Homework 7 Solutions

1. (a) Claim. There is a noncomplete metric space (X, d) and a contraction mapping f : X → X such
that f has no xed points.

Proof. Let X = (0, 1) with the induced metric from R. Let f : X → X by f (x) = 12 x. Then,
|f (x) − f (y)| = 12 |x − y| so f is a contraction mapping, but f (x) = x if and only if 21 x = x, if and only if
x = 0, but 0 ∈ / X.

(b) Claim. There is a complete metric space (X, d) and a mapping f : X → X such that d(f (x), f (y)) <
d(x, y) for all x, y , by f has no xed points.

Proof. Set X = [1, ∞) with the induced metric from R and let f : X → X by f (x) = x + x1 . Then, for
x < y , we have |f (y) − f (x)| = |f 0 (ξ)||(y − x)| for some ξ ∈ (x, y). We have |f 0 (ξ)| = |1 − ξ12 | < 1, so f has
the claimed property. We see, however, that f (x) = x + x1 = x if and only if x1 = 0, and so f has no xed
points.

2. (Exercise 9.16) Let f (t) = t + 2t2 sin( 1t ) for t 6= 0 and f (0) = 0.

Claim. f 0 (0) = 1, f 0 is bounded on (−1, 1), but f is not injective on any neighborhood of 0.

Proof. We have, for t 6= 0, f 0 (t) = 1 + 4t sin( 1t ) + 2t2 ( −1

t2 ) cos( t ). Thus, for 0 < |t| < 1, |f (t)| ≤
1 0

1 + 4 + 2 = 7. At t = 0, we have
1 1
f 0 (0) = lim (t + 2t2 sin( ))
t→0 t t
1
= lim (1 + 2t sin( ))
t→0 t
= 1

It remains to show the noninjectivity claim. First, we look at f 0 (t) = 1 + 4t sin( 1t ) − 2 cos( 1t ) on (0, 1). We
see at 1t = kπ , f 0 (t) = 1 + (−1)k . Moreover, f 0 is continuous on (0, 1), so by the intermediate value theorem,
there are tk ∈ ( (k+1)π
1 1
, kπ ) with f 0 (tk ) = 0. Now, on (0, 1) we see

1 −1 1 −1 1
f 00 (t) = 4 sin( ) + ( 2 )4t cos( ) + 2( 2 ) sin( )
t t t t t
2 1 4 1
= (4 − 2 ) sin( ) − cos( )
t t t t
which is continuous on this interval. At tk , we have 2 cos( t1k ) = 1 + 4tk sin( t1k ). Hence, at tk ,
2 1 2 1
f 00 (tk ) = (4 − ) sin( ) − (1 + 4tk sin( ))
t2k tk tk tk
2 1 2
= (−4 − 2 ) sin( ) −
tk tk tk

Now, as tk ∈ ( (k+1)π
1 1
, kπ ), we see sin( t1k ) > 0 if k is even. Hence, for such k , f 00 (tk ) < 0. As f 00 is continuous
on (0, 1), we conclude that f has a local maximum at tk and hence is not injective in a neighborhood of tk .
As tk → 0, f is not injective in any neighborhood of 0.

3. (Exercise 9.17) Let f = (f1 , f2 ) be a mapping from R2 to R2 given by f1 (x, y) = ex cos y ,

x
f2 (x, y) = e sin y

(a) Claim. The range of f is R2 \{(0, 0)}.

1
 √
Proof. Let (u, v) 6= (0, 0). Let r = u2 + v 2 > 0 and let x = log r. Suppose u > 0 and let y = arctan( uv ).
Then,
v
f1 (x, y) = elog r cos(arctan( ))
u
p 1
= u2 + v 2 p
1 + ( uv )2
= u
and
v
f2 (x, y) = elog r sin(arctan( ))
u
v
p ( u )
= u2 + v 2 p
1 + ( uv )2
= v
Hence, {(u, v)|u > 0} ⊆ f (R2 ). For u < 0, we use the fact that for a ∈ R, cos(a + π) = − cos(a) and
sin(a + π) = − sin(a), so {(u, v)|u 6= 0} ⊆ f (R2 ). Now, suppose u = 0. If v > 0, then f (log v, π2 ) = (0, v)
2 ) = (0, v). Hence, R \{(0, 0)} ⊆ f (R ). As f1 (x, y) + f2 (x, y) = e
and if v < 0 then f (log(−v), −π 2 2 2 2 2x
6= 0,
we see f (R ) ⊆ R \{(0, 0)}. Hence, f (R ) = R \{(0, 0)}.
2 2 2 2

(b) Claim. The Jacobian of f is nonzero at every point of R2 . f is not, however, injective on R2 .

Proof. We have
ex cos y ex (− sin y)
 
Df (x, y) = x
e sin y ex sin y
and so the Jacobian of f at (x, y) is det Df (x, y) = e2x . We see that f is not injective, however, as
f (x, y) = f (x, y + 2π) for all (x, y) ∈ R2 .

(c)Let a = (0, π3 ), b = f (a). Let g be the inverse of f , dened in a neighborhood of b, such that g(b) = a.
We nd an explicit formula for g , compute f 0 (a) and g 0 (b), and verify that g 0 (b) = (f 0 (g(b))−1 .
√ √ √
Solution.
√
We see f (a) = f (0, π3 ) = ( 12 , 23 ). For (u, v) with |u − 21 | < 41 , |v − 23 | < 43 , set x =
log u + v = 12 log(u2 + v 2 ), y = arctan( uv ), and g(u, v) = (x, y). Then, from the above we see g(f (x, y)) =
2 2

(x, y). We have " √ #

π 1 − 3
f 0 (0, )= √2
3
2
1
3 2 2
We see " #
u v
0 u2 +v 2 u+v 2
g (u, v) = 1 −v 1 1
v 2( 2 ) v 2( )
1+( u ) u 1+( u ) u

Hence,
√ " √ #
1 3 1 3
0 2√
g( , ) = 1 1
2
2 2 4 (−2 3) 42
" √ #
1 3
= 2
√ 2
− 3 1
2 2

Inverting,
" √ #−1 " √ #
1 3 1 3
2
√ 2 √2
− 2
− 3 1
= 3 1
2 2 2 2
π −1
= f 0 (0, )
3

2
as claimed.

(d) We nd the images under f of lines paralled to the coordinate axes.

Solution. For xed y , we see (ex cos y, ex sin y) = ex (cos y, sin y), so the image varying x is the ray
originating at the origin (without the origin) in the direction of the unit vector (cos y, sin y). For xed x,
we see that as varying y in (cos y, sin y) traces out the unit circle, varying y in ex (cos y, sin y) traces out the
circle of radius ex .

4. (Exercise 9.19) Let f (x, y, z, u) = 3x + y − z + u2 , g(x, y, z, u) = x − y + 2z + u, and h(x, y, z, u) =

2x + 2y − 3z + 2u. Consider the system of equations (f, g, h)(x, y, z, u) = (0, 0, 0).

Claim. This can be solved for x, y, u in terms of z , x, z, u in terms of y , y, z, u in terms of x, but not for
x, y, z in terms of u.

Proof. We note if (f, g, h)(x, y, z, u) = (0, 0, 0), then f − g − h = 0. Expanding this gives u2 − 3u = 0,
so we must have u = 0 or u = 3. Hence, there is no nonempty open interval I ⊆ R with a γ : I → R3 ,
γ(u) = (x(u), y(u), z(u)) satisfying (f, g, h)(x(u), y(u), z(u), u) = (0, 0, 0) as we would have I ⊆ {0, 3}. That
is, we cannot solve for x, y, z in terms of u. For the others, by the implicit function theorem the claim reduces
to checking that various 3 × 3 submatrices of F 0 are invertible, where F : R4 → R3 by F = (f, g, h). We have
 
3 1 −1 2u
F 0 (x, y, z, u) = 1 −1 2 1
2 2 −3 2

And the matrices to consider are, for x, y, u in terms of z ,

 
3 1 2u
1 −1 1
2 2 2

which has determinant 8u − 12. As points we invert around have values u = 0 or u = 3, this is invertible on
both cases and so we may solve for x, y, u in terms of z . For solving for x, z, u in terms of y , the matrix to
consider is  
3 −1 2u
1 2 1
2 −3 2
which has determinant 21 − 14u. As before, this is invertible for u = 0 and u = 3. Lastly, for solvuing for
y, z, u in terms of x, the matrix to consider is
 
1 −1 2u
−1 2 1
2 −3 2

with determinant 3 − 2u. As before, this is invertible for u = 0 and u = 3.

5. (Exercise 21) Dene f on R2 by f (x, y) = 2x3 − 3x2 + 2y 3 + 3y 2

(a) We nd the four points in R2 where ∇f = 0. We also show f has exactly one local maximum and
one local minimum in R2 .

Proof. We have ∇f (x, y) = 6x2 − 6x 6y 2 + 6y which is zero when x ∈ {0, 1} and y ∈ {−1, 0}, so
 

the four points with ∇f = 0 are A = {(0, −1), (0, 0), (1, −1), (1, 0)}. We note that Dxx f = 12x − 6 and
Dyy f = 12y + 6. Hence, at points in A where x = 0, f has a local max in the x direction, and at points in A
where x = 1, f has a local min in the x direction. Likewise, at points in S where y = −1, f has a local max
in the y direction and at points in A where y = 0, A has a local min in the y direction. From this, we see f

3
has neither a local max nor a local min at (0, 0) and (1, −1). It remains to show f has a local maximum at
(0, −1) and a local minimum at (1, 0). For this, we note near (0, −1) that for xed y near −1, the function
x → f (x, y) has a local maximum at x = 0 as this has derivative 6x2 − 6x. Thus, f (x, y) ≤ f (0, y). By the
above, we also have f (0, y) ≤ f (0, −1) for y small enough, so (0, −1) is a local maximum for f . For (1, 0)
being a minimum, the analysis is the same with the inequality reversed. As f is everywhere continuously
dierentiable, any local maxima and minima must occur at a point where ∇f = 0, and so the claim holds.

(b) Let S = {(x, y)|f (x, y) = 0}. We nd the points of S that have no neighborhoods in which the
equation f (x, y) = 0 can be solved for y in terms of x (or for x in terms of y ). We also describe S .

From ∇f (x, y) = 6x2 − 6x 6y 2 + 6y , we see that as long as x ∈/ {0, 1}, we can solve for x in terms of y ,
 

and as long as y ∈/ {−1, 0}, we can solve for y in terms of x. Writing f (x, y) = (x+y)(2x2 −2xy+2y 2 −3x+3y),
we see S = L ∪ E where L is the line x + y = 0 and E is the ellipse given by (2x2 − 2xy + 2y 2 − 3x + 3y) = 0.
Plotting f (x, y) = 0, we see that at points where x ∈ {0, 1} or y ∈ {−1, 0}, f = 0 cannot be expressed as
a function of the appropriate variable in terms of the other either because these are points where the line
crosses the ellipse, or because they are points akin to the circular example x2 + y 2 − 1 = 0 at (0, 1).
xy(x2 −y 2 )
6. (Exercise 27) Dene f (0, 0) = 0 and f (x, y) = x2 +y 2 for (x, y) 6= (0, 0).

(a) Claim. f , D1 f , and D2 f are continuous on R2 .

Proof. We see f is continuous away from 0 by composition rules. At 0, we have |x2 − y 2 | ≤ x2 + y 2 , so

|f (x, y)| ≤ |xy|. Hence, f (x, y) → 0 as (x, y) → 0, so f is continuous at 0. We compute, for (x, y) 6= 0,

(x2 + y 2 )[y(x2 − y 2 ) + xy2x] − xy(x2 − y 2 )2x

D1 f (x, y) =
(x2 + y 2 )2

We see this is
y(3x2 − y 2 ) 2x2 (x2 − y 2 )y
+
(x2 + y 2 ) (x2 + y 2 )2
For the rst term, we use |3x2 − y 2 | ≤ 3(x2 + y 2 ) to see this tends to 0 as (x, y) → 0. For the second term,
2x2 ≤ 2(x2 + y 2 ) and |(x2 − y 2 )| ≤ x2 + y 2 , so this is bounded above in absolute value by |y| and hence tends
to 0 as (x, y) → 0. By composition, to show the claim for D1 f it remains to show D1 f (0, 0) = 0. We have
1
D1 f (0, 0) = lim f (x, 0)
x→0 x
and f (x, 0) = 0 for all x, so this is 0.

For D2 f , we note f (x, y) = −f (y, x). Hence, D2 f (x, y) = −D1 f (y, x). As D1 f is continuous, so is D2 f .

(b) Claim. D12 f and D21 f exist at every point of R2 and are continuous except at (0, 0).

Proof. Away from 0, we see that for D21 f , this follows from applying the quotient rule to the expression
found in (a) for D1 f . For D12 f , this follows from dierentiating D2 f (x, y) = −D1 f (y, x) in (a).

(c) Claim. D12 f (0, 0) = 1 and D21 f (0, 0) = −1.

4
 Proof. We have
1
D12 f (0, 0) = D2 f (x, 0)
lim
x→0 x
−1
= lim D1 f (0, x)
x→0 x
−1 (x2 )[x(−x2 )]
= lim ( )
x→0 x (x2 )2
x5
= lim 5
x→0 x
= 1

and
1
D21 f (0, 0) = lim D1 f (0, y)
y→0 y
1 (y 2 )[y(−y 2 )]
= lim
y→0 y (y 2 )2
−y 5
= lim 5
y→0 y
= −1

7. (a) Let f : R2 → R be continuously dierentiable.

Claim. f is not injective.

Proof. We may assume D1 f (x, y) 6= 0 on some open set E as D1 f is continuous and, if D1 f (x, y) = 0
everywhere, then f is constant along horizontal lines (ie those of the form t → (t, y) for xed y ). Dene
g : E → R2 by g(x, y) = (f (x, y), y). Then, on E we have
 
D1 f (x, y) D2 f (x, y)
g 0 (x, y) =
0 1

which has determinant D1 f (x, y) 6= 0. Hence, if (x0 , y0 ) ∈ E , we may apply the implicit function theorem to
nd open sets U ⊆ E , V ⊆ R2 such that g : U → V is a bijection. As V is open, we can nd (u, v), (u, v 0 ) ∈ V
with v 6= v 0 . Then, f (g −1 (u, v)) = u and f (g −1 (u, v 0 )) = u, but g −1 (u, v) 6= g −1 (u, v 0 ), so f is not injective.

(b) Suppose n > m and f : Rn → Rm is continuously dierentiable.

Claim. f is not injective.

Proof. We prove this by induction on n. For n = 2, this is part (a). Now, assume the result for all
n0 < n, m0 < n0 . We write
 ∂f1 ∂f1 ∂f1 
∂x1 ∂x2 ... ∂xn
f 0 (x) =  ... ..
.
.. 
. 

∂fm ∂fm ∂fm
∂x1 ∂x2 ... ∂xn

If this has an invertible m × m submatrix, then without loss of generality we may assume this invertible
submatrix is  ∂f1 ∂f1 
∂x1 ... ∂xm
 .. .. 
 . . 
∂fm ∂fm
∂x1 ... ∂xm

5
Then, dening g : Rn → Rn by (where x has the rst m components, y the last n − m components)
g(x, y) = (f (x, y), y) we see g 0 is continuous and invertible in a neighborhood of a point (x0 , y0 ) where
f 0 (x0 , y0 ) has the invertible m × m submatrix above. Hence, we may apply the same argument as in (a) to
conclude f is not injective.

Suppose, instead, that f 0 never has an invertible m × m submatrix. Let k be the maximal rank of f 0 (x)
as x ranges over Rn . If k = 0, then f 0 = 0 everywhere. In particular, ∂x ∂fj
= 0 for all j , and so f is
constant along the planes with constant x1 coordinate. Hence, f is not injective in this case. Thus, we are
1

left to consider 1 ≤ k ≤ m − 1. Let x0 be a point such that the rank of f 0 (x0 ) is k. Write Rm = U ⊕ V
where U = range(f 0 (x0 )) and V is any complementary subspace. Let πU : Rm → U be the projection with
N (πU ) = V and consider the map g = πU ◦ f : Rn → U . Then, g 0 is continuous by composition and

g 0 (x0 ) = πU
0
(f (x0 ))f 0 (x0 )

which is onto. Hence, we may apply the implicit function theorem to nd a map h : Rn−k → Rk such that
locally there is a C 1 bijection between Z = {x|g(x) = g(x0 )} ⊆ Rn and an open subset W ⊆ Rn−k given
by w → (w, h(w)) ∈ Z . Now we consider F : W → V by F (w) = πV ◦ f (w, h(w)) where πV : Rm → V is
the projection with N (πV ) = U . We claim F is injective. Indeed, suppose F (w) = F (w0 ). Then, we must
have f (w, h(w)) − f (w0 , h(w0 )) ∈ N (πV ) = U . Thus, we may apply πU to see g(w, h(w)) − g(w0 , h(w0 )) =
f (w, h(w)) − f (w0 , h(w0 )). By construction, (w, h(w)), (w0 , h(w0 )) ∈ Z , so g(w, h(w)) − g(w0 , h(w0 )) = 0.
Thus, f (w, h(w)) = f (w0 , h(w0 )). As f is injective, it follows that w = w0 . Viewing W ⊆ Rn−k and
V ∼= Rm−k , we have constructed an injective, C 1 map from W to V . By our inductive hypothesis, this is
impossible, so we have a contradiction.