95 RATE OF DR Y IN G CURVES

9.SA · Introduction and Exper imental Methods

1. I ntrod uct ion. In the d ry i n g of various ty pes of process m ater ials from one moist u re
con ten t t o another, it is us u ally desired to estim ate t he size of dryer needed, t he various
operatin g cond itions of hu mid ity and temperatu re for t he air used, and t he t ime needed
to perfor m t h e amou nt of d r yin g required. As discu ssed in Section 9.4, equ ilibriu m
moistu re co n ten ts of various materials can n ot be p red i cted and m ust be det erm in ed
j;
ex perimen t ally. Sim i larly, since ou r k n owledge of the bas ic mecha n isms of ra t es of dry i n g I·

is q ui te in comple te, it is n ecessary in m ost cases t o obta i n some experimen tal meas u re-
me n ts of dryin g ra tes.

2. E xpe r imental determina tion of rat of d ryi ng . . To expe rimen t al ly determine the rate of
d rying for a given material, a sam ple is usu ally pl aced on a tray. If it is a solid material i t
sh ou ld fill t he t ray so t ha t on l y t he top su rface is ex posed t o the d r y i ng ai r stream. By
suspen di n g the t ray from a ba l an ce i n a cabinet or d u ct t h rou gh wh ich t he ai r is flowing,
the loss i n wei gh t of m oistu re d u ri n g dry i n.g can be determ i ned at di ffer en t i n tervals
wi t h ou t i n t.erru pt i n g the peration._ / . .
In doing ba t ch-dryin g expe rim en ts, c;er ta1n precau t i on s shou ld be obs er ved t o
obt ai n usable data u n der conditions t h a t closely resembl e those t o be u sed i n t h e
la rge-scale operati on s. Th e sample shoul d n ot be too small i n wei ght and shou l d be r
su pp or ted in a tray or fr am e similar t o t he l arge-scale on e. The ratio of drying t o 1•
·
n ond ry i n g su rface (insti l ated s u rface) and t he bed dep t h shou ld be si m i l ar. The vel ocit y, I
1
I
h u m i di ty , temperatu re, and__ di rection of the ai r sh ou ld be the sam e an d cons tan t to 11·
l
sim u late d r y i n g u nder- constan t d ry i n g conditions.
l
I

'
'•
!
••
9.SB Rate of Dry in g Curves for Const a n t -Drying Cond i tions 'I
t
!

1. Conversio11 of d a t a t o rat e-of -dryin g cur ve . Data obtain ed f r om a batch-d ry i n g ex -

pe r i men t arc usu al ly obt a i n ed as W total w ei gl1t of th e wet soli d (d ry solid pl us moist u re)
at d i fferen t times t h ou rs i n t he d ryin g peri od . Th ese data can be con ver ted to rate-of-
dry i ng da t a in t he follow i n g \V ays. First, t he d at a a re reca lcu l ated. I f W is t he weigh t of
t l1e \Ve t sol i d i n k g t ot al w a ter pl u s dry sol i d a nd W5 is t h e wei gh t of t he d r y solid i n k g,
l.
x === W - W5 k g tot al w ate r Ib t ot al water
-
- (9.5-1)
' W5 k g d r y solid l b d ry solid

For t h e given co n st a n t d ryi n g cond i t i ons, th e eq u ilibri um m oist u re conten t X * k g

eq u i l i bri u m m oist u r e/k g d ry soli d is det er m i ned. Then th e free m oist u re con ten t X i n k g
free w at er/k g d ry soli d is cal cu l ated for each v al u e of X ,.

X = X t -X * (9.5-2)
Usi n g t h·e d··a t a calculated from Eq . (9.5-2), a pl ot of free moist u re con ten t X ve rsu s
t i m e t in h is made as i n Fig. 9.5- l a. To obt ai n t h e ra t e-of-d ryi ng cur v e fr om t h is pl ot, th e
slopes of t l1e t an gen ts draw n t o t h e curve in Fig. 9.5- l a can be m easu red , w hi ch give
v al u es of d X / d t at gi ve n values of t .The ra te R is calcu lat ed for each poi n t by
L 5 dX
R = - -- (95-3)
A dt
 28
1 Pa p er , n t!wsp rin t
2 W ool , worst ed
3 N itrocell u lose
24 4 Silk
"'. .C.....J.. 5 Lea th er , tan n ed
--4
0
Cll
6 Ka olin
0 >o 7 Tobacco leaf
::r:: "'CJ
"-t 8 Soa p
20 9 G l u e, h id e
bO bO
10 W ood
0
0
11 G lass wo ol
12 Cott o n
..... ...............
16
- .
c
Q)

c
0
{.)

'
"-t 1·2
Q)

c'j
"

E
·-::J
1-4
8

-·
.........
. ::J

',
'
i
i '
:

-cr'
u.:i
4
.;•"
·
·;
·i

.
·:
-
D

6
'
! 11
'

20 40 60 80 100
R e lat ive J1umid i t y (%)
FIGURE 9.4-1. T vpi ctil eqi1ilibr iurr1 rnoist ure cont ent s of so1ne sol ids at ap pro 'C imci t ely
298 K ( 25°C). [ F"ro1n N a t ional R esearcJi Council , l nt erna ,ion a l Cr it i-
ca l Tabl es, Vol. 11. 1V e'tv Y ork : lvf cGraw- fl ill Book Cornpa ny, 1929.
R epr ocl uced rvit l1 per111 issio11 oj.c l1e N czt ional A ca demy of S ciences.]

\v l1(1t \\:i t l1 a n i n crease i n t em pe r ,1tu r e. Fo r ex am p l e, fo r ra\V cot t on a t a rel at i ve h u m i d i t y

of 50'/c) , t h e eq t1i l i b ri u m moist t1r e con ter1t decrea sed fr on17.3 k g l-12 0/ 100 k g d ry solid a t
37.s c (3 1 1 K) t o a bo u t 5.3 at 93.3°C {366.5 K), a d ecrease of abou t 25°/o . Of t en for
. rn odcr a te t cm pera t t1r e ra n ges, t h e eq u i l i b r i u m rn oist u re con ten t \V ill be assu med const an t
,.;_ \v l1en ex pe ri men t al d a t a are n ot ava i l abl e a t d i fferen t tempe r at u res.
_,'

A t p resen t, t h eoret i ca l u n derstan d i n g of t h e st r uct u re of solids and su rf e ph en o-

rnen ;:i d oes n ot ena bl e u s t o pred ict t l1e v a r i a t ion of equ i l i b r i t1m m oistu re con t en t of
v a ri ou s n1c1ter i als from firs t p r i nci pl es. H owev e r by u sin g n1od els st1ch as t h ose u sed for
ad sor pt i on i so t h er ms of m u l t i l ay ers of m olecu les a n d ot h ers, at tem p ts h ave bee n made t o
cor rel a t e ex pe r i n1en t al d at a. H en de rso n (H 2) gi \ es an empi rical rel a t i on shi p bet ""'ee n
1

eq u i l i b ri t1m m oi s _ u re cori ten t a n d pe rcen t rel at i \ e h u m i d i t y fo r some agr icu l t u r al mat er i -

a l s. I n gen era l, em p i rical rel at ion sh i ps a re n ot ava i la bl e for most mate r i als, a n d eq u i li b-
r i t1m moist u re con t en t s m u st be deter m i ned ex peri men t a ll y. A lso, equ il i b r i u m moist u re
rel a t i on sh i ps often va r y f r om sam pl e to sam pl e of t h e sa m e k i nd of materia l.

9.4C Bo u n d an d U n bou nd W a ter in Solids

111 Fig. 9.4- l , i f t h e eq u i l i bri u m m oi st u re con t en t of a give n ma t eri al is con t i n u ed t o i ts

i n t ersect ion w i t h t h e 1oocyo h u1n id i t y l i ne., t h e m oist u re is called bound wat er. Th is wat er
 +-'
t::
0
+-'
t:: 15
0
{.)
"-4 ·- -0
0

o tll

:r: -
('4 1-c

E
-0
o.o 0.0
10

·-; ::l
"-4
.D
0
0
...................,. ,,
·-
:.::1
;::l 5
r..tJ

00 . 20· 40 60 80 100
Relative h u m id ity (%)
FIGURE 9.4-2. Ty pica l equilibrium moisture cont ents of some food materials at ap-
p roximat ely 298 K ( 25;;C) : (1) macaroni, ( 2) .fiour, (3) bread ,"( 4) crack-
ers, (5) eg g albumin. [ Curv e (5) from ref (E1) . Curves (1) to (4) from
N ational Research Council, I nterna t ional Crit ical T ables, Vol. I I.
N ew Y ork : M cGraw-H ill Book Compa ny, 1929. R eprod uced w it h
per mission of t he N at ional Acad emy of Sciences.]

i n t he solid exerts a va por pressu re less than t h at of liqu id wa t er at t he sam e tem perat u re.
If su ch a materi al con t ains m ore water t h an i n dicated by i n tersect io n w i t h the 100°/o
h u m i d i ty line, i t can st ill exer t only a va p or pressu re as h i gh as th at of ord i nary wa ter at
t he same tem pe rat u re. Thi s ex cess moist u re con te n t i s cal led u1z boi1nd water, an d i t is hel d
pr i mari l y i n t h e voids of t he solid . Su bs t ances con t ai ni n g bou n d wa ter are of t en called
l1_vf 1roscop ic mat erials. ··
A s an exampl e, consider cu r v e 10 for wo od i n Fig. 9.4- 1. Th is i n tersects t h e cur ve for
1 00°10 h um i di t y a t a bou t 30 k g H 2 0/ 100 k g dry sol id.. A n y sam pl e of wood con t ai n i n g
less t h an 30 k g H 2 0/100 k g d r y soli d con t ai ns only bo u nd wa ter. I f t h e \voo d sam pl e t v•
con tai n ed 34 k g I-1 2 0/ 100 k g d ry solid, 4 k g H 2 0 w ou ld be u n bou nd an d 30 k g H2 0 lt
bo u nd per 100 kg dry soli d . )[

Th e bou nd \V at er i n a su bst an ce may ex ist u nder sev er al di ffere 11t cond i t ions. 1t

I
!'v1oist u r e i n cell or fi ber \V al ls m ay h av e sol i ds dissolve d i n i t and ha ve a l ower v apo r
!
I
<
i
pressu r e. Li q u i d w at er in capi l l ar i es of ver y sma l l diamet er w i ll exert a l owe red va po r )-
l p ressu re becau se of t he con cave cu rva t u re of t he sur face. Water i n n at ural or gan ic of
l
•t m at erials is i n chemical an d physical-<:h em i cal com bi n at i on . )[
•
[0

I 9.40 Free and Equi l i br i u m l\'loisture of a Su bst ance .

.. ·1-
I
I Free m oist u re con t en t i n a sample is t he m oist u re a bo ve t h e equ i l i br i u m moist u r e b-
co n ten t. Th is free moist u re is t h e moist u re t h at can be removed by d r y i n g u n der t h e gi v en re
pe rcen t rel at i ve h u mid ity. For ex ample, i n Fig. 9.4- 1 si l k has an eq u i l i br i um m oist u re
con ten t of 8.5 k g H 2 0/ 100 k g d r y mat er i al in con t act wit h air of 50°10 rela t iv e h u midi t y
an d 15°C. I f a sam ple co n t ai ns 10 kg H 2 0/100 k g d ry materi al, on ly 10.0 - 8.5, or 1.5, k g
H 2 0/ 100 k g dry ma t er ial is r em ova ble by dr y i n g, and th is is t he free m oist u r e of t h e
sam p l e u n der these d r ying con d i t i ons. ts
In ma ny tex ts an d refere n ces, th e moist u re con t en t is gi ven as perce n t mo ist u re on a er
d r y basis. Thi s is ex act ly t h e same as the k g H 2 0/100 k g dry mater ial m u lt ipl ied by 100.

S ec. 9 .4 Eq1Jilibrium M oistLJ re Co1z t e1zt of M atericils 535

95 R ATE OF DR Y I N G CURVES

9.SA · Introduction and Exper imen tal Methods

J . I ntrod uct ion. In the dryin g of v arious types of process m aterials fra m one moist u re
con ten t to an ot her, it is usually desired to estimate t h e size of dryer needed, t he various
operating cond it ions of humid ity an d temperatu re for t h e air used, and t he t ime needed
t o perf arm the am ou n t of dryin g required. As discussed in Section 9.4, equ i libr iu m
m oi stu re con ten ts of v ari ous materi als can n ot be predicted and m ust be determ i n ed
ex perimen t ally. Sim il arly, since ou r kn owledge of t he basic mechan isms of rates of d ry i n g
is q u i te i n complete, it is n ecessary in most cases t o obta i n some ex peri men tal measu r e-
men ts of d rying rates.

2. E xper imental det erminat ion of rat of d ryi ng . . To ex pe rimen tally determine the rate of
d rying for a gi v en material, a sam ple is usu all y pl aced on a tray. If it is a solid material i t
sh ou ld fill t he t r ay so t ha t only t he top su rface is ex posed t o the d ryi ng ai r st ream. By
su spen di n g the t r ay fr om a balance i n a cabi net or duct t h r ou gh wh ich the ai r is flowi ng,
t h e loss i n wei gh t of m oistu re du ri n g d ry i g can be determ i ned at di fferen t i n tervals
wi t h ou t i n t_erru pt i ng the peration.. / . .
In doi ng batch-d ryi n g expe rimen ts, c;e r ta1n pr ecau tion s sh ou ld be obser ve d t o
obt ai n u sable data u nder con ditions th at closely resembl e th ose t o be used in t h e
large-scale operati ons. Th e samp le sh oul d not be too small in wei gh t and should be
su ppor ted i n a tray or fr am e si mi lar to the la rge-scale on e. The rat i o of drying to
n on dry i n g su r face (insti lated su rface) and t he bed dep t h shou ld be sim i l ar . The velocity,
h u mi di ty, tem pe rat u re, an d ....di recti on of the air sh ou ld be the same an d constan t to
si mu late dryi n g u n der·constan t dry i n g condi tions.

9.SB R a te of Dry in g Cur ves for Const a n t -Dryi ng Condi tions

1. Conversi o11 of d at a to rat e-of-d ryin g curve . Data obtained f r om a batch-d ryin g ex -
per imen t ar e u su al l y obtain ed as W total wei gl1t of t h e wet soli d (d ry sol i d pl us moist u re)
at di fferen t t i mes t h ou rs in t h e d r yi n g peri od. Th ese data can be con v er ted to rate-of-
d ry ing dat a i n t h e followi n g \V ays. Fi rs t, t h e dat a are reca lcu l ated. If W is t he weigh t of
t l1e wet solid i n k g t otal w ater pl us d ry sol i d and W5 is t h e wei gh t of the d r y sol i d i n k g,
x == W - W5 k g tot al w ate r l b t ot a l w a t er
---- -
-- - - (9.5-1)
' W5 k g d ry solid l b d ry soli d
For t h e given const an t d ry i n g cond i ti ons, t h e eq u ilibri um m oist u re content X * k g
eq u i li b r i u m moist u re/ k g d ry sol i d is determ i n ed . Then th e free m oist u re con ten t X in k g
free w at er/ k g d ry solid is cal cu l at ed for each v al u e of X , .

X = X r -X * (9.5-2)

Usi ng t h·e d..at a calculated fro m Eq . (9.5-2), a pl ot of free moist u re con t en t X ve rsus
t i m e t in h is made as i n Fig. 9.5- l a. To obt ai n t h e rate-of-d ry i ng cur v e from t h is pl ot, th e
sl opes of tl1e t an ge n t s draw n t o t h e cu r v e i n Fig. 9.5- l a can be measu red , w hi ch give
v al u es of d X / d t at give n val u es of t .The rat e R is calcu lated for each poi n t by
L5 d X
R= (95-3)
A dt

S ec. 9 .4 Eq1Ji/ibrium M oistLJ re Co1z t e1zt of M atericils 535

 2
where R is dry in g rate in kg H 2 0/h ·m , Ls kg of dry soli d used, and A exposed su r face
area for drying in m 2 • In Engl ish u nits, R is lb1n H 2 0/·h ·ft 2 , Ls is lbm dry solid, and A is
ft 2 . For obtaining R fr om Fig. 9.. 5-1a, a val ue of Ls/ A of 21.5 kg/m 2 was used. The
dryi ng-rate cu rve is th en obtained by pl otting R versus the moi stu re content , as in Fig
9.5-lb.
An other method to obtai n the rate-of-d rying cu r ve is t o first calculat e th e weight
loss fl X for a 11t t ime. For exam ple, if X 1 = 0.350 at a ti me t 1 = 1.68 h and x 2 = 0.325 at
a ti me t 2 = 2.04 h, 11X /11t = (0.350 - 0.3·25)/(2.04 - 1.68). Then, usi n g Eq. (9.5-4) and:

0.5
........---....
"'O
A'
0
:=l
0 A \
N
::r:
C/)
0.4
H
bO "'O
t)J)
0.3 - ---

Q)

c-
'--4
::l 0.2 ---

·E-
0
en

Q) 0. 1
Q)
'--4
u...
E
2 4 6 8· 10 12 14
Time t (h)
(a)

2 .0 f'a lling
T

Const an t
..... -
.

ra t e
.
.
.
.
rat e
•
:>
----
1.6 -
·-
h.
A '-
N
E
• c
t)J) ...c 1 .2
I

.._ I --

I/ I
Q) I I ..
0.8
:i;j
'--4 D ,( I
.s
bl)
I
'--4
0.4
j

4-- ·-

a .._ Xe
E I
I
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Free m oist u re X (kg H 2 0/kg dry so lid )
(b )

FIGURE 9.5-1. Ty pica l dryi ng -rac e cur ve for constant d ryin g cond itions : (a) plot of
da t a asfr ee moist ure vers us t ime, (b) race of d ryi ng curve as ra c e vers us

S ec. 9 .4 Eq1Ji/ibrium M oistLJ re Co1z t e1zt of M atericils 535

 free moist ure con t ent .

S ec. 9 .4 Eq1Ji/ibrium M oistLJ re Co1z t e1zt of M atericils 535

 •

,_

.··.-.
L5/ A == 21.5,
Ls 11X 0.350 - 0.32 5
R= ---= 21.5 = 1.493
A 11t 2.04 - 1.68
Th is r ate R is t he average over t h e per i od 1.68 t o 2.04 h a nd sh ou ld be pl otted at th e
average conce n t ration X = (0.350 + 0.325)/2 = 0.338.

2. P lot of ra te-of d ryin g curve. In Fig. 9.5-lb t he rate-of-dryi n g cu r ve for constan t-

dryi ng cond i t i ons is shown. At zero ti me t he i n i t ial free m oistu re con t en t is shown at
poi n t A. In t h e begin n i n g the solid is usu al ly at a colder temperat u re th an i ts u lt i mate
tempe rat u re, and t h e ev apora tion rate w ill i ncrease. Even tually at poi n t B the su rface
t emper atu re rises to i ts eq u ilibrium v alue. A l tern at i v el y, if t he solid is qu ite h ot t o star t
wi t h, t he ra te may st ar t at poi n t A". This i n it i al u nsteady-state adjustme n t pe ri od is
us u al ly qu i te short and i t is oft en ignored i n the an al ysis of t i mes of dryi n g.
From poi n t B to C i n Fig. 9.5-la t he li ne is strai gh t, and hence the slope an d rate are
co n st an t d u rin g th is period. This const ant-rate-of -d ryin g pe r iod is sh own as li n e BC i n
Fi g. 9.5-l b.
A t po i n t C on bo t h plots, t h e d ry i n g rate starts to decr ease i n the fal ling -ra te per iod
u n t i l i t reaches poi nt D. In th is firs t fal li n g-ra te peri od, the rate show n as li ne CD i n Fig.
9.5-lb is of t en l i near.
At po i n t D t he ra te of dry i ng fal l s ev en more rapid ly, u n til i t reach es po i n t £,where
th e equ ili b r i u m m oist u re conten t is X * an d X = X * - X * = 0. In some ma terials bei n g
dr ied , t he regi on CD may be missin g com pl et ely or it may consti tu te all of t h e fal li ng-rate
period.

9.SC Drying in the Const an t-Rate Period

Dr y i n g of di fferen t solids u n der di fferen t constan t con d i t i ons of d ryi n g w i ll of t en gi v e
cu r ves of di fferen t s}1apes i n t he falli ng-rate per iod, b u t i n gen eral t h e t wo major po r t i ons
of t h e dry i n g-r ate cu rve cons t an t -rate period an d fal l i n g-rate peri od-are p resen t.
I n t he constan t-rate dr y i n g pe r i od, t he su rface of th e sol i d is i n i t iall y very wet and a
co n t i n u ou s fi l m of \V ater exis ts on t he dr yi n g su rface. Th i s wa t e r is en t i rely u n bou nd
\V at er a n d t he water acts as i f th e sol id wer e n ot presen t. Th e ra te of eva po rati on un de r
t h e gi v en ai r conditions is ind epe n den t of t he solid and is essen t i al l y t h e same as th e rate
f rom a f r ee l iq u id su rface. Increased r ou gh n ess of t l1e solid su rf ace, h owe ver , m ay lead t o
h igher r at es t h an from a flat su rface.
I f t he sol i d is po rou s, m ost of t h e w at e r ev apo rated i n th e con st an t-r ate per i od is
su ppl ied fr om t h e i n t eri or of t h e solid. Th i s pe r i od con ti n u es on ly as l on g as th e water is
su ppl ied t o t h e su r face as fast as i t is eva po r ated. Evapo rati on du ri n g t his pe r i od is
si m i lar to that in det erm i n i n g t he wet bu l b tem pe r at u re, and i n the abse nce of heat
t r ansfer by rad ia ti on or co nd ucti on, t he su rface t emp erat u re is appr oxi m at el y t hat of th e
\Ve t bu l b tempera t u re.
,
.. .

9.SD Drying in the Fal l i n g- R at e Period

Poi n t C i n Fig. 9.5- 1b is at t h e cr it ica l f ree moist ure cont ent X c . A t t his poi nt th er e i s
i ns u ffi cien t wa ter on t h e su rface t o mai n tai n a con ti n uous fi l m of water. The en ti re
su rface is n o longer wet ted, an d the w et ted area con ti n u al l y decreases i n t h is first
fal li ng-rat e pe r i od u n t i l t h e su rface is com ple tely dry at poi n t D i n Fi g. 9.5-1b.
The secon d fa l l i ng-r ate per iod begi n s at po i n t D wh en t h e su rface i s comple tely dry.
'f he pl ane of ev apo ra t ion slowl y reced es f r om t he su rf ace. Heat for t he ev apo ration is

S ec. 9 .4 Eq1Ji/ibrium M oistLJ re Co1z t e1zt of M atericils 535

 . .
. . .;.

t r ansfer r ed th rou gh t he soli9 -.·t-e

zon e of v aporiza tion. Vapo r ized water m oves
t h r ou gh th e solid in t o th ':lirr. t ream. ·
In some cases n o sharp discon tin u ity occurs at poin t D, an d t he change from
pa r tial ly wet ted to com plet el y dry condit i ons at t he sur face is so grad u al that n o sharp.
cha n ge is detectable.
Th e am ou n t of moist u re rem oved i n the falling-r ate pe riod ma y be rel atively small
bu t t he t ime requ i red may be long. This can be seen i n Fig. 9.5-1. The pe r iod B C for
con stan t-r ate dryi ng lasts for abou t 3.0 h and red u ces ·x from 0.40 t o abou t 0.19, a.
red u ct ion of 0.21 k g H 2 0/k g dr y solid. The fall i ng-rate peri od CE l asts abou t 9.0 h and;
redu ces_ X only from 0.19 to 0.

9.SE Moisture Movemen ts in Solids During Dryin g

in the Falling-Rate Period
Wh en dryi n g occu rs by evaporat ion of moistu re from t h e exposed surface of a sol i d,
moist u re mus t move from t he dept hs of t he sol id to t h e sur face. Th e mech anisms of the
m ovemen t affect the d ryin g du ring t he const ant-rate and falli n g-rate periods. Some of the·
t heories advan ced to explain· t h e va rious t ypes of fal ling-ra t e curves wi ll be briefly
rev iewed.

I . Liq uid d iffusi on tlieory. I n this t h eory di ffusio n of liq uid mo istu re occurs w hen t h ere
is a concen t rat ion d ifferen ce between t h e dept hs of the solid and th e surf ace. Th is me t h od
of t ra n spor t of m oist u re is usu all y fou nd in nonpo rous solids wh ere single-phas·
sol u t ion s are fo r med with t h e mois t u re, such as i n paste, soap, gelat i n, and gl ue. Th is is
also found .i n dryi n g t h e last po r t ions of mois t u re f r om clay, flour, wood , leath er, pape r,
starches, an d texti l es. In d r yi ng man y food m aterial s, t he movem en t of wa ter i n t he
f ai li ng-r at e peri od occu rs by di ffusi on .
The sh apes of t h e moist u re dist r ibu t ion cu rv es in t he soli d at given t imes are
'

q u al i t at ivel y consist en t wi t h use of t h e u n steady-s t ate d i ffusion equat ions given in

Ch apte r 7. Th e moist u re di ffusi v i t y D A B usual l y decreases wi t h decreased moist u re
con t en t, so t h at t h e di ffu siv i t ies are usual l y average val u es over the ran ge of co n -
cen t r at ions u sed. M aterial s dr yin g in t h is \V ay are u su all y sai d to be dr yin g by di ffu sion ,
al t h ough the act u al m echan is ms m ay be q u ite compl ica t ed. Sin ce the r ate of ev apo r ation
f rom t l1e su rface is qu i te fast, i .e., t he resist an ce is q u i te l ow, compa red to t he diffus i on
ra t e t l1rou gh the sol id in t l1e fall i n g-rat e per iod, t he moist u r e con ten t at t h e sL1r f ace is at
t he equ i libr iu m val u e.
The sh ape of a d i ffu sion-con t roll ed curve in t h e falli n g-rat e per iod is sim il ar to Fi g.
9.5-2a. If t h e initi al con st an t -rate dr yi n g is q u i te h i gh , th e firs t fall ing-r ate peri od of

.. ..
Q) Q)
C\j
,Cd
"""" """"
b.O 0.0
c:
.......
c:
.......

a"""" a""""

Free m oist u re , X Free m oistu re , X

(a) (b )
FIGUR E 9.5-2. Ty pica l d ryi ng -rate cur ves : (a) d iffusion-cont rolled Jail ing-r ate p eriod ,
(b) capi l lary -cont rolled f alling -rat e period in afi ne porou s solid .
•

S ec. 9 .4 Eq1Jilibrium M oistLJ re Co1z t e1zt of M atericils 535

u nsatu rated surface evaporation may n ot appear. If the constant-rate dryin g is quite low,
the peri od of unsat u r ated sur face evaporation is· usually present in region CD i n Fig.
9.5-lb and the di ffusi on-con t rolled curve is in region DE . Equations for calculating
drying in this per iod where diffusion controls are given in Section 9.9. Also, Problem
7.1-4 for the d rying of clay and Problem 7.1-6 for the drying of wood usi ng diffusi on
th eory are given in th e Chapter 7 Pro blems.

2. Capil lary moveme nt in por ous solid s·. :Wh en gran ular and porous solids such as clays,
sand, soil, paint pi gments, and miner als are bein g dried, u n bound or free moist u re moves
throu gh the capi llaries and voids of t he solid s by cap illary action, n ot by di ffusion. Th is
m echanism, in volving su rface tensi on, is simil ar to th e m ovemen t of oil in a l amp wick.
A porous solid con tains i n terconnecti ng pores and channels of varyi ng pore sizes. As
wa ter is evapora ted, a m enisc us of liq .
u id wa ter is formed across .each pore in th e depths
.

of the solid. Th is sets up capillary forces by the i n ter facial tension between the water an d
solid. These capillar y forces pr ovide t h e drivi n g force for moving water throu gh the po res
to t he su rface. Small p ores develo p greater forces than those,developed by large pores.
At th e begin n in g of the fall i ng-rat e peri od at poi nt C i n Fig. 9.5-1b, the water is ·
being brought to t he surface by capill ary action, bu t the surface layer of water starts to
reced e belo\v the sur face. Air rushes in to fill t he voids. As the water is con tinuousl y
removed, a poi n t is reach ed where t here is in sufficien t water left t o mainta in contin u ous
films across t h e pores, an d the rate of dryi n g sud denly decreases at tl1e start of the second
falling-ra t e per iod at poin t D. Then th e r ate of diffusion of wat er vapor in the por es and
ra te of conduction of heat i n t he solid m ay be the main factors in dryi ng.
In fine po res in solid s, t he rate-o f-d rying cur ve in th e second fall i ng-rate period m ay
con form to -t h e-- di ffusi on law an d th e curve is concave u pward , as shown i n Fig. 9.5-2b.
For very por ous solid s, such as a bed of sand , where t he pores are l ar ge, t he rat e-of-
d rying cu r ve i n t h e second falli n g-ra t e period is often st ra i gh t, and h ence the di ffusion
eq uat ions do not apply.
. .

3. Effect of shr inkage. A factor often greatly affectin g the dryin g r ate is the sh rinkage of
t h e solid as moist ure is remo ved . R igid solids d o n ot shrin k appreciably, bu t coll oidal
and fibr ou s mater i als such as veget ables and ot her foodstuffs d o u nder go shrin k age. The
m ost seri ous effect is tt1at t h ere ma y be developed a hard l ayer on t h e surface w h ich is
im pe r v ious t o t he flow of liq u id or vapor m oist u re an d slows the d ryi ng rate ; exampl es
ar e clay and soap. In ma n y food st u ffs, if d ry i n g occu rs at too hi gh a tem per atu re, a l ay er
of closel y pack ed sh r t1n ken cel l s, \V h ich are sealed t ogether, f orms at t he sur face. Th is
presen ts a barrier t o moistu r e mi grat ion an d is k n own as case hard ening . Anot h er effect
of shr i n k age is to cau se t h e mater ial t o warp an d change i t s structu re. This can h appen i n
dr y i n g \VO Od .
Somet i mes to decrease t hese effects of sh ri n kage, i t is desir able to dry with moist ai r.
Th is d ecreases t he rat e of dryi n g so t h at t he effec ts of shrink age on war pi n g or h ar d en i n g
at the su r face are greatl y red u ced .

9.6 CALCU LATI ON METH ODS FOR CONSTA NT-RATE

DR Y I N G PE R IOD

9.6A Method Using Ex peri men ta l Dry ing Cu rve

1. J nt rod tict io11. Pr obably t h e most im por t an t factor i n d r yin g calculations is the len gt h
of time req u i red t o d r y a ma t eri al from a gi ven ini t i al free m oistu re con ten t X 1 t o a fin al
moist u re con ten t X 2 . For d r yi n g in t he const an t -rate per i od, we can esti ma t e t he time

S ec. 9 .4 Eq1Ji/ibrium M oistLJ re Co1z t e1zt of M atericils 535

 needed by usi ng experim ental ba t ch dryin g cu rves or by us in g pred ict ed m ass- a nd
hea t -transfer coefficien ts.

2. M et hod using d ryin g cur ve. To estimate the t ime of drying for a given batch of
ma terial, the best method is based on actual experim ental data obtained u nder con-
di tions w here t he feed material, relati ve exposed surface area, gas veloci ty, temperatu re,
and humidi ty are essentially the same as in the final drier. Then the time req uired for the
constan t-rate peri od can be deter m i ned directly from t he dryi ng cu rve of free mois t u re
conten t versus time.

EX A M PL E 9.6-1. Time of Dryingfro m Drying Curve

A solid whose dryi n g curve is represented by Fig. 9.5- la is to be d ried fro m a
free mois t u re· con ten t X 1 = 0.38 kg H2 0/k g d ry solid to X 2 == 0.25 kg
H 20/k g dry solid. Estimate the t ime requ ired.
Solution: Fr om Fig. 9.5.'.... la for X 1 = 0.8, t 1 is read off as 1.28 h. For
X 2 == 0.25, t 2 = 3.08 h. Hence, the time req u ired is
t = t i - t 1 = 3.08 - 1.28 = 1.80 h.

3. M ethod r'sing ra t e-of-d ryin g cur ve fo r const ant-rate p eriod . Instead of u si ng t he

dryin g curve, the ra te-of-dryi n g cur ve can be used. The drying ra te R is defined by Eq.
(9.5- 3) as
Ls d X
R= (9.5-3)
A dt
This can be rearra n ged and i n tegra ted over t h e t i m e in t erva l t o dry fr om X 1 at t 1 = 0-·to·
X 2 a t t 2 = t.
tz = r L
l = de = s (9.6-1):
.A R
t 1 == 0 Xi

If t h e dryi n g t ak es pl ace wi t h i n t h e cons t an t -r a te pe r iod so t h at bo t h X 1 and X 2 are

grea ter than the crit ical moistu re con tent X c , t h en R == const an t = Re . I n tegr at ing Eq.
(9.6- 1) for t h e const a n t -rate peri od,
Ls
l = A Re ( X t - X z ) (9.6-2)

EX A M P L E 9.6-2. Drying Timefr om Rat e-of-Drying Curve

R epea t Exam pl e 9.6- 1 bu t use Eq.(9.6-2) and Fig.9.5-lb.
Solut ion: A s given pr ev iousl y, a va l ue of 2 1.5 for Ls/ A was used to prepa re
2
I •. .......
Fig. 9.5-1b from 9.5-la. From Fig. 9.5-1b, R e = 1.5 1 k g H 2 0/ h ·m . Su bst i-
t u t in g i n t o Eq . (9.6-2),
Ls 21.5
t = R (X 1 - X 2 ) = l (0.38 - 0.25) = 1.85 11
A c .5 I

T his is close t o t h e va l ue of 1.80 h of Ex am ple 9.6-1.

9.6B Method Usin g Pred icted Tra nsfer Coefficients

for Constant-Ra te Period

1. I ntrod uction. In t h e constan t-rate period of d rying, the surfaces of t he gr ains of solid
i n con tact wi t h t h e d ryi n g air flow remain com pl etely wet t ed . As st ated prev i ou sl y, t he

S ec. 9 .4 Eq1Ji/ibrium M oistLJ re Co1z t e1zt of M atericils 535

rate of evapora tion of m oist u re under a given set of air con di ti ons is indepen den t of t he
,ty pe of solid and is essen t i al ly t he same as t h e rate of evapo ra t i on from a free liquid
surface u n der t he same condi t ions. Howeve r, su r face roughness may increase th e rate of
evaporat i on.
Durin g t h is constan t-rate per i od, the solid is so wet that the w ater acts as if the solid
were n ot t here.The water evapo rat ed f ro m t he surfa ce is supplied from t h e interior of the
solid. The rate of eva poration ..from a po rous materia l occu rs by the same mechan ism as
t h at occu rrin g at a we t bu l b ther momet er, which is essen t i all y constant-ra t e dry i ng.

2. E qi1at ions for pred ict ing constant-ra te d ry ing . Dryi ng of a material occu rs b y mass
1

t ransfer of wa ter vapor f rom t h e satu rat ed su rface of t he mat eri al through an ai r film to
t he bu lk gas ph ase or environ ment . The ra te of m oist u re movemen t wi thin the solid is
su fficien t to k eep t he su rface sat u ra t ed. The rate of removal of the wat er v apor (dry i n g) is
con t rolled by t h e ra te of h eat t rans fer t o the evap ora t i ng surface, w hich fu rnishes t he
l at en t h eat of ev apo ra t ion for t he li q u id. A t steady st ate, t he rate of mass t ransf er
ba l an ces t he rate of h ea t t ra nsfer.
To deri ve t h e eq u at i on for dryi ng, we neglect heat t ran sfer by rad iati on t o t lle solid
surface an d also assume n o hea t t ra nsfe r b y cond u ction f r om metal pans or su rfaces. n
Sect ion 9.8, convection an d radiatio n w ill also be considered -.-Assuming only heat
transfer t o t he solid surface by convection fro m t he h ot gas to t h e surface of the solid
and mass t ra n sfer from t he su rface to the hot gas (Fig. 9.6-1) , we can write equ at i on s
w h ich are t h e sa me as t h ose for derivi n g t he \Ve t b u l b t empera t ure Tw i n Eq. (9.3-18).
The ra t e of con v ect ive hea t t ran sfer q i n W (J/s, b t ufh) from the gas at T°C {°F) t o
t h e su rface of t he sol i d a t v °C, where ( T - v )°C == ( T - T.v ) K is
q = J i ( T - Tw) A (9.6-3)

\V h ere h i s t h e h ea t-t ran sfer coefficien t in W/m 2 ·K (bt u/h ·ft 2 ·°F) and A is t h e ex posed
d ry i n g area i n m 2 (ft 2). The eq u a t ion of t h e fl u x of w at er va po r f r om th e su r face is t he
same as Eq . (9.3- 1 3) an d is

NA = k y (y JV - y) (9.6-4)

U si n g t l1e a p p r oxi mc1t i o n f rom f..(1. (9.3- 15) an d sL1bs t i t u t i n g i n t o Eq . (9.6-4),

j 1f B
1V A == k }. (HJV -}
·/ ) (9.6-5)
. ;'V/ A

Tl1e amo u n t of h eat n eeded t o v ci po rize N A k g m ol/s ·m2 (l b m ol/h · ft 2 ) \Yater, n egl ecti n g
t h e sn1al l sen si b l e hea t chan ges, i s t h e same as Eq . (9.3- 12).
q == 1\-f A N A i.JV A (9.6-6)

\V l1er e i.Jv is t h e l aten t h eat at v i n J/k g (b t u/l bm ).

gas
T, ff , y q

FIG U RE 9.6- 1. fl eal and mass t ra nsfer in const ant -rate dryin g .

S ec. 9 .4 Eq1 ilibrium M oistL1re Co1z t e1zt of M ater icils 535