Exploration and

Mining Explained
E-book
Brought to you by

www.mininginaday.com www.miningjournal.com
 www.mininginaday.com

1. Metals and Minerals

The building blocks of the earth are called elements, which are substances that cannot be broken down
by chemical or physical action into simpler entities. Elements that are 'workable' (eg malleable) are
termed metals (they are also usually good conductors of heat and electricity).

Of the 92 elements, eight account for 98% of the composition of the crust (the earth's outer layer; see
later): oxygen (46.5%), silica (27.5%), aluminium (8%), iron (5%), calcium (3.5%), sodium (3%), potassium
(2.5%) and magnesium (2%). By contrast, gold constitutes less than 0.0000004% of the earth's crust.

Elements bond together in chemical compounds of definite ratios to form solid crystalline substances
known as minerals, of which there are many thousand different types. (Coal is a mineral, mainly
comprising the carbon element.)

Rock is a solid mass of mineral grains, and there are four main rock-forming mineral groups:
Silicates - contain silicon and oxygen
Oxides - the elements bond to oxygen
Sulphides – sulphur
Carbonates - carbon/oxygen.

The most common minerals are all oxides: SiO2 (comprising 59.1% of the earth's crust), Al2O3 (15.2%),
CaO (5.1%) and FeO (3.7%).

Where minerals are sufficiently concentrated (see later), they are called 'mineral deposits' and these
become 'ore deposits' when the elements within the mineral can be recovered economically. Mining is
usually about the recovery of the 'metal' elements.

These concentrations are usually measured as the proportion of the constituent metal in the overall
deposit (this might include several different minerals but the measurement will exclude the surrounding
'waste' rock). For the less valuable metals (copper, lead etc) this is usually measured as a few parts per
hundred (eg 3% copper; Cu) while the precious metals will be measured in terms of parts per million (eg 6
grams/tonne gold; Au). Note that there are 1,000 grams in a kilogram and 1,000 kilograms in a tonne, so
that 1 gram/tonne = 1 ppm.

The search for diamonds is akin to looking for the proverbial 'needle in a haystack'. Diamond grades are
typically 5 carat per 100 tonne (the normal 'unit' of measurement), ie 1 gram for every 100 tonnes (1 part
per 100 million). Because of the huge range in the value of diamonds (based on size, colour and clarity),
grades are often given in terms of value. A typical mined-diamond value is US$200/carat, ie an ore grade
of only US$10/tonne in the example above. Note also that if the size of the average stone is 1 carat, then
there will only be one stone per 20-tonne truck!

As an aside, it is often said that only one kimberlite pipe in one hundred is diamondiferous, and only one
diamondiferous pipe in a hundred is economic to mine.

Metals are often categorised into groups to reflect common usage or properties.

Precious (Noble) Metals

These are resistant to weathering (ie they do not rust) and are usually mined in their native (ie pure,
elemental) state. Examples are gold, silver and the platinum-group metals (PGMs).
 www.mininginaday.com

Base Metals

So called because they are capable of combining with an acid to form a salt, eg:
Copper Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and Chalcocite (Cu2S)
Lead Galena (PbS), Anglesite (PbSO4) and Cerusite (PbCO3)
Zinc Sphalerite (ZnS) and Smithsonite (ZnCO3)
Nickel Pentlandite (2FeS.NiS) and laterites

Ferrous Metals

In addition to iron itself, this category includes those metals that have a strong chemical affinity with iron,
eg:
Chromium Chromite (FeCr2O4)
Cobalt Cobaltite (CoAsS) and Smaltite (CoAs2)
Molybdenum Molybdenite (MoS2)
Manganese Braunite (Mn2O3), Hausmanite (Mn3O4) and Pyrolusite

Non-Ferrous Metals

These are the metals that have no affinity with iron (and also included the base metals), eg:
Aluminium Bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O)
Magnesium Magnesite (MgCO3) and brines
Tin Cassiterite (SnO2)

Speciality Metals

These are those metals whose unusual (exotic) properties make them valuable in specific usages, eg:
Greenockite (CdS), which is found as a coating on zinc ores, and is usually mined by-
Cadmium
product of base-metal sulphides
Mercury Native metal and as Cinnabar (HgS)
Titanium Ilmenite (FeO.TiO2) and Rutile (TiO2)
Zirconium Zircon sand and Baddeleyite

Other Mined Minerals

These are those valuable minerals that either cannot be characterised as metals (eg coal) or where the
mineral is used in its mineral form without extracting the metal (eg salt, which is sodium chloride):
Industrial minerals Salt, limestone, marble etc
Energy minerals Coal, oil, gas and uranium
Gemstones Diamonds, rubies etc
 www.mininginaday.com

2. Geology
The consensus amongst scientists is that our solar
system began about 5,000 million years ago, and
planet Earth formed from a superheated cloud of
dust and gas (following the 'Big Bang'). The Earth is
believed to comprise a deep interior (the core),
surrounded by a zone of heavy rock (the mantle)
and a thin outer skin (the crust). Cooling from the
core outwards sets up convection currents, and as
these reach the crust the patterns they set up have
been instrumental in forming a series of
interlocking crustal plates.

Plate tectonics is a relatively new theory and has

revolutionised the way geologists think about the Earth. The size and position of the plates change over
time. The edges of the plates, where they move against each other (the so-called mobile belts) are sites
of intense geologic activity; such as earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain building (and mineralisation).
Periods of mountain-building are referred to as orogeny, the most recent of which started 200 million
years ago (about the time the first mammals appeared).

Where plates 'collide', one plate might slide beneath (subduction), or ride above (obduction), another
plate. Such movements are often accompanied by the intrusion into the crust of molten rock (magma)
from the mantle. The magma cools to form igneous rock.

There are broadly two types of igneous rock:

Light (felsic) rocks that are rich in silica and aluminium, eg granites.
Dark and heavy (mafic) rocks rich in iron and magnesia, eg gabbro.

Where the magma reaches the surface of the crust it is extruded and cools very quickly as lava to form
fine-grained volcanic rocks, eg basalt.

The igneous activity associated with mobile belts is often accompanied by the introduction of
hydrothermal fluids rich in minerals, giving rise to some of the world's biggest mineral deposits (eg the
copper deposits of the Andes). A present-day example of such hydrothermal activity is in the South
Pacific where 'black smokers' on the seafloor are currently depositing metal sulphides along the junction
of two tectonic plates.

Over geological time, some plates fuse together and new ones form, and, away from the edges of existing
plates, the older rocks form the ancient 'basement', or cratons (also termed shields). 'Fossilised' mobile
belts are preserved in cratons as Greenstone belts, which are a major source of gold deposits (eg in
Western Australia, the Canadian Shield and West Africa).

The crust and its plates are subject to constant erosion and the resultant material is re-deposited as
sediment in rivers, lakes and seas, eventually consolidating into layers or strata sedimentary rocks.

These sedimentary rocks fall into two categories:

Clastic Fragments brought together by ice, water or wind (eg sandstone).

Precipitation of dissolved materials (eg forming limestone); with evaporates (eg rock salt
Chemical
from sea water) being a particular type.
 www.mininginaday.com

In many areas of the globe, sedimentary rocks cover the basement and cratons entirely. Minerals
contained in the sediments may accumulate in economic quantities.

Over millions of years, sedimentary rocks are subject to heat and pressure as a result of igneous
intrusions, mountain-building activity or the weight of the overlying sediments, to form metamorphic
rocks. Hence a limestone becomes a marble, shale becomes a slate, sandstone becomes a quartzite, etc.
The gold deposits of South Africa's Witwatersrand and the iron-ore deposits in the Pilbara district of
Western Australia are examples of sedimentary deposits that have been metamorphosed.

According to the amount of heat and pressure, the original sediments can eventually be metamorphosed
to schists, and volcanic/igneous rocks can be metamorphosed to form gneisses. Metamorphism often
remobilises and reconcentrates the contained metals to form new deposits. The world's cratons consist
entirely of metamorphic rocks.

General Deposit Types

Sedimentary deposits can be in the form of lenses and pods, often deposited along bedding planes or in
fractures, faults and fissures. Under certain conditions, eg warm climate and shallow seas, sediments
accumulate in large basins, and minerals become increasingly concentrated as salts as a result of
evaporation. Many of the world's large deposits of potash, nitrate, phosphate and rock salt have formed
in this fashion.

Deposits in igneous rocks can also occur as lenses and pods, and in fractures, faults and fissures. They can
also be distributed through the rock as fine disseminations and in small quartz veinlets as stockworks
(typical of porphyry copper). Such deposits tend to be of large size and low grade. They often possess a
surface (or supergene) zone that has been enriched in metals as a result of weathering. Beneath this
zone, the ore unaffected by weathering is termed primary (or hypogene).

Massive deposits (see below) are of higher grade and consist almost entirely of sulphide minerals. They
are generally associated with metamorphic terrain. Where their deposition is associated with volcanic
activity, they are termed volcanic massive sulphides (VMS). Where deposits associated with volcanic
activity are stratified they have been referred to as sedimentary exhalative (sedex) deposits.

A number of the world's most important deposits of nickel, chromite, copper and platinum occur in mafic
rocks (see above) in layered igneous intrusions. The metals occur at distinct horizons, reflecting the
pressure and temperature at which they formed as the magma cooled down. The platinum and palladium
deposits of the Bushveld complex in southern Africa are of this type.

One particular type of mafic rock, kimberlite, is the world's principal source of diamonds. Diamonds are
formed (from carbon) in the mantle under extreme temperature and pressure, and are carried to the
surface in kimberlite pipes. These occur throughout the world but very few contain diamonds, and even
fewer have diamond concentrations of economic interest (as noted above).

Alluvial deposits are formed where material resulting from weathering and erosion is transported by
rivers and streams and re-deposited. The mineral must be chemically stable and physically resistant to
survive the process (restricting such deposits to precious metals, diamonds and other gemstones).
Alluvial deposits are relatively recent in age and are generally unconsolidated.

Laterite deposits are a product of tropical weathering and comprise a mixture of oxide and hydroxide
minerals and clays. Bauxite, the chief ore of aluminium, is a laterite, and there are vast deposits in Brazil
and Guinea. There are also important deposits of nickel laterite (eg in New Caledonia and Cuba).

Where mineral deposits are formed at the same time as the host rock they are termed syngenetic.
Where they have been introduced afterwards, they are termed epigenetic.
 www.mininginaday.com

Deposit Summary

Diamond Pipes: Formed at least 150 km below the surface (where temperatures and pressures are
extreme enough to create diamonds, rather than graphite or coal, from the element carbon). These
kimberlite mineral accumulations only become economic when they are brought to the surface by
volcanic activity.

Epithermal: Formed by hydrothermal volcanic activity that pushes magma (and the contained minerals)
through vents (to form extensive vein systems). An important source of gold and silver, normally as
'native' metal rather than in a mineral (and are the most likely type of deposit for high-grade, 'bonanza'-
type discoveries).

Laterites: A deeply weathered mixture of oxide and hydroxide minerals and clays (usually found in the
tropics). These form the main orebodies for aluminium, and an increasingly important source of nickel
(although recovery of the latter is a still problematic process).

Lode: Found in Greenstone belts (see above), these deposits are an important source of precious metals
and cluster around large regional fault zones. Although usually narrow and inconsistent (and so hard to
identify) they can extend to great depths.

Magmatic: As molten rock cools, the minerals crystallise and sink to the base. They are usually tabular, or
lens-like, in shape, and form many of the world's great base-metal sulphide deposits, especially copper
and nickel (and also some oxide deposits of iron, titanium and chrome).

Massive: Nothing to do with size, rather a mineralisation (made up almost entirely of sulphides) that is
homogeneous and conforms to the host rock's structure (usually indicating that it was formed at the
same time). These orebodies are relatively easy to understand and mine.

Placer: Minerals that have been eroded from the primary source and transported (normally by water
action) and then deposited in a sedimentary bed. The mineral must be chemically stable and physically
resistant to survive this process (restricting such deposits to precious metals and gemstones).

Porphyry: Typical of deposits (especially copper) formed by igneous activity, with both the intrusion and
host rock being severely fractured, with the mineralisation forming veins. The deposits are usually large
but low grade, although subsequent leaching and precipitation can form areas of substantially higher
grades (supergene enrichment).