Engineering Geology, 35 (1993) 33--48 33

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Geotechnical characteristics of ignimbrite: A soft pyroclastic

rock type

Vicki G. Moon
Department of Earth Sciences, Universityof Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton. New Zealand
(Received February 2, 1993; revised version accepted May 10, 1993)

ABSTRACT

The ranges of a variety of geotechnical properties encompassed by the ignimbrite lithology are established. Ignimbrites are
of low density (1212-1928 kg m -3) and high porosity (18-51%), are very weak to weak in compression (0.23-54 MN m-2),
have low tensile strength (0.12-7.1 MN m -2) and cohesion (0.06-9.0 MN m-2), yet the angle of internal friction is compara-
tively high (27°-38°). The second-cycle slake durability index (Id2) ranges from very low (30%) to very high (99.3%).
Considerable softening (softening factors of 1.3-10.8) occurs on saturation, and all ignimbrites undergo significant plastic
deformation prior to failure. Extensive systems of open, continuous, vertical joints occur in many ignimbrites, typically forming
a very widely spaced (3-5 m), irregular columnar pattern, while other ignimbrites are effectively non-jointed, though occasional
closed, continuous vertical joints occur at extremely wide spacings (10-15 m). Large changes in strength and jointing may
occur within a single profile.
Two broad categories of ignimbrite are recognised: durable ignimbrites with Ia2 ~>90%, and non-durable ignimbrites with
Id2 ~<30%. Durable ignimbrites behave as weak rocks for which the rock mass characteristics exert the primary influence
upon slope stability and engineering behaviour. Steep slopes and precipitous gorges result from the predominance of vertical
jointing, and high cleft water pressures have contributed to historical engineering failures. Non-durable ignimbrites are typically
non-jointed and are the weakest materials; they are classified as soft rocks, and the intact rock characteristics are the dominant
control on their behaviour. High friction angles allow relatively steep slopes, but low durability makes them prone to gully
erosion. They are typically very sensitive materials and susceptible to piping.
Second-cycle slake durability index and effective porosity together allow classification of ignimbrites and prediction of likely
material characteristics. These tests require small specimens and simple laboratory equipment.

Introduction o p m e n t in the central N o r t h Island o f N e w Zealand

Large volume ignimbrite deposits o f d o m i n a n t l y
rhyolitic c o m p o s i t i o n occur in m a n y areas o f the
world, notably western U S A , Central and South
America, the Mediterranean, Japan, Indonesia,
and N e w Zealand (Cas and Wright, 1987).
Deposition f r o m a pyroclastic flow following
extremely explosive volcanism (Walker, 1983),
means that ignimbrite deposits m a y blanket vast
areas in a considerable thickness o f rock; they can
thus be seen to represent an i m p o r t a n t engineering
material in m a n y regions o f the earth.
Due to the rugged terrain often associated with
m a n y areas o f Q u a t e r n a r y volcanism, engineering
works on ignimbrites have to date been c o m p a r a -
tively limited. H o w e v e r , increased economic devel-
has led to the need for more, and larger, engineer-
ing works, such as roading to facilitate harvesting
of m a t u r e exotic forests, and the development o f
geothermal p o w e r stations. Likewise, ignimbrites
in J a p a n are increasingly being encountered
in d a m , bridge, and tunnel developments
( A n o n y m o u s , 1981a,b; Iida et al., 1981), and con-
siderable investigation is proceeding into the
behaviour o f a variety o f ignimbrites at a p r o p o s e d
nuclear waste disposal site in the U S A (Price, 1983;
Price et al., 1985; Bish, 1990; H a n s e n et al., 1990).
As a consequence, m a n y site-specific investiga-
tions o f the engineering b e h a v i o u r o f ignimbrites
have been u n d e r t a k e n (for example, M a l o y and
Lowe, 1945; Y a m a n o u c h i et al., 1981; Price, 1983;
Price et al., 1985; N a p p i and Ottaviani, 1986).

0013-7952/93/$06.00 © 1993 - - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

34
However, site-specific studies measure only those
properties relevant to the particular development
and, hence, data from different studies are not
necessarily complementary; no attempt has been
made to determine in a standard way the range of
geotechnical properties which may be represented
by the ignimbrite lithology.
In this paper, the results of a systematic series
of measurements of a variety of geotechnical prop-
erties of ignimbrite materials are presented. The
ignimbrites were sampled with the aim of establish-
ing the widest possible range of material character-
istics within the limits of the testing procedures.
These data are used to develop a simple classifica-
tion system for ignimbrites which gives a ready
indication of the likely engineering behaviour of
the materials. Index tests which allow classification
of ignimbrites and hence prediction of their charac-
teristics are identified.
Definition of ignimbrite
Ignimbrite is defined as, "a pyroclastic deposit
or rock body, made predominantly from pumi-
ceous material which shows evidence of having
been emplaced as a concentrated and hot particu-
late flow" (Walker, 1983). The "ash-flow tufts"
and "Shirasu" deposits commonly referred to in
American and Japanese literature, respectively, are
comparable with ignimbrites in this sense. These
materials consist of (Marshall, 1935; Smith, 1960):
pumice clasts (discrete fragments of pumice), crys-
tals, lithic clasts (fragments of country rock incor-
porated into the eruption sequence), and a
groundmass of glass shards (ash-sized glass par-
ticles resulting from the disintegration of pumice).
In general, the groundmass shards are chaotically
arranged, and the pumice clasts, lithic clasts and
crystals are separated by groundmass; clast-
supported ignimbrites are an exception (Sparks
et al., 1973; Walker et al., 1980).
The genetic definition given above encompasses
a wide range of materials in terms of the engineer-
ing characteristics of the final deposit, as described
by Moon (1993, this issue). The eruption and
resulting pyroclastic flow, which transports the
V.G MOON
materials, may be exceptionally energetic, resulting
in a relatively cool deposit which may exhibit
considerable sorting of individual clasts. In con-
trast, the eruption may be somewhat quieter, but
of exceptionally great volume, resulting in a very
thick, hot deposit, generally with very little sorting
of individual components. A hot deposit may
undergo compaction and welding of the individual
glass shards after deposition, thus enhancing indu-
ration, whereas a cool deposit will not normally
experience significant induration. Between these
two extremes a whole spectrum of ignimbrites
exists, with the characteristics of each determined
by individual combinations of eruption, transport,
deposition and post-depositional alteration
conditions.
Methods
Sampling
Specimens of fresh, unweathered ignimbrite were
collected from three ignimbrite deposits: the
Whakamaru, Ongatiti and Owharoa Ignimbrites
from the Central North Island of New Zealand.
Several large ignimbrite blocks were taken from
different levels within each profile, and cores pre-
pared for geomechanical testing from these blocks.
The Whakamaru Ignimbrite is generally a hard,
pale grey, crystal-rich rock with scarce pumice
clasts (Martin, 1965; Briggs, 1976), but ranges
from localised examples of dense, black glassy
rock to loose, pink, soft material. Laboratory
specimens of this ignimbrite were taken from along
the Waikato River valley near the Maraetai Dam;
here the material forms steep cliff faces approxi-
mately 100 m high. One block (WHAKA/2) was
extracted from hard, grey ignimbrite at the base
of the profile, and a second block (WHAKA/1),
consisting of soft, pink ignimbrite, was extracted
from the top of the profile.
The Ongatiti Ignimbrite is quarried for use as a
decorative building material at the Hinuera Stone
Quarry. Here the material is characteristically
white to yellow in colour, with abundant large
pumice clasts and crystals (Olissoff, 1981); the
natural field expression is vertical cliffs approxi-
mately 50 m high. Because of the ease of obtaining
cut blocks of an appropriate size from an otherwise
GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF IGNIMBRITE: A SOFT PYROCLASTIC ROCK TYPE
massive material, laboratory specimens were taken
from the quarry. As pre-cut blocks were used, no
control on the stratigraphic position or block
orientation was possible for this material. Three
specimens, which represented a range of available
materials, were collected; these are referred to as
ONG/1, ONG/2 and ONG/3.
The Owharoa Ignimbrite is characterised by a
pale grey colour, scarce crystals, and abundant
flattened lenticles of dark grey pumice which give
it a strongly foliate structure (Ewart and Healy,
1966). Laboratory specimens were taken from two
sites; the lower site (OWH/2) consists of hard,
jointed ignimbrite with a very pronounced foliate
structure, the other site (OWH/1) is stratigraph-
ically higher, and consists of softer ignimbrite with
a mixture of flattened and rounded pumice clasts.
Laboratory testing
The geomechanical data collected included the
uniaxial compressive strength (at), indirect (Brazil)
tensile strength (at), and shear strength of intact
rock (c,~b). The bulk rock properties of bulk density
(p), grain density (p~) of disaggregated specimens,
true (r/true)and effective (~¢ff) porosity, and second-
cycle slake durability index (Id2) were also
measured.
Compressive and tensile strength testing was
carried out following ISRM suggested methods
(Bieniawski and Hawkes, 1981; Bieniawski et al.,
1981) where appropriate, with some modifications
to the testing rates and machining tolerances made
to accommodate very weak materials in some
instances. Cores of 54 mm diameter were prepared
for strength testing, and tested using length to
diameter ratios of 2:1, l:l and 0.5:1 for compres-
sive, shear and tensile strength, respectively. The
weakest material could not be cored successfully,
so cubic specimens were used to obtain compres-
sive and shear strength values. The shear strength
was measured following the procedure described
by Protod'yakanov et al. (1969). Steel shear jigs
were found to apply a significant stress to the
weakerignimbrites by virtue of their weight, so
aluminium jigs were made to overcome this. All
strength parameters were determined on both satu-
rated (immersed overnight under vacuum) and
oven-dry (24 h at 105°C) specimens. A number of
35
cores were taken from each block to obtain repli-
cate readings; where sufficient material was avail-
able tests were repeated until a 95% confidence
interval of ~<5% of the mean value was obtained
(about l0 repeats).
As these tests were based on rock mechanics
methods, they were reliant upon obtaining cores
of intact rock, and, therefore, on collecting coher-
ent blocks of material from the field. For many
ignimbrites this latter requirement is unrealistic;
they consist of loose, incoherent clasts which
cannot be sampled in this way. This sampling
method thereby imposed a lower limit on the range
of materials which could be included in the labora-
tory analysis.
Bulk density and effective porosity were mea-
sured using saturation and caliper methods
(Franklin et al., 1981) on cores prepared for
strength testing. The grain density was measured
using a standard density bottle determination on
small samples of ground rock (as described by
Vickers, 1983), and the true porosity was calculated
from knowledge of the dry bulk density and grain
density. The slake durability index was measured
following ISRM suggested methods (Franklin
et al., 1981), and the second-cycle index used for
comparison with the classification chart of Gamble
as presented by Franklin et al. (1981).
Density and porosity
Density and porosity data are presented in
Table 1. It can be seen that the ignimbrites gen-
erally have high porosity, and correspondingly low
bulk density, compared with crystalline rocks.
However, the values presented span a wide range,
with effective porosities varying from 17 to 43%,
and associated wide variations in bulk density.
Such a large range of porosities is not uncommon
for ignimbrites (Marshall, 1935; Maloy and Lowe,
1945; Rippa and Vinale, 1983; Price, 1983; Price
et al., 1985; Hind, 1986), but it is notable in this
study that the entire range of variability is included
within one ignimbrite profile (the Whakamaru
Ignimbrite). This variation within the Whakamaru
Ignimbrite profile is indicative of the extreme
changes in material characteristics that may
be encountered over small distances within
ignimbrites.
36 v¢~ MOON

TABLE 1

Bulk rock properties of ignimbrite specimens studied

Dr/ represents the unconnected pore space as a percentage of the true porosity. Quoted errors in
density and effective porosity represent 95% confidence limits for the mean of replicate measure-
ments; errors in true porosity and Dr/are calculated from errors in contributing values

specimen bulk density grain density porosity

dry saturated effective true unconnected

/9dry Psat Og ~]eff ~lrue A~
(kg m -a) (kg m -a) (kg m -3) (%) (%) (%)

WHAKA/1 1212_+10 1644+10 2520+50 42_+2 51_+2 18_+6

WHAKA/2 2124+2 2290+2 2600+30 16.6-+0.1 18-+1 8+3
ONG/1 1300+30 1730-+20 2490-+30 43+1 48+1 10-+1
ONG/2 1580+20 1920+20 2540-+40 34_+ 1 38_+ 1 11 +3
ONG/3 1911+8 2112-+8 2470-+60 20_+1 23_+I 13+4
OWH/1 1580_+ 10 1822+8 2380+60 23.8+0.6 34_+ 1 29_+3
OWH/2 1928_+8 2067_+6 2320_+80 13.9+0.6 17_+ 1 18_+6

The differences between the true and effective
porosities (At/) are also noteworthy. In all cases
there is a significant proportion (up to 29% of the
total porosity) of the pore space within the rock
which is not connected to the pore system, or is
too small to be filled with water during saturation
under normal laboratory conditions.
Grain density values presented in Table 1 are all
consistent with the ignimbrites being a mixture of
predominantly felsic minerals (quartz and feldspar)
and glass. The variations apparent between the
specimens can largely be accounted for by differ-
ences in the relative proportions of glass and
crystals.
Strength
Table 2 presents strength data for the ignimbrites
studied. Compressive, tensile and shear strength
values for both saturated and oven-dry specimens
are presented, together with softening factors (ratio
of dry to saturated strength), and the ratio of
compressive to tensile strength. For the Owharoa
Ignimbrite, strengths in two directions are pre-
sented. Cores were prepared with their axes in
directions parallel to the minor axis of the elliptical
pumice clasts (vertical, V) and perpendicular to
the minor axis of the pumice clasts (horizontal, H).
Corresponding to the high porosity and low
bulk density of the materials, are very low to low
uniaxial compressive strength values in the classi-
fication of Deere and Miller (1966). Again, how-
ever, a very wide range of results can be seen, with
saturated compressive strengths ranging over two
orders of magnitude from 0.23 to 36 MN m -2,
and dry compressive strengths showing a similar
range. Like the porosity, it is possible for the
compressive strength to span almost the entire
measured range within one vertical section
(Whakamaru Ignimbrite).
The low strength of the materials is also reflected
in low tensile strength values, but it is notable that
a low compressive strength does not necessarily
imply a low tensile strength and vice versa. This is
highlighted by the ratios of compressive to tensile
strength given; the WHAKA/2 specimen which is
strong in compression is comparatively weak in
tension, and hence has a high value for the com-
pressive strength:tensile strength ratio. The ratios
given here range from 3.5 to 14.2 and tend to be
highest in the strongest specimens, and lowest in
the weakest specimens. This is in keeping with the
trends predicted by the Hoek and Brown (1980)
empirical failure criterion, though some values are
lower than may be expected (compare with approx-
imately 7 for carbonates, l0 for argillaceous rocks,
and 15 for arenaceous rocks), suggesting relatively
high tensile strengths with respect to the compres-
sive strength values.
Low values for cohesion are also apparent, but
GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF IGNIMBRITE: A SOFT PYROCLASTIC ROCK TYPE 37

TABLE 2

Strength data for ignimbrites studied

Values represent means and 95% confidence limits for replicate measurements

specimen compressive tensile strength cohesion friction

strength strength ratio angle
~ro ~rt ,ro/~, c,c' ¢,¢'
(MN m -2) (MN m -2) (MN m -2) (°)

WHAKA/1
oven-dry 0.73 + 0.07
saturated 0.23 + 0.01 0.06 + 0.01 35 + 3
softening factor 3.2 2.3
WnAgA/2
oven-dry 44 + 5 3.1 + 0.2 14.2 13 + 2 35 _ 2
saturated 26+3 1.9__.0.1 13.7 9.0+0.5 34___1
softening factor 1.7 1.6 1.4
ONG/1
oven-dry 4.7+0.7 1.3+0.4 3.6 1.6+0.5 33_+8
saturated 0.8__0.1 0.12_+0.03 6.7 0.19+0.09 38_+4
softening factor 5.9 10.8 8.4
ONG/2
oven-dry 14+2 3.4+0.2 4.1 7_+2 32___8
saturated 3.5_+0.2 1.0 + 0.1 3.5 2.1 -+0.8 31 -+8
softening factor 4.0 3.4 3.3
ONG/3
oven-dry 42-+4 4.2+0.4 10.0 7.8_+0.7 33_+3
saturated 19_+3 2.1_+0.7 9.0 3.4+0.4 33+2
softening factor 2.2 2.0 2.3
OWHll-V
oven-dry 26 ___3 3.8 -+0.2 6.8 0.8 -+0.1 27 -+4
saturated 17-+1 2.5-+0.3 6.8 0 . 3 5 - + 0 . 0 6 33-+3
softening factor 1.5 1.5 2.3
OWH/1-H
oven-dry 25 __+3 4.4 _+0.2 5.7 0.74 _+0.07 29 + 2
saturated 12_+1 2.7 + 0.2 4.4 0.42_+0.07 33 _+2
softening factor 2.0 1.6 1.8
OWHI2-V
oven-dry 45 ___6 7.1 -+0.7 6.3 1.3 -+0.6 34_+7
saturated 36+5 5.4+0.5 6.7 1.1_+0.2 31-+4
softening factor 1.3 1.3 1.2
OWHI2-H
oven-dry 54+4 6.8-+0.5 7.9 1.4-+0.3 33_+3
saturated 27 _+5 7_+2 3.9 0.8 _+0.2 34 + 3
softening factor 2.0 1.0 1.8

again the trends vary between different specimens,
a n d a low compressive strength does n o t always
c o r r e s p o n d to a low cohesion. This is particularly
m a r k e d in the O w h a r o a I g n i m b r i t e which has
c o m p a r a t i v e l y low cohesion despite its high com-
pressive strength. I n contrast, however, ignimbrites
have relatively high angles o f i n t e r n a l friction,
which are quite c o n s t a n t between the ignimbfites
studied, a n d show n o significant changes with
m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t (at 9 9 % confidence level).
I n Table 2 it is n o t a b l e that very high softening
factors are e n c o u n t e r e d in m a n y ignimbrites.
Softening factors o f 2 to 3 are the n o r m , with
values as high as 8 or 10 being seen for some
38
ignimbrites. These values show that many of the
materials are extremely susceptible to a loss of
strength on saturation; this is most pronounced in
the Ongatiti Ignimbrite for all forms of strength.
As the Ongatiti Ignimbrite specimens all drain
freely and rapidly under gravity, and have the
lowest overall proportion of unconnected pore
space, elevated pore water pressures during loading
are not believed to be a major contributor to this
loss of strength. This ignimbrite is the richest in
pumice clasts, suggesting that the pumices them-
selves undergo considerable softening on
saturation.
Despite the strongly foliate structure apparent
in outcrop in the Owharoa Ignimbrite, strength
anisotropy is not pronounced, with a maximum
ratio of vertical to horizontal strength of 1.4, and
average of 1.2. These comparatively small values
are also inconsistent in direction, for example, the
OWH/1 specimen has the highest compressive
strength in the vertical cores, whereas the OWH/2
specimen has the highest compressive strength in
the horizontal cores. Anisotropy is not, therefore,
b~lieved to be a major issue in the strength of
ignimbrites generally.
Hind (1986) reported a dry compressive strength
of 79 MN m -2 for an ignimbrite from Ruahihi in
New Zealand; other published values fall within
the same range of strengths as those measured in
this study (Maloy and Lowe, 1945 (ao = 8-47 MN
m-2); Rippa and Vinale, 1983 (a¢= 1-8 MN m-2);
Price, 1983; Price et al., 1985 (ac = 16 + 5 MN
m-2)). Data quoted by Maloy and Lowe (1945)
for ignimbrite show cohesion values of 3-14 MN
m -2, and Hind (1986) measured cohesion values
of 1.2-12.9 MN m -2, and associated friction
angles of 26o-35 °. These results are comparable
with those obtained for the ignimbrites in this
study.
Nature of failure
All specimens, in compressive, shear and tensile
strength tests, underwent considerable deformation"
before reaching their measured peak strength; mac-
roscopic cracks developed and extended through
the specimens, and flakes broke away. In no
instance was there a sudden, brittle failure. Such
V.G. MOON
irreversible deformation is the result of the soft,
porous nature of ignimbrites in general, and is
evidence of pore closure and fracture development.
Stress-strain curves, where available, showed all
of the components of a "typical" curve as described
by Farmer (1983) and Attewell and Farmer (1976),
as shown in Fig. 1. Initial deformation indicated
by a concave upwards curve represented irrecover-
able deformation with pore closure and specimen
compaction; a following steep and straight curve
indicated approximately elastic deformation
extending to about 80% of the peak stress. Beyond
this point a convex upward curve coincided with
obvious macroscopic crack formation, and the
cores underwent considerable deformation.
Generally a reasonably coherent core could be
retrieved after the peak stress had been exceeded;
if the loading ceased at this point, the deformation
(a) (b)
pumice
clast
ONG/3 - 1 - LC7 WHAKN2 - 1 - LC10
(d)
strain
ONG/2 - 1 - LC7
Fig. 1. Representative sketches o f failed uniaxial compressive
strength specimens. A cataclastic failure mode (as defined by
Hawkes and Mellor, 1970) was most commonly displayed (a
and b). Some Ongatiti ]gnimbfite specimens showed an axial
cleavage (Hawkes and Mellor, 1970) failure mode (c) with
vertical fractures evident. These fractures were clearly concen-
trated around and within pumice clasts. A typical stress-strain
curve is shown in (d) (after Farmer, 1983).
GEOTECHNICALCHARACTERISTICSOF IGNIMBRITE:A SOFT PYROCLASTICROCK TYPE 39

was halted, if continued loading was applied the TABLE 3

specimen continued to deform. This behaviour is
characteristic of weaker materials (Attewell and
Farmer, 1976).
Representative sketches of failed cores are given
in Fig. 1. Most specimens displayed a failure mode
classified as cataclastic in the scheme of Hawkes
and Mellor (1970); cones representing the area of
compression related to the frictional end effects
were left at each end of the specimens, and flakes
peeled away from the core sides in tensile failure.
This failure mode was most pronounced in the
strongest ignimbrites. Other specimens failed by
means of approximately vertical cracks extending
through the cores; the axial cleavage failure mode
of Hawkes and Mellor (1970).
Crystals and pumice clasts clearly provide zones
of crack concentration. These features represent
areas of contrasting elastic modulus to the ground-
mass, and hence zones of stress concentration
(Farmer, 1983); cracks will tend to initiate at, and
propagate away from, such areas (Pollard and
Aydin, 1988). In the case of crystals, the cracks
concentrate around the margins, for pumice clasts
the cracks propagate both around and through the
soft clasts. This contrasts slightly with the findings
of Rippa and Vinale (1983) who observed cracks
around, but not within, pumice clasts.
Slake durability
The slake durability index assesses the tendency
of the material to disintegrate when subjected to
repeated cycles of wetting and drying. Low slake
durability indicates that a specimen breaks down
readily, and this behaviour is often associated with
the presence of active clay minerals, such as mont-
morillonite or mixed-layer clay species (Bell and
Pettinga, 1984). However, Beavis (1985) noted that
difficulty often arises in interpreting slake durabil-
ity data, as they contain components of both
simple slaking through wetting and drying, and
mechanical abrasion which occurs during rotation
of the cage of the slake durability apparatus.
A feature of Table 3 is the very wide range of
slake durability index values exhibited by ignim-
brites. Many remain essentially unaffected by the
Second-cycle slake durability indices for the ignimbrites studied
Values represent means and 95% confidence limits; the classifi-
cation follows that of Gamble as presented by Franklin et al.
(1981)
specimen second-cycle classification
slake durability
index, Id2
(%)
WHAKA/1 30 + 5 very low
WHAKA/2 98.8 ___0.4 very high
ONG/1 73 + 2 medium
ONG/2 90 + 1 medium high
ONG/3 98 + 1 very high
OWH/1 97.9 _ 0.8 high
OWH/2 99.3 ___0.4 very high
slake durability test (Id2 ~ 90%), whereas others
break down almost completely (Id2 ~< 30%). Hind
(1986) observed this dichotomy in results, and
reported even lower values ofld2 ~< 15% for some
of the ignimbrites he studied.
As the ignimbrites studied do not contain sig-
nificant quantities of expandable clays, mechanical
abrasion during the test procedure is believed to
have dominated the results. The WHAKA/1 speci-
men showed a tendency to break down in water
during saturation in the vacuum bath, however
measurements of the weight loss by this mechanism
alone showed an approximately 5% loss in one
period of saturation, or an expected 10% loss over
two slaking cycles. This contrasts with the approxi-
mately 70% loss measured in the slake durability
test, suggesting that as much as 60% of the original
mass was lost through mechanical abrasion. It is
suggested that this proportion (90% of total loss
due to mechanical effects) also applies to the other
specimens for which loss of material on saturation
alone was insignificant.
Assuming that mechanical breakdown is of
greater importance than slaking, this means that
the slake durability test provides a ready indication
of the degree of induration of the ignimbrites; well
indurated specimens remain virtually intact when
subjected to a weak slaking process, poorly indu-
40
rated specimens undergo almost complete
breakdown.
Jointing
The primary jointing features in ignimbrites are
tension fractures formed during cooling and com-
paction of the mass. Such jointing patterns are
common in igneous rock bodies, and are character-
ised by columns with large aspect ratios
(length:diameter) and polygonal cross-section (De
Graft and Aydin, 1987). These joints form perpen-
dicular to the cooling surface (De Graft and Aydin,
1987; Aydin and DeGraff, 1988), which is usually
horizontal as ignimbrites tend to pool in valleys
(Walker et al., 1981). Consequently, columnar
jointing is generally vertical in ignimbrites.
However, classical columnar jointing as
described by De Graffand Aydin (1987) and Aydin
and DeGraff (1988), and shown for ignimbrites by
Fisher and Schmincke (1984), Cas and Wright
(1987) and Selby et al. (1988), is surprisingly rare
in New Zealand ignimbrites. Such jointing consists
ot" sharp, unique joints with distinct angular
changes at the intersections of the joint planes (De
Graft and Aydin, 1987). Typical columnar jointing
in ignimbrites is comprised of very wide (3-5 m),
somewhat irregular columns (Fig. 2), in which the
intersection between individual joint planes is often
indistinct due to considerable curvature of the
planes. Rather than being bounded by single,
unique joints, the edges of the columns tend to be
marked by narrow (< 100 mm) zones of several
very closely spaced joints; preferential erosion
along these joint zones leaves the columns out-
standing. The joints are all open and persistent,
always terminating at another joint, or curving
across the top of the columns to form a domed
top (Fig. 2).
The other common situation is for the jointing
to be so widely spaced that the materials are best
treated as non-jointed for practical purposes,
although some, approximately vertical joints may
exist (Fig. 3). In general these joints occur in
groups spaced 1-2 m apart separating truly non-
jointed zones of up to 15 m width. The joints
commonly show considerable curvature and are
persistent over long distances ( i> 20 m). Unlike the
V.G. MOON
columnar joints however, individual joints in this
material are closed, with ~<0.5mm aperture. A
material is classified as non-jointed where the
exposure length is too short to define the joint
spacing and pattern (mean spacing >/10 m).
Many ignimbrites have horizontal joints super-
imposed on the columnar jointing pattern (Fig. 2);
occasionally these are sufficiently well developed
that they split the material into a blocky structure.
Within a blocky zone, the joints have the same
characteristics of persistence and aperture as the
columnar jointing.
Finally, a form of jointing particularly well
developed at the base of the Whakamaru
Ignimbrite is described here as complex jointing
(Fig. 4). In this zone an essentially vertical jointing
pattern exists, but the joints are curved along both
horizontal and vertical axes and are more closely
spaced than their columnar counterparts. They
thus form complex joint blocks, often developing
a tabular form, with large, vertical plates running
parallel to eroded cliff faces (Fig. 4). Again, the
joints are open and persistent, always terminating
against another joint. This complex jointing
pattern is believed to represent either rheomorph-
ism (secondary flowage) of the ignimbrite during
cooling, such as has been described by Chapin and
Lowell (1979), Wolff and Wright (1981) and
Armstrong et al. (1986), or, more likely for the
Whakamaru Ignimbrite, cooling towards a com-
plex cooling surface following emplacement in, in
this case, a deep, narrow valley (Briggs, 1973,
1975). Hence, the jointing pattern is influenced by
cooling towards the valley sides as well as the top
of the ignimbrite deposit. However, the predomi-
nance of vertical joints indicates that cooling
towards the top surface is still dominant, as con-
cluded by De Graft and Aydin (1987) and Aydin
and DeGraff (1988) for basalt flows.
Jointing at study sites
Jointing patterns at the study sites are summa-
rised in Table 4. The Whakamaru Ignimbrite sec-
tion exposed at Maraetai shows a wide variety of
jointing. At the base (WHAKA/2) is a zone of
complex, curved joints (Fig. 4), whilst the upper
material (WHAKA/1) is non-jointed (Fig. 3).
GEOTECHNICALCHARACTERISTICSOF IGNIMBRITE:A SOFI"PYROCLASTICROCKTYPE 41

Fig. 2. Typical columnar jointing pattern displayed by many New Zealand ignimbrites (Ongatiti Ignimbrite, Hinuera Gap). Open,
widely spaced, curved joints define very large, curved columns. These extend through the entire exposed profile. Note the distinctive
horizontal break approximately half-way down the profile.

Fig. 3. Non-jointed ignimbrite, Maraetai. Tightly closed, approximately vertical joints occur in this material, generally ~in groups of
several joints spaced 1-2 m apart, separating truly non-jointed zones of up to 15 m width. For practical purposes this material is
best treated as non-jointed,

Between these extremes the section has a narrow
zone of blocky jointing, and an extensive zone of
wide, columnar joints. The change from complex
jointing to a widely spaced, blocky pattern occurs
quite abruptly in a vertical section. Above the
blocky zone, complex jointing continues, with the
joint patterns becoming more regular towards the
top of the section, gradually becoming recognisa-
bly columnar. The columnar jointed zone is only
very poorly exposed, due to dense vegetation, but
42 ,/cj MO0~

can be assumed to make up a significant portion

ii~!!i~iiil of the section. The exposures which do exist consist
of two or three very widely spaced columns
together left as individual outcrops; they are inac-
cessible in all cases.
The Ongatiti Ignimbrite provides a typical exam-
i~ ~i
ple of very widely spaced columnar jointing in
ignimbrite. A distinctive, horizontal break occurs
approximately half-way down the section (Fig. 2).
Little exposure exists of the Owharoa Ignimbrite.
The lower Owharoa Ignimbrite site (OWH/2)
shows a moderately spaced columnar jointing
pattern. The upper site (OWH/1) has both vertical
and horizontal joints, suggesting that it is similar
to the blocky zone of the profile at Maraetai.
Exposure is insufficient to properly describe the
jointing at this upper site.

Geotechnical classification

Possibly the most significant geotechnical prop-

erty of ignimbrites on which to base a classification
of the materials is the slake durability index. The
marked dichotomy in response to a weak slaking
process allows a ready subdivision of the materials
Fig. 4. Complex jointing, Whakamaru Ignimbrite, Maraetai. into two principal groups: non-durable ignimbrites
Open, continuous,essentiallyverticaljoints dominate, but show (Id2 ~<30%), and durable ignimbrites (Id2 ~ 90%).
considerable curvature along both verticaland horizontal axes. Based on the data described in this paper, the
The joint spacing is moderate (approximately 0.5 m) in the
direction perpendicular to the face, but extremelywide in the ranges of geotechnical properties associated with
direction parallel to the face, splitting the rock mass into a these groups are given in Table 5; for most proper-
series of large, curved plates. ties the ignimbrites fall into two distinct groups,
with no overlap between the ranges given for the
two groups. With few exceptions, the available
published data fit clearly into these two categories
TABLE 4 (Maloy and Lowe, 1945; Price, 1983; Rippa and
Vinale, 1983; Price et al., 1985; Hind, 1986; Nappi
Jointing characteristics of the ignimbrites at the sampling sites and Ottaviani, 1986).
Joint block shapes are described using the classification terms Although an apparently arbitrary distinction,
defined in this paper, joint spacings are described followingthe this classification provides a ready differentiation
terminology of Barton et al. (1981) between ignimbrites which respond to stress in a
specimen joint block shape averagespacing way generally associated with "normal" rocks
(durable ignimbrites), and those non-durable
WHAKA/1 non-jointed extremelywide ( > 6 m) ignimbrites which behave as "soft rocks" - - mate-
WHAKA/2 complex moderate (0.2-0.6 m)
ONG/1 columnar very wide (2-6 m) rials which exhibit many properties transitional
ONG/2 columnar very wide (2-6 m) between engineering rocks and soils (Johnston,
ONG/3 columnar very wide (2-6 m) 1992). For engineering and slope stability purposes
OWH/1 ? blocky ? moderate (0.2-0.6 m) recognising this distinction is critical for the predic-
OWH/2 columnar moderate (0.2-0.6 m)
tion of material behaviour.
GEOTECHN1CAL CHARACTERISTICS OF IGNIMBRITE: A SOFT PYROCLASTIC ROCK TYPE 43

TABLE 5

Geotechnical classification of ignimbrites based on second-cycle slake durability index with

approximate ranges for other properties. Ignimbrites falling into the non-durable category
behave as soft rocks where the intact rock properties are an important control on
engineering behaviour; highly durable ignimbrites generally have extensive joint systems,
making the rock mass properties of prime importance

Non-durable ignimbrites Highly-durable

ignimbrites

slake durability
Id2 ~<30% ~>90%
density and porosity
Pdry ~<1300 kg m - 3 >/1500 kg m - 3
P~at ~<1700 kg m - 3 /> 1800 kg m - 3
~eff >/40% ~<35%
~hru~ /> 50% ~<40%
compressive strength
O'¢,dry 4 5 M N m -2 >/15 M N m -2
at,s, t ~<2.5 M N m -2 />10 M N m -2
O'c,soft >3 ~<3
tensile strength
at,dry >_-3 M N m -2
at,~ t /> 1 M N m -2
O't,soft ~2
shear strength
c ~<1 M N m -2 ~ > 6 M N m -2
c' ~<0.1 M N m -2 />2 M N m -2
csoft /> 2 ~<3
~b,cp' 27-38 ° 27-38 °
jointing non-jointed very to extremely
(spacing 1> 10 m) wide columnar with
blocky or complex variants
engineering problems sensitive materials, high cleft water
piping, and pressures in
gully erosion jointed rock mass

Non-durable ignimbrites thermal stresses during cooling are released by

Non-durable ignimbrites are those which break
down under a weak slaking process (Id2~<30%).
They are typically low density (Pdry~<1300kg
m - a ) , highly porous ignimbrites (r/efr~>40%), are
very weak in compression (ac,dry~<5 MN m-2),
and undergo considerable plastic deformation
prior to failure. Softening factors are not strictly
related to the durability classification as they tend
to vary between individual ignimbrites, but in
general the non-durable ignimbrites also undergo
the most softening on saturation (softening
factors/> 3).
In the field these ignimbrites are non-jointed, as
plastic deformation rather than brittle failure, so
joint development is minimal. Intact rock charac-
teristics are thus an important control on slope
stability and engineering behaviour, and the mate-
rials typically behave as very stiff soils which derive
the bulk of their strength from frictional effects
between groundmass glass shards.
The relatively high cohesion (compared with
weathered soils), and the very high angles of
internal friction means that these materials can
maintain steep slopes for long periods of time
(almost vertical artificial cuttings of greater than
40 years age still maintain their initial form with
no apparent failure). Observed failures in this
44
material exhibit straight failure planes and gen-
erally involve only small amounts of material; no
rotational failures have been observed. Therefore,
to model the slope stability of the WHAKA/1
ignimbrite, two types of failure are considered:
tensional failure of steep slopes, which is modelled
using a Culmann Wedge analysis (Carson, 1971),
and shallow translational failure (shear failure) of
less steep slopes, which is modelled using an infinite
slope analysis (Lambe and Whitman, 1979).
A Culmann Wedge analysis (Fig. 5) for steep
slopes suggests that the saturated ignimbrite can
maintain vertical slopes of up to 14 m in height
(assuming tension cracks are developed to their
maximum theoretical depth). The maximum stable
height rapidly increases as the slope angle decreases
or tension crack depth decreases. Values obtained
from an infinite slope analysis (assuming F = 1 and
re-arranging to solve for critical slope height),
show a minimum critical height of 10 m for
saturated ignimbrite at a slope angle of 50 ° (Fig. 5).
Thus, a combination of the two mechanisms (ten-
sion and shear failure) suggests that steep, stable
slopes of/> 10 m can readily be supported in these
non-durable ignimbrites. Indeed, natural slopes in
these materials are steep, and maintain a steep
profile as they erode, though gully erosion may be
a problem (Yamanouchi et al., 1981).
Conversely, however, past engineering experi-
120 \ elasticity under an applied load, and most closely
I00
max. 80
height
O/ I I I I t I I I I I
20 30 40 50 60 70
slope angle (o)
m Culmann wedge -- I n f i n i t e
Fig. 5. S l o ~ stability analysis ~ r slopes in non-durable
WHAKA/1 ignimbrite.
V.G. MOON
ence on similar materials suggests that these non-
durable ignimbrites may be susceptible to loss of
strength caused by structural changes or elevated
pore water pressures, resulting in sensitive and
dispersive behaviour. The failure of the Ruahihi
headrace canal was contributed to by seepage of
canal water into non-durable ignimbrite, which
resulted in piping of this material, elevated pore
water pressures in the non-durable ignimbrite and
adjacent artificial fill, and eventual rapid break-
down of the ignimbrite structure with associated
loss of strength (sensitivity); these characteristics
of the material led to major slope failure
(Anonymous, 1982). Likewise, piping in non-
durable ignimbrites is seen as an important prob-
lem in these materials for engineering purposes in
Japan, especially where they overlie jointed, dura-
ble ignimbrites (Okamoto et al., 1981), and piping
of non-durable ignimbrites and associated pyro-
clastic fall deposits lying above a jointed, durable
ignimbrite, assisted in the development of major
leakage into the foundation rocks of the Wheao
Power scheme (Anonymous, 1983).
Durable ignimbrites
At the other extreme are ignimbrites which are
highly resistant to slaking (Id2/>90%). These
ignimbrites have high bulk densities (Pdry>~1500 kg
m-3), low porosities (~eff~35%), and high
strength (trc.dry/> 15 MN m-2). They exhibit some
approach a brittle failure. Softening factors for
strength tend, in general, to be lower than those
for the non-durable ignimbrites (43). The high
strength and brittle nature of these materials mean
that they develop extensive systems of open, con-
tinuous joints during cooling. Their engineering
behaviour is thus dominated by the jointing, giving
them properties most akin to "normal" rocks in
an engineering sense, and making rock mass char-
t r ~ acteristics of prime importance in terms of slope
80 90 stability and engineering behaviour.
The most common jointing pattern is the very
widely spaced, vertical columnar jointing described
slope previously, though blocky and complex variants
may also exist. Overall, the most important aspect
of the jointing is the tendency for approximately
GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF IGNIMBRITE: A SOFT PYROCLASTIC ROCK TYPE
vertical joint planes to predominate. As a result,
in these durable ignimbrites, precipitous faces and
narrow gorges represent the normal slope patterns
as the materials erode by failure of jointed blocks;
dominantly vertical jointing thus results in steep
faces. The very wide joint spacing typical of the
columnar jointing zone, in particular, produces
large blocks which are insensitive to breakdown
by the action of water (high slake durability), and
these may accumulate as coarse talus at the base
of the slopes.
Engineering applications of these materials must
recognise the open, continuous nature of the
jointing, together with the deformable nature of
both the intact rock and the rock mass.
Considerable deformation of the country around
the Maraetai Dam, for example, was noted by
James (1955) following the installation of a grout
curtain; this was attributed primarily to closure of
the joint apertures (James, 1955). The Arapuni
Dam suffered a near toppling failure of a large
joint block, upon which the powerhouse was
founded, following an increase in cleft water pres-
sure along an open joint plane (Hornell and
Werner, 1930; Marshall, 1930), and more recently,
the collapse of the headrace canal of the Wheao
power scheme occurred after water was allowed to
leak into a jointed rock mass (Anonymous, 1983).
Likewise, seepage due to high permeabilities in
jointed, durable ignimbrites is quoted as an impor-
tant problem in these materials for engineering
purposes in Japan (Iida et al., 1981; Okamoto
et al., 1981).
Ignimbrites with intermediate characteristics
A few ignimbrites cannot be readily classified as
durable or non-durable materials on the basis of
the classification given here. This may either be
due to their properties being intermediate to the
ranges given, or because they have some properties
appropriate for each range and hence do not
clearly fall into either category. The ignimbrites
that cannot be readily classified appear to have
undergone some unusual post-depositional alter-
ation processes which have changed their mechan-
ical behaviour.
45
The most notable example is the ONG/1
specimen from this study which has a slake
durability index of 73%, and has many other
properties intermediate to the ranges of durable
and non-durable ignimbrites. Notably, however,
the compressive strength, dry bulk density, and
effective porosity values do fall into the non-
durable range. In this case, unusual welding
(Moon, 1989) is believed to have produced a
more durable and brittle structure than is
common, and led to joint development similar to
that of a durable ignimbrite. The field expression
is controlled by the rock mass characteristics, but
the low strength and high porosity indicate
potential problems if the material were to be used
as a load-bearing material.
The Waimakariri Ignimbrite described by Hind
(1986) and Selby et al. (1988) shows all characteris-
tics indicative of a non-durable ignimbrite, except
for the slake durability index of 93%. Localised
case hardening of the outer surfaces of this ignim-
brite by silica deposition (Hind, 1986) has resulted
in a zone of very durable material which allows
the jointing pattern to be accentuated in the field
expression. However, inside this zone is weak, non-
durable ignimbrite which may be expected to
behave very poorly if subjected to stress or exposed
to the environment by removal of the case-
hardened shell. Similarly, some of the ignimbrites
described by Rippa and Vinale (1983) have
strengths somewhat greater than the ranges of
non-durable ignimbrites. In this case the increased
induration is attributed to zeolite deposition. It is
notable that this may be incomplete, or localised
with a central core of zeolitized material sur-
rounded by loose ignimbrite (Rippa and Vinale,
1983).
Consequently, special consideration must be
given to ignimbrites which do not readily fall into
one of the two main categories. In particular, one
or two critical properties, especially the slake dura-
bility, may allow the field expression and slope
development of the materials to indicate a highly
durable ignimbrite, but if subjected to a change in
the stress or groundwater conditions the materials
may well behave as non-durable ignimbrites with
very low strength. Localised hardening must also
46
be considered when anomalously high durability
and strength measurements are obtained.
Prediction of ignimbrite behaviour
As the original basis for the classification, the
second-cycle slake durability provides an excellent
index property which allows classification of ignim-
brite materials. This test can be readily undertaken
with minimal material and very simple laboratory
equipment, and in almost all cases it gives a good
indication of whether the materials behave as stiff
engineering soils which may show sensitive and
dispersive behaviour, or whether they can be
treated as weak, jointed rocks in an engineering
sense. Borehole specimens or material from areas
of limited exposure are easily tested for slake
durability.
For the few specimens discussed above where
the slake durability did not readily indicate the
overall poor engineering response of the materials,
the porosity did indicate that the ignimbrites fell
into the non-durable category. Hence, the effective
porosity in conjunction with the slake durability
provides a reliable means of classifying the materi-
als. This test (from saturation methods described
by Franklin et al., 1981) can also be simply carried
out using a minimal quantity of material and with
little specimen preparation.
Two common index tests, the Schmidt hammer
rebound and the ultrasonic wave velocity in intact
rock, proved unsuitable as means of classifying
ignimbrites using the above scheme or predicting
other geomechanical properties. The Schmidt
hammer is insensitive to the strength variations
encountered in these ignimbrites, giving a very
small range of values despite the enormous range
of strengths present. Ultrasonic wave velocity is
difficult to determine due to high attenuation, and
hence low received signal strength, in these porous
materials, and variations in the data between
different ignimbrite sheets exceeded the influence
of measured geomechanical properties on the
wave velocity.
Conclusions
Ignimbrites are characteristically weak rocks
under all forms of stress, but the strengths vary
v.(J. MOON
over a wide range due to the genesis of the
materials. This range extends across the boundaries
traditionally associated with engineering soils and
rocks, thus many ignimbrites fall into the category
of soft rocks--materials which show properties
transitional between those of soils and rocks.
Second-cycle slake durability index data show a
remarkable dichotomy, with some ignimbrites
remaining almost completely intact, whilst others
undergo almost total breakdown. This provides a
ready means of classifying the geotechnical proper-
ties of ignimbrites into durable and non-durable
ignimbrites. This classification provides a clear
distinction between ignimbrites which respond to
stress as "normal" rocks (durable ignimbrites) and
for which the jointing, or mass characteristics,
provide the principal control over engineering
behaviour, and "soft" rocks (non-durable ignim-
brites), for which the intact rock characteristics
are of the greatest concern. Recognition of this
distinction is critical for any engineering
application.
Durable ignimbrites characteristically have sys-
tems of open, continuous, vertical joints. Access
of groundwater into the rock mass is thus an
important engineering consideration, as the materi-
als may develop high cleft water pressures; histori-
cal failures of structures founded in these
ignimbrites have been largely attributable to this
mechanism. Non-durable ignimbrites are subject
to rapid breakdown of the structure when sub-
jected to changes in the moisture regime or to
weak applied loads. These ignimbrites may thus
behave sensitively and are susceptible to gully
erosion on exposed slopes or piping within the
rock material, leading to major failures if
uncontrolled.
The slake durability index provides the best
indicator of the overall material behaviour for
ignimbrites. However, some materials which have
undergone case-hardening or other localised indu-
ration processes will give spurious results, so the
effective porosity should be used in conjunction
with the slake durability to classify the materials.
These two tests can both be undertaken with a
minimum quantity of specimen, and with simple
laboratory apparatus.
GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF IGNIMBRITE: A SOFT PYROCLASTIC ROCK TYPE
Acknowledgments
The Civil Engineering Department, Monash
University, Australia provided facilities for the
preparation of the manuscript of this paper.
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