e.g., at the bottom of many
distillation columns.
• Between inlet pipe (point 1) and the point
on the blades of impeller where the pump
starts to increase pressure (point 1a)
2
• .P1a = P1 − ρ 1a
V (9.10)
2
• P1a falls and boiling may occur. V1aÊ, P1aË
• In this case the pump must be located far
enough below the boiling surface so that
the +∆P due to gravity from the boiling
surface to the pump eye > -∆P (point 1 to
1a).
• This elevation is shown as h in Fig. 9.7. This
distance required below the boiling surface is
called the net positive suction head (NPSH).
The pressure in Fig. 9.8 is the pressure
measured at the pump inlet. If there is
significant frictional -∆P between the vessel
and the pump, then h in Fig. 9.7 must be
increased to overcome this additional -∆P.
Characteristic Positive Centrifugal
displaceme
nt
Normal flow rate Low High
Normal ∆P/stage High Low
Variable held Flowrate Pressure rise
constant
Self-priming Yes No
Number of Many Few
moving parts
Outlet stream Pulsing Steady
Work well on Yes No
high-viscosity
fluid
 POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT
COMPRESSORS
• A compressor has Poutlet/Pinlet >> 1.
• If ∆P is small, the device is called a blower
or fan. Blowers and fans work practically
the way as centrifugal pumps, and their
behavior can be readily predicted by
equations developed for centrifugal
pumps.
• To compress a gas to a final (absolute)
pressure > 1.1 x its inlet pressure requires
a compressor, and the change in density
of the gas must be taken into account.
• A PD compressor has the same general
form as a PD pump. The operating
sequence is the same as that described in
Sec. 9.1. The differences are in the size
and speed of the various parts.
• The pressure-volume history of the gas in
the cylinder of such a compressor is
shown
in Fig. 9-9.
Cycle: ABCD
• The work of any single-piston process is
given by
• . W = ∫ Fdx = ∫ PA dx =∫ P dV (9.11)
• The work done by the compressor on the
gas is the gross work done on the gas
(under curve CDA) minus the work done by
the gas on the piston as the flowed in (area
under curve BC); thus, the net work is the
area enclosed by curve ABCD. This is the
work done on the gas.
• Compressors are often used to compress
gases which can be reasonably well
represented by the perfect-gas law PV=
nRT.
• If a compressor works slowly enough and
has good cooling facilities, then the gas in
the cylinder will be at practically a constant
temp throughout the entire compression
process. Then we may substitute nRT/P for
V in Eq. 9.12 and integrate:
• .
P2 P 2
dP P2
−∆W = ∫ VdP = nRT ∫ = nRT ln [isothermal]
P1 P1
P P1
(9.13)
• However, in most compressors the piston
moves too rapidly for the gas to be cooled
much by the cylinder walls.
• If so, the gas will undergo what is
practically a reversible, adiabatic process,
i.e., an isentropic process.
• .PVk = P1V1k = constant [adiabatic] (9.14)
• Inserting this in Eq. 9.11
⎡ ( k −1) / k ⎤
• . P 2
nRT1k ⎛ P2 ⎞
−∆W = ∫ VdP = ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ [ adiabatic ]
• . P 1
k − 1 ⎢⎝ P1 ⎠
⎣ ⎥⎦
(9.15)
Example 9.4. A 100 % efficient compressor
is required to compress from 1 to 3 atm.
The inlet temperature is 68oF. Calculate
the work pound-mole for an isothermal
compressor and an adiabatic compressor.
• For an isothermal compressor,
−∆W P2 Btu Btu kJ
= RTln = 1.987 o
.528 R.ln3 = 1153
o
= 2.68
n P1 lbmol. R lbmol mol

• For an adiabatic compressor

−∆W ⎛ 1.4 ⎞ 0.4/1.4
n
= 1.987
Btu
o
lbmol. R
o
.528 R.⎜ ⎟. 3
⎝ 0.4 ⎠
( )
−1 = 1355
Btu
lbmol
= 3.15
kJ
mol
• Equations 9.13 and 9.15 in Example 9.4
indicate that the required work for an
adiabatic compressor is always > that for
an isothermal compressor with the same
inlet and outlet pressures.
• Therefore, it is advantageous to try to
make real compressors as nearly
isothermal as possible.
• One way to do this is to cool the cylinders
of the compressor, and this is generally
done with cooling jackets or cooling fins on
compressors.
• Another way is by staging and intercooling;
see Example 9.5
Example 9.5. Air is to be compressed from
1 to 10 atm. The inlet temp is 68oF. What
is the work per mole for (a) an isothermal
compressor, (b) an adiabatic compressor,
and (c) a two-stage adiabatic compressor
in which the gas is compressed
adiabatically to 3 atm, then cooled to
68oF, and then compressed from 3 to 10
atm?
• For an isothermal compressor,
−∆W Btu Btu kJ
= 1.987 .528o
R.ln10 = 2416 = 5.62
n lbmol.o R lbmol mol
• For an adiabatic compressor,
−∆W ⎛ 1.4 ⎞
n
= 1.987
Btu
o
lbmol. R
o
.528 R.⎜ ⎟ . 10
⎝ 0.4 ⎠
(
0.4/1.4
)
−1 = 3418
Btu
lbmol
= 7.96
kJ
mol

• For a two-stage adiabatic compressor,

−∆W Btu ⎛ 1.4 ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 10 ⎞
0.4 /1.4
⎞
= 1.987 o
.528 R. ⎜ ⎟ . ⎜⎜ 3
0.4 /1.4
−1+ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ 0.4 ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ 3⎠
o
n lbmol. R ⎠
=2862 Btu/lbmol=6.66 kJ/mol.
• This example illustrates the advantage of staging
and intercooling.
• With an infinite number of stages with intercooling,
an adiabatic compressor would have the same
performance as an isothermal compressor (Prob.
9.21).
• Thus, the behavior of an isothermal compressor
represents the best performance obtainable by
staging.
• The optimum number of stages is found by an
economic balance between the extra cost of each
additional stage and the improved performance as
the number of stages is increased.
• Large PD compressors typically have stage Pout/Pin of
3-5 and η of 75- 85% (Sec. 9.5)
 ROTARY COMPRESSORS
• The PD compressor has been a common
industrial tool. But, it is a complicated,
heavy, expensive, low-flow-rate device.
• The need to supercharge aircraft
reciprocating engines and the
development of turbojet gas-turbine
engines demanded the development of
lightweight, efficient, low-cost, high-flow-
rate compressors.
• The resulting compressors, which were
developed for aircraft service, are now
being applied industrially in high-capacity
applications, for example, in ammonia
plants.
• The two types of compressor developed for
aircraft engines are centrifugal and axial-
flow.
• The centrifugal compressor is a centrifugal
pump with very high-speed (for example,
20,000rpm) and large-diameter rotor. To
give high-pressure ratios, centrifugal
compressors are normally staged with
intercooling; the pressure rise per stage is
small.
• Axial-flow compressors pass the gas between
numerous rows of blades arranged in an
annulus (Fig. 9.10). The gas is successively
accelerated by a moving row of rotor blades
and then slowed by a stator blade which
converts the kinetic energy imparted by the
rotor blades to pressure
• The advantages of the axial-flow
compressor over centrifugal compressors
are the small cross-sectional area
perpendicular to gas flow, which makes it
easy to build into a streamlined airplane,
and the lower velocities, which lead to
lower friction losses and slightly higher η.
• Centrifugal and axial-flow compressors
generally handle very large volume of
gases in small equipment, so the heat
transfer from the gases is negligible.
• Their performance is well described by the
equations for adiabatic compressors (see
Eq. 9.15).
• Chap. 5 showed that for any steady-flow
compressor in which changes in potential
and kinetic energy are negligible
• .d W a ,o dQ (4.40)
= h in − h o u t +
dm dm
 COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCIES
•. work required for best possible device doing job
η=
work actually required by device
(9.17)
• In the case of an adiabatic compressor, the
best possible device is a reversible,
adiabatic compressor for which the inlet
and outlet entropies are the same. It is
commonly called an isentropic compressor.
• η work of isentropic compressor
=
compressor
work of real compressor
(9.18)
• Consider the steady-flow, adiabatic
compressor shown in Fig. 9.11. The
balance for this process (taking the
compressor as the system and assuming
that changes in kinetic and potential
energies are negligible):
• . dW = h − h = h − h (9.19)
in out 1 2
dm
• the real compressor has a higher outlet
entropy, temperature, and enthalpy than
the outlet stream from a reversible
compressor would (2s in Fig. 9.11).
• Comparing the real compressor with a
reversible one having the same outlet
pressure.
Wisentropic h 2s − h1 (9.20)
ηcomp or pump = =
Wreal h 2 − h1
Example 9.6. An adiabatic compressor is
compressing air from 20oC and 1.4atm.
The airflow rate is 100kg/h, and the power
required to drive the compressor is 5.3
kW. What are the efficiency of the
compressor and the temperature of the
outlet air? What would the outlet air
temperature be if the compressor were
100 percent efficient?
• Air may be assumed to be a perfect gas
with Cp = 29.3 J/(mol.K) and k = 1.40.
The work of an isentropic compressor
doing the same job is given by Eq. 9.15:
• . − dWa.o = 293.15K . 813J
dm
. . 4
29g / mol mol.K 0.4
(
1.4 0.4/1.4
)
−1 = 143
J
g

⎛ dWa ,o ⎞
• .Power = m&⎜ − 5 g J W
⎟ = 10 .143 . .
h
= 3.97kW
⎝ dm ⎠ h g J.s 3600s

•. η =
3 .9 7 k W
= 0 .7 5
5 .3 k W

∆h dWa ,o / dm
•. ∆ Treal = =−
Cp Cp
5.3kW/ (100kg / h ) 3600s J
∆Treal = . . = 189K
•. ⎡⎣29.3J / ( mol.K ) ⎤⎦ .( mol / 29g ) h W.s
• . ∴ Tout = 200 C + 189K = 209o C = 408o F

• For an isentropic compressor,

• . ∆ h − dW a ,o
∆ Tideal = =
Cp Cp
• . ∆T = 3.97 kW / (100 kg / h ) 3600 s J
. . = 142K
⎡⎣ 29.3 J / ( mol.K ) ⎤⎦ . ( mol / 29 g )
ideal
h W.s

• This example illustrates the fact that the

effect of the compressor inefficiency is to
raise the outlet temperature of the
compressor