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208. Captive breeding and the role of zoos Bio Factsheet
www.curriculum-press.co.uk
A zoo that wants to maintain a breeding population of, say, Mountain oryx, cannot just keep two or three animals. It will need to keep 30
– 50 and this is expensive. Unfortunately, the general public are unwilling to pay more to see 30 oryx than they are one or two; they are more
excited by seeing lots of species rather than a lot of any one. Zoos that want breeding programmes must raise finance and this is what
prompts zoos to charge each other for exchange or loan of animals.
• The problem may be made worse because zoos are in competition. A zoo that uses its visitor profit to maintain captive breeding
populations can be harmed if a competitor decides to use its profits in a price war (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Competition between zoos Critics of captive breeding in zoos also claim that, even if the breeding
Less programme is a success, this may lead to more problems (Fig. 2).
Zoo 1 Profit
Visitors resources for
Uses used to
conserve
choose Profits breeding. Fig. 2 Problems associated with captive breeding
population Zoo 2 decrease
rare Therefore
of animals to more
breeds zoo considers Circuses
generate often
reducing Zoo
profit
breeding Captive population Transfer to existing zoos
programme. breeding exceeds
Zoo 2 capacity Build new zoos
Uses population Profit
Visitor
of animals to used to Profits
numbers Kill individuals
generate profit reduce increase
increase
entrance
price
The main stages and problems involved in captive breeding are
shown in Fig. 3
Much of the work on species preservation carried out in Britain is co-ordinated by BIAZA (British and Irish Association of Zoos and
Aquariums), with its headquarters at Regent’s Park in London. The work of BIAZA can be accessed at www.biaza.org.uk.
Key points in species management in zoos:
• Zoos and aquariums cannot work in isolation, but must co-operate with one another.
• Co-operation is essential if captive populations are to be successfully maintained without taking more individuals from populations in
the wild.
• Animals in separate zoos should be managed as part of one single population, and this population must have the greatest possible
genetic variation.
• Zoo managers must change their management strategy from keeping few individuals of a wide range of species (very popular with the
fee-paying public) to keeping breeding groups of fewer species (often not so popular with the zoo accountants!)
• It would be dangerous to keep all the individuals of one species in a single location: the entire population could be lost to disease or
to a natural catastrophe. However, populations benefit genetically if they are managed as one single, global population. This management
is the job of organisations such as BIAZA.
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208. Captive breeding and the role of zoos Bio Factsheet
www.curriculum-press.co.uk
Père David’s deer First made known to Western science in the 19th century, the only surviving herd was in a preserve
(Elaphurus davidianus) belonging to the Chinese emperor. After the remaining population in China was lost the remaining deer
in Europe were transported to England :The current population stems from this herd. Two herds of Père
David’s Deer were rentroduced to China in the late 1980s. In spite of the small population size, the
animals do not appear to suffer genetic problems.
Przewalski’s horse The wild population in Mongolia died out in the 1960s; a program of exchange between captive
(Equus przewalskii) populations in zoos throughout the world was started to reduce inbreeding. In 1992, sixteen horses were
released into the wild in Mongolia, followed by additional animals later on. These reintroduced horses
successfully reproduced, and the status of the animal was changed from “extinct in the wild” to
“endangered” in 2005. In October, 2007 scientists at the Smithsonian Institution’s National Zoo
successfully reversed a vasectomy on a Przewalski horse : scientists realized the animal in question was
one of the most genetically valuable Przewalski horses in the breeding programme.
Arabian oryx Eliminated in the wild by hunting: restocked in Oman and Jordan from populations in London, Phoenix
(Oryx leucoryx) and San Diego zoos.
Mauritius kestrel Severe decline was in the 1950s and 1960s due to indiscriminate DDT use and invasive species like cats,
(Falco punctatus) mongooses and crab-eating macaques which killed the kestrels and their eggs. Breeding programme
began at Durrell Wildlife preservation Trust - now up to 800 individuals in the wild.
Golden Lion Tamarin Poipulation decline due to deforestation in western coastal forests of Brazil. In the 1970s the Brazilian
(Leontopithecus rosalia) government provided zoos with Golden Lion Tamarins which were successfully bred and disseminated to
zoos around the world (especially jersey Zoo and Smithsonian Zoo in Washington, USA). Over the next 10
years the government succeeded in establishing forest reserves in Brazil that allowed reintroduction of the
Tamarins. In this case then, the captive breeding programme effectively bought the time needed for the
original habitat to be conserved. There are now an estimated 1000 wild Tamarins and 600 in captivity.
Lowland Gorilla Critically endangered by war and by bushmeat trade: breeding at Port Lympne Zoo in Kent has released into
(Gorilla gorilla gorilla) special reserves in the Gabon and the Congo. First ‘wild’ births to these reintroduced animals in 2008.
Zoocheck: Campaigning group who lobby government to strengthen the 1981 UK Zoo Licensing Act. The Act presently emphasises
safety of public and zoo workers; Zoocheck want emphasis on animal welfare. Zoocheck would like most zoos to close and for the
monies to be used to conserve habitats. They argue that zoos are an expensive waste of money, that most zoos do not contain
endangered species and that most endangered species are not represented in breeding programmes.
Conserving genetic diversity : The importance of a. that genes from the original founder population (probably taken
studbooks from the wild) are retained and are equally represented, so that
b. individuals that breed poorly in captivity must be encouraged
How genetic variation is lost. Genetic drift is a change in allele to breed, and those that are particularly good breeders should
frequencies over time. This may be simply due to chance, as in be limited in their breeding opportunities.
small populations some alleles may not be passed on to offspring. c. as a result of a. and b. the maximum genetic diversity, behavioural
characteristics and geographic origins are maintained.
Fig 4: Genetic drift
Two important points to note:
1. the modern approach is very different to that of zoo managers
50 years ago, who simply increased their stock of animals by
T, t and S continually breeding the best breeders (and so reduced genetic
T t t S
are alleles of diversity)
gametes T t t S the same gene 2. this type of programme is almost the complete opposite of
artificial selection methods amongst domestic animals, in which
certain characteristics are favoured even though these may be
random harmful to the animal in the wild (and so reduced genetic
fertilisation i.e. one allele may
be 'lost' from
diversity).
the gene pool
Tt tt Case Study: Mauritius Kestrel
• Once widely distributed over the
island, the kestrel hunts in closed
canopy forest, feeding on geckos,
Genetic drift leads to a reduction in genetic variation. large insects and small birds.
• Population decimated by forest
Inbreeding depression destruction for construction
In a small population, for example in captivity in a zoo or wild animal timber, fuelwood, food crops and, in
park, there is an increased chance that closely-related individuals the 1950s and 1960s, by the use of
will mate (there simply aren’t so many partners to choose from). organo-chloride pesticides. The
This inbreeding reduces the proportion of heterozygotes in the spread of non–native plant species,
population: there are more homozygous recessives as individuals introduced as seeds by other birds,
receive recessive alleles from both parents. Many recessive alleles also contributed to the decline of the
have harmful effects on the phenotype, so inbreeding depression native forests.
results: the individuals are less reproductively ‘fit’. They may be • By 1974 only 6 birds remained, 2 of these were in captivity.
smaller, less able to cope with disease and the females may produce • Cooperation of Mauritius government, Jersey Wildlife
fewer eggs. Preservation Trust, Mauritian Wildlife Foundation and the
Peregrine Fund. Captive breeding successfully carried out
Conservation ‘in situ’ to maintain the size of wild populations is the at Gerald Durrell Endemic Wildlife Sanctuary.
best way to prevent genetic drift and inbreeding depression. • Eggs taken from wild nests stimulated wild kestrels to lay
However, ‘ex situ’ conservation can play a part if the genetic history second clutch. The eggs that were removed were hatched
of breeding individuals is known. in incubators and hand reared.
• Some young kestrels were returned to the wild nest and
Keeping studbooks: Computer Dating for animals! adult birds reared them.
Since animals were first domesticated, breeders would note • Others were placed in artificial nest boxes and fed by
differences between individuals and might use them selectively to humans until they were old enough to hunt and avoid
improve stock e.g. for milk yield, beef production or speed. The predators. This allowed the breeders to exploit new, safe
first official studbook was the ‘General Studbook for Thoroughbred areas of forest.
Horses, set up in England in 1791. Modern studbooks • Over 400 kestrels have now been bred and released and
• are a collection of the genetic history and location of all the the wild-population now exceeds 800.
captive animals of a particular species in the collections that are • Ironically, in 1994, a Mauritian kestrel ate a newly hatched
cooperating in the overall breeding plan. chick of a recently reintroduced pair of Mauritian pink
• include data on the species’ status in the wild pigeons, the world’s rarest pigeon!
• usually include specialised software e.g. the ARKS (Animal • The Mauritian kestrel is listed in Appendix 1 of CITES.
Record Keeping System) includes species, sex, parents, birth Mauritian Kestrels can be seen at Chester Zoo, Durrell
date, birth location, current location and transponder chip Wildlife Preservation Trust, Jersey and Paignton Zoo.
number. • Websites:www.mauritian-wildlife.org and www.maurinet.com
Studbooks provide the raw data on which the breeding plans are
based: the plan must ensure
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208. Captive breeding and the role of zoos Bio Factsheet
www.curriculum-press.co.uk
Captive Breeding The breeding of species in confinement, usually zoos, with the aim of reintroducing the animals back to their
original habitat once it is safe to do so
CITES Convention for Trade in Endangered Species: controls the transfer of wildlife and wildlife products between
member countries
Endangered a species whose continued existence is deemed unlikely if the factors that are causing its decline continue e.g.
Black rhinoceros
‘Ex situ’ conservation Maintaining species outside their natural environment, in zoos or wildlife sanctuaries.
Extinct A species for which there has been no confirmed sighting for 50 years.
Genetic diversity Maintaining the range of alleles present in the wild (founder) population.
‘In situ’ conservation Maintaining species in their natural environment. This may include management of a Nature Reserve or
National park.
Inbreeding depression a reduction in reproductive fitness caused by matings between closely-related individuals (reduced
heterozygosity)
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
Rare A species with localised distribution but in no immediate danger
Red Data Book List of all those species at risk: includes categories such as ‘vulnerable’, ‘at risk’, ‘rare’, endangered’ or
‘critically endangered’. An international register that is updated every three years
Stud Book Awritten record (now computerised)of the genetic status and location of all of the individuals in a breeding
programme.
Translocation The release of animals taken from the wild into a new area in an attempt to re-establish or augment natural
populations.
Vulnerable A species which is likely to become endangered soon if the causes of its decline continue