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University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections
1997
Recommended Citation
Pujobroto, Agus, Organic petrology and geochemistry of Bukit Asam coal, South Sumatra, Indonesia, Doctor of Philosophy thesis,
School of Geosciences, University of Wollongong, 1997. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/1975
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
from
by
AGUS PUJOBROTO
BSc(Hons) [ITB], MSc
SCHOOL OF GEOSCIENCES
1997
ABSTRACT
This study is a petrographic analysis of the coal in the Bukit A s a m Coalfield which
includes a complex of working coal mines located near the small town of Tanjung Enim,
South Sumatra, Indonesia. The Bukit A s a m coal seams are part of the Muara Enim
Formation which is composed of shale, siltstone, claystone, sandstone and intercalated coal
layers. Within the immediate Bukit A s a m area, the Muara Enim Formation can be divided
into two units - a lower unit, which consists mostly of coal, dark grey to black shale,
brownish-grey claystone, sandy claystone and a few coarse-grained sandstone beds, and
an upper unit which is composed of shale, coal, tuff, claystone and sandstone.
Tectonically, the basin formed in a depression zone in a back-arc basin in the early
Tertiary Sumatra subduction system. The Muara Enim Formation was deposited during a
regressive phase in a transgressive-regressive cycle that controlled sedimentation in the
South Sumatra Basin.
The lower part of the sequence was deposited in a freshwater lagoon with probably sever
marine incursions in the lower part and shallowing as indicated by the deposition of a
prograding delta sequence preceding quieter water conditions, probably a tidal flat. Later
deposition was in a deltaic environment. The Mangus Tuff (A2 Seam to A l Seam interval)
is a series of volcanic packages and represents a large increase in the volume of volcanic
detritus entering the basin.
Bukit Asam coal is dominated by vitrinite with minor liptinite, inertinite and mineral
matter (mostly clay minerals, quartz and rarely pyrite). Vitrinite is predominantly
detrovitrinite with significant amounts of telovitrinite and minor gelinite. The detrovitrinite
contents range from 7.8 to 7 6 . 1 % (an average of 56.6%) whereas telovitrinite contents
range from 3.0 to 6 2 . 6 % with an average 21.1%; gelovitrinite contents range from 1.4 to
27.6% (an average of 9.2%). Liptinite averages 5.3%, but ranges from 0.2 to 25.4%.
Resinite, sporinite, suberinite, cutinite, liptodetrinite are the dominant liptinite with minor
fluorinite and exsudatinite. It is likely that much of the exsudatinite was produced by the
influence of the intrusions. Inertinite constitutes from trace to 11.2% (average of 3.6%).
The most c o m m o n inertinite is semifusinite, followed by inertodetrinite, sclerotinite,
fusinite and sparse macrinite. Samples from A 2 seam have the highest inertinite content
(>5%).
There is no significant interseam difference in maceral composition with all seams havi
high vitrinite contents (88.0 to 90.5%), and low liptinite (4.2 to 5.0%) and inertinite
contents (4.1 to 5.5%). Intraseam variations in maceral composition are also relatively
small.
The rank range from sub-bituminous (I^max ranges from 0.35 to 0.5% with most values
falling in the range of 0.4 to 0.46%) to semi-anthracite (Ryinax 2 % ) . The wide range of
ranks is a result of igneous intrusions, of andesitic composition.
deposited were mostly of a raised high moor type but these did not reach the mature stage
of peat development, except for A l seam, because of a lack of fibric peat at the top each
peat episode. The mires of Bukit A s a m were subjected to basement subsidence with the
rate of subsidence similar to the rate of plant accumulation. A modern analogue is thought
to be the Jambi peat deposit of Sumatra, Indonesia.
In Bukit Asam coal, the major oxide and trace element composition is closely linked to
mineral content of the samples with an increase in quartz and calcite in the heated coal.
Rb, C s and K are most likely derived from detrital clay (K-rich clay or mixed clay) and
have been leached from the claystone (tonstein) layers and redeposited in the coal. Y , Zr,
N b , T h and to a lesser extent Sb, H f and U have also been mobilised from the tonsteins.
Ti, and sometimes Ga, are immobile elements and are found in the tonsteins, and Ba, Sr
and to a lesser extent Z n and Pb, are organically-bound elements.
The best use for Bukit Asam coal is as a steaming coal and as a feedstock for coal
liquefaction. However, the economics of the liquefaction process in an Indonesian
scenario, is still equivocal. S o m e medium-rank coal m a y be suitable as a blending
component with high inertinite coal with the similar rank to produce strong coking coal.
Bukit Asam coal is likely to cause some fouling and slagging but selective mining pro
can improve the performance of the coal.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praises only for Allah, the Almighty God, the God of Universe.
This study has been carried out since 1991 under a bilateral cooperative agreement
between the Australian and Indonesian governments w h o provided a generous scholarship
through the A I D A B / A u s A I D program. I would like to express m y thanks and deep
appreciation to the regional director of A I D A B / A u s A I D in Sydney and his staff, especially
M r . Paul Donnohue, David Engel, and Bruce O'Brien w h o have supported this program.
I would like to thank Dr Bryan Chenhall who introduced the author to XRF and XRD
analysis and for undertaking the X R F analysis of the samples for this study. M y special
thanks go to John Paterson for undertaking major elements analysis, Aivars Depers for
assisting with the use of the M P V 2 and M P V I microscopes, M a x Perkins w h o helped with
the X R D analyses, David Carrie for making difficult thin sections and for instructing on
h o w to make other thin sections, Penny Williamson for helping with the close-up
photography of hand specimens and Ibu Yenny and W a h y a for their help during the ashing
of coils for X R F analysis in the Directorate of Mineral Resources Chemical Laboratory,
Bandung. Dr. B. Daulay and Nining Sudini Ningrum, M S c , providing access to the latest
development in coal conversion research in the M T R D C Chemical Laboratory, Bandung.
I thank Dr. Alan Cook for his time to read the first draft of the organic petrology
I benefited from discussions, suggestions and comments on organic petrology especially
on the aspects on thermal upgrading of coal, utilisation of coal and high inertinite contents
in Gondwana coals. H e also supplied papers, book and theses related to this study. I also
thank E m m y van Houten w h o translated old papers about early exploration in the study
area from the Dutch geologists.
I express my great appreciation to the management and geological staff of PT. Tambang
Batubara Bukit A s a m (PT. Bukit Asam) for providing many facilities during m y two
periods of field work including access to proximate data from Airlaya Mine. Ir. Syahrial
Alam (Chief Geologist), Ir. Hadi Prasetyo (Senior Geologist) and Ir. Taufiq (Computing
Geologist) provided access to invaluable data and reports only available from the company.
Iswandy (Geologist) helped during sampling on the mining face and assisted with his
knowledge of the best outcrops in the concession area of PT. Bukit Asam.
I also thank my fellow postgraduate students in the former Department of Geology, and
n o w School of Geosciences) for fruitful discussions and their suggestions during m y study,
especially Hadiyanto w h o suggested that I take Bukit A s a m as m y study area, Drs C. Nas
IV
and B. Daulay w h o gave m e valuable hints for the organic petrology study, Soltani and
Moradian w h o helped m e with thin section making and Indra Jaya, Dessy and Prasetya
w h o helped with the photocopying of some figures in the last stages of m y study.
Last but not least, I am proud, thankful and indebted to my wife, Dewi, and my sons
Danu and the late Saksi for their encouragement to finish this study. M y wife also helped
m e with typing and undertaking the corrections of spelling mistakes and valuable
suggestions for some aspects of the inorganic chemistry.
V
AGUS PUJOBROTO
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Location m a p of the study area 283
Figure 1.2 Coal production from Bukit Asam, compared to 284
Indonesian coal production, 1973-1990
Figure 1.3 Coal seam nomenclature of Bukit A s a m coals 285
Figure 1.4 The coal exploration prospect areas of the 286
South Sumatra Basin
Figure 6.1 Histogram of major elements in the Bukit Asam Coalfields 370
Figure 6.2 a. Plot of acid oxides versus ash content 371
b. Plot of basic oxides versus ash content
Figure 6.3 a. Correlation between Th contents for X R F and I N A A 372
b. Correlation between Zn contents for X R F and I N A A
Figure 6.4 Dendrogram of X R F data for A l seam 373
Figure 6.5 Vertical profiles of parameters in Groups A and B, R-mode 374
analysis, A l seam
Figure 6.6 Vertical profiles of Group C{ and C 2 , R-mode analysis, 375
A l seam
Figure 6.7 Vertical profiles of parameters in group C 3 and D l t R-mode 376
analysis, Al seam
Figure 6.8 Vertical profiles of parameters in group D 2 , 377
R-mode analysis, Al seam
Figure 6.9 Dendogram of I N A A data, A 2 seam 378
Figure 6.10 Vertical profiles of Ba and Fe, A 2 seam 379
Figure 6.11 R-mode dendrogram of X R F data, A 2 seam 380
Figure 6.12 Vertical profiles of parameters in Group A, 381
X R F data, A 2 seam
Figure 6.13 Vertical profiles of parameters in Group B, 382
X R F data, A 2 seam
Figure 6.14 R-mode dendrogram of I N A A data, Bl seam 383
Figure 6.15 Vertical profiles of parameters in Groups A and B, 384
I N A A data, Bl seam
Figure 6.16 Vertical profiles of parameters in Subgroup D 2 , I N A A data, 385
Bl seam
Figure 6.17 Vertical profiles of parameters in Subgroup D 3 386
and Group E, I N N A data, Bl seam
Figure 6.18 R-mode dendrogram of X R F data, Bl seam 387
Figure 6.19 Vertical profiles of parameters in Group A, X R F data, 388
Bl seam
Figure 6.20 Vertical profiles of parameters in Group C, X R F data, 389
Bl seam
Figure 6.21 R-mode dendrogram of I N A A data, B 2 seam 390
Figure 6.22 Vertical profiles of parameters in Group A, I N A A data, 391
B 2 seam
Figure 6.23 Vertical profiles of parameters in Groups B and C, 392
I N A A data, B 2 seam
Figure 6.24 R-mode dendrogram of X R F data, B2 seam 393
Figure 6.25 Dendogram of Q-mode analysis 394
Figure 6.26 R-mode dendrogram of geochemical and penological data, 396
A l seam
Figure 6.27 Geochemical separation of important elements on the 397
basis of ionic radii
Figure 7.1 Vertical variation in ash content in coal and claystone + 408
shaly coal fractions, Al seam, location A L A 1 2
Figure 7.2 Statistical prediction of slagging and fouling 409
behaviour of solid fuels
Figure 7.3 Comparison of the reflectogram of 5 coal blends with their 410
swelling indices and other properties
Figure 7.4 Distribution of A l seam coal based on potential 411
use as coking coal
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 Main lithologies of the Muara Enim Formation 313
and adjacent units
Table 4.2 Average ash content of South Sumatra coals 314
Table 4.3 Description of claystone in A l seam 315
Table 4.4 Sulphur content in the Bukit Asam coals 316
Table 5.1 Effect of heat on Australian high volatile bituminous coal 340
Table 5.2 R v max and distance data to the intrusion for Figure 5.7 350
Table 5.3 Range and average maceral content in Bukit Asam coals 351
Table 5.4 Range and average maceral content in Bukit Asam coaly shale 351
Table 5.5 Average maceral composition of seams, Bukit Asam 352
Table 5.6 Characteristics of the coal seams, Bukit Asam 353
Table 5.7 Summary of the relationship between coal facies 354
indices and condition of coal formation
Table 5.8 Tropical peat classification 355
Table 6.1 Major element content in coal (< 15% ash) 398
Table 6.2 Major element content in shaly coal and claystone 399
(>15%ash)
Table 6.3 Average major element content in seams 400
Table 6.4 Comparison of elemental contents resulted from X R F and I N A A 400
Table 6.5 Trace element content in coal (results from X R F analysis) 401
Table 6.6 Trace element content in shaly coal and claystone 402
(> 1 5 % ash, results from X R F analysis)
Table 6.7 Average trace element content in seams 403
Table 6.8 Elemental content in coal - I N A A ( < 1 5 % ash), P^max < 0 . 5 % 404
Table 6.9 Elemental content in shaly coal and claystone (> 1 5 % ash), 404
R v max < 0 . 5 %
Table 6.10 Elemental content in slightly heated coal - 405
I N A A ( < 1 5 % ash), ^ m a x 0.5 to 0.8%
Table 6.11 Elemental content in claystone (> 1 5 % ash), 405
R v max 0.5 to 0.8%
Table 6.12 Elemental content of coal - I N A A (< 1 5 % ash), heated coal, 406
Rvmax > 1 %
Table 6.13 Elemental content of shaly coal and claystone (> 1 5 % ash), 406
heated shaly coal, R v max > 1 %
Table 6.14 Average seam elemental contents; I N A A methods 407
Table 7.1 Proximate analysis data, unhealed Bukit Asam coals 412
- VM >45%
Table 7.2 Weighted average of proximate analysis and 412
sulphur contents of the Bukit Asam coal
Table 7.3 Ultimate analysis of the Bukit Asam coals 413
Table 7.4 Weighted average of potentially hazardous trace elements, 414
Bukit Asam
Table 7.5 Summary of c o m m o n slagging and fouling indices 415
Table 7.6 Slagging and fouling parameters, Bukit Asam coal 416
Table 7.7 Slagging and fouling parameters using the Altmann method 417
Table 7.8 Emission standards for new coal-fired power plant, 418
300 M W in industrial countries
Table 7.9 Specifications of selected Indonesian coals 419
Table 7.10 Capital expenditure for fuels 420
LIST OF PLATES
1.1 LOCATION
The study area covers a complex of working coal mines in the Bukit Asam Coalfield wh
is located near the small town of Tanjung Enim, South Sumatra, Indonesia (Fig. 1.1).
study area is 4 km wide and 6 km long and is part of the concession area of PT. Tamb
Batubara Bukit Asam (abbreviated to PT. Bukit Asam) which is the operator of the min
The nearest major city, which is the commercial centre of the area and has the neare
airport capable of landing F28 jet aircraft (the aircraft commonly used in commercia
aviation for travel to the less remote areas of Indonesia, such as central South Sum
is Palembang which is about 165 km northeast of the study area. From Palembang, the
The terrain covering the study area is moderately undulating, especially across the
area. Elevations generally range from -40 m in the base of one working pit to 280 m
above sea level at Bukit Asam, a prominent hill (+282 m) close to the mine area.
Bukit Asam coal' mining lease comprises five coal mines - Airlaya (the biggest), Mua
Tiga Selatan, Suban Klawas Tengah, Klawas Barat and one abandoned mine, Klawas
Timur, which has been worked out and now has no economic reserves. Rank variations
are caused by igneous intrusions that locally heated some of coal-bearing areas in t
area, and as a consequence, reduced the volatile matter and increased the fixed carb
2
content of the coals. The rank of the mined coal ranges from semi-anthracite to sub-
bituminous rank. The igneous rocks causing the rank variations are exposed on Bukit
A s a m Hill and Bukit Tapuan Hill which are prominent hills in the area.
1.2 BACKGROUND
The South Sumatra Basin, in which Bukit A s a m Coalfield is located, is believed to be the
most prospective coal resource in Indonesia. It contains approximately 18.8 billion tonnes
of coal reserves which account for 5 8 . 4 % of Indonesia's total coal reserves. With the
increasing popularity of coal as an energy resource in Indonesia on the one hand, and an
increasing concern about the environmental impact of coal utilisation (as in western
countries) on the other hand, a study of the organic composition and mineralogical content
of Bukit A s a m coal would be very beneficial both in relation to future exploration and coal
Until fairly recently, mining of the Bukit Asam coals has followed traditional practic
with modern technologies not being a major component in formulating mining strategies.
This is quite different to some of the newer mines in Kalimantan where, for example,
computer technology is a major tool in both exploration and mining. South Sumatran coal
is almost wholly utilised in domestic electricity generation and thus traditional mining
strategies are used and these rely on cheap labour and low productivity costs rather than
more efficient and cost efficient mechanisation as is needed for coal production in
Coal production from Bukit Asam in 1990 was 4.023 million tonnes which was 39.5% of
total Indonesian production. Since then the percentage has decreased due to the rapid
3
increase in production from mines in Kalimantan. Bukit A s a m coal is used in the Suralaya
power station, which in 1992, had a generating capacity of 800 M W of electricity1 from
two 400 M W plants, and Bukit A s a m power station which has two 65 M W plants and an
additional four 400 M W plants due to come on stream by the year 2000.
Mining started at Bukit Asam in 1919 with a small surface pit but went underground in
the Suban and Airlaya areas in 1923. Underground mining continued until 1940-41 with
a m a x i m u m annual output of 800,000 tonnes. The very low oil prices in the 1963 to 1973
period caused a dramatic decrease in production with only 75,000 tonnes produced in
1973. Since then, production has increased, associated with increased mechanisation of the
mines, with production for selected years in the 1980s shown in Figure 1.2.
Daulay (1994) and Daulay and Hutton (1994) gave figures that showed that total
Indonesian coal production is predicted to increase from 36.7 million tonnes in 1995 to 50
million tonnes in the year 2000. Of this amount, Sumatran coal comprised 11.4 million
tonnes in 1995 and was estimated to increase to 13.8 million tonnes by 2000. Thus the
large predicted increase in production is likely to be from Kalimantan. Whilst these are the
predictions, the scenario is not fixed and not necessarily the best option.
The population density and distribution in Indonesia is not uniform; the largest prop
of the population is in Java and Sumatra. Thus it would be convenient to have large
established reserves of energy, both coal and electricity, near these population centres as
these areas are where the energy will be needed and where the bulk of the expected coal
consumption is likely to occur. For example, Daulay (1994) stated that the total predicted
coal consumption in Indonesia would increase from 15 million (low estimate) or 19 million
4
(high estimate) to 28 million (low) or 41 million (high) in the year 2000. T h e proportion
for electricity, cement manufacture and other domestic uses for the year 2000 were given
as 15 million (low) to 29 million (high), 5.3 million (low and high estimate) and 7.4
12,890 M W in the year 2000 with Java and Sumatra capacity accounting for 12,600 M W ,
indicating the influence of population growth centres on power station location. Because
of transport costs and other distance cost factors, the bulk of the coal will be from the
The geology of Bukit A s a m area was reported by a number of early frontier Dutch
region especially, were Tobler (1906), Hirschi (1916), Hartman (1918), Mannhardt (1918,
a copy is still available) and Ziegler (1918); unfortunately, these publications are not
available any more and all references to these publications by modern researchers has to
be by way of referring to citations in later works such Musper (1937). The following
Tobler (1906) reported on the petroleum areas around Muara Enim and was the first
called the Telisa beds; Tobler's terminology introduced the terms Lower, Middle and
Upper Palembang beds. This terminology remained unchanged until the 1970s.
5
Hirschi was one of the first to discover and report on the Tertiary coals. H e discussed the
effects of contact metamorphism on the coal, especially in the Muara Enim area which
includes Bukit Asam. Hartman (1918) reported the coal occurrences in Sukamerinda and
Bunian areas, west of Bukit Asam, and Mannhardt (1918) reported on the geology and
One of the earliest publications still available is that of Musper (1937) who made a
comprehensive geological evaluation of the Lahat Quadrangle (including the areas covered
in the above-mentioned reports). H e recorded and critically evaluated the important points
in the above reports although not a lot of new data was given. In a later preliminary report
on Bukit A s a m coals, Tarring (1951) stated that igneous intrusions had domed the coal
measures, effecting local changes in coal composition by heat. The greatest influence by
the intrusions was at the top of the Airlaya dome; the influence was stated to decrease
radially outwards. Badroom (1964) reported additional new data for this area after
Shell Mijnbouw N.V. (1978) carried out a major drilling program of 590 boreholes in th
changed to P T . Bukit A s a m ) coal resource and feasibility program. Thirty one cored holes
were drilled in the study area and geophysical logging was carried out on these test holes.
The results of this program were reported in several thematic reports, the most important
being:
- a geological m a p of South Sumatra Coal Province (that is still valid and remains one of
- a report on the stratigraphy and structure of the coal deposits in the then T A B A
- a review of the depositional environments of the South Sumatra Basin written by Stalder
(1976).
Nursarya and Latief (1979) studied the depositional environments of the coal-bearing
strata. They concluded that the coal measures sequence was deposited in a deltaic system
with an optimal subsidence rate that enabled the formation of widespread, relatively thick
coal deposits.
In 1978, after an extensive core drilling program, the Geological Survey of Indonesia
completed a comprehensive report on the coal geology of Bukit A s a m Coalfield and this
In 1980, Montreal Engineering, Canadian Pacific Railways and Swan Wooster Canada
Coalfield, reporting additional exploration data; also provided were the data for analyses
of the available coal including organic petrography, elemental analyses and proximate
analyses. However, all data were based on composite samples from each of the seams in
the coalfield. Distribution patterns of volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon were given. The
distribution trends for volatile matter indicated decreasing values towards the south and
towards a region west of the Airlaya pit. This was interpreted as showing that the influence
of the igneous activity had altered volatile content by varying amounts. T h e report also
mentioned that the centre of igneous activities was below an area on the western side of
Airlaya pit. Ash trends showed irregular patterns over the entire coalfield.
7
T h e trends in carbon content appeared to be similar to volatile matter trends indicating that
carbon content increases towards a high on the western side of Airlaya pit. A s h data
showed slightly higher sodium and potassium oxides in the central and northern sectors of
the coalfields. Trace element analyses was carried out only on one sample from Airlaya
Kinhill-Ottogold Joint Venture (1986) reported on an exploration project in the Muara Tiga
Besar and Banko areas. T h e report included a coal quality study and also reported on a
facies study of the clastic sediments and coal that had developed in the study area.
Daulay (1985), as part of his study on the petrology of some Indonesian coals, stated that
as for other Indonesian coals, the coal from Bukit A s a m is characterised petrographically
by high vitrinite, relatively high liptinite and low inertinite and mineral contents. H e also
stated that detrovitrinite is the main constituent of vitrinite and occurs as a matrix material
for isolated thin layers of telovitrinite. In heated coals, the vitrinite was found to be
alteration m a d e the distinction between telovitrinite and detrovitrinite more difficult. This
samples compared to the same ratio for unaltered coals. Daulay also discussed the
potential for utilisation of Indonesian coals and coal rank trends. H e did not discuss in
From the brief summary of the previous studies given above, it is clear that there has not
been any study that focused on the vertical and horizontal elemental distribution in the coal
8
seams nor variations in the composition of the coals, either organic or inorganic. A s
Indonesia increases its use of coal and, consequently, the Sumatra coalfields are required
to produce additional coal, a larger and better data base will be required. Also, as
environmental concerns become more relevant and important, a study of the mineral matter
the igneous intrusions and the recent Old River deposits. The coal measures sequence is
and sandstone which contains at least 18 coal layers. The unit is formally part of the
Muara Enim Formation. The coal seams vary in thickness from several centimetres to 15
The Muara Enim Formation was conformably deposited over a sequence of shallow marine
sediments, with abundant foraminifers, known as the Air Benakat Formation. Above the
Muara Enim Formation are tuffaceous terrestrial sediments of the Kasai Formation. The
Maura Enim Formation, which is gently folded with fold axes generally trending N W W -
Rocks of the second rock unit, volcanic rocks and plutonic rocks associated with the
igneous intrusions, are andesitic in composition. Several bodies intrude the coal-bearing
sequence in either of two styles - vertical prism-like structures such Bukit A s a m and Bukit
Tapuan Hills, or "half ball" structures such as Bukit M u n g g u Hill. Intrusions of the second
type intrude horizontally and are parallel to the bedding planes at the base; an example is
9
the sill between B 2 and C seams (see terminology explanation below) under Airlaya and
Suban mines. It is these intrusions that are responsible for increasing rank of the adjacent
coals.
The Old River deposits, the third rock unit, comprises Quaternary river deposits whi
cover parts of the study area. These sediments generally show a horizontal stratification
and occasional channel structures. The Old River sediments are unconformably deposited
on the coal measures sequence and were reported from several drill holes in Airlaya mine
area.
In the Muara Enim Formation at least 18 coal layers are found but not all are important
enough to have been given seam names. S o m e of the coals are thin discontinuous lenses
which have little or no economic potential whereas others are thick seams. Several of the
significant coal units have been given seam status. The deepest seam is Kladi seam which
is also the base of the Muara Enim Formation. The shallowest seam is Niru seam which
is the top boundary of the Muara Enim Formation. The intermediate coal seams are, from
the bottom, Merapi, Petai, Suban, Mangus, Burung, Benuang, Kebon, Babat/Benakat and
Enim seams. In the Muara Enim area, Lematang and Niru seams did not develop.
Mangus, Suban and Petai seams split into two seams, namely, the Upper (Al) and Lower
(A2) Mangus seams, Upper (Bl) and Lower (B2) Suban seams and Upper (CI) and Lower
(C2) Petai seams (Fig. 1.3). The more recent publications commonly use the A l , A 2 , Bl,
B2, C I and C 2 nomenclature. In this thesis, the terms Mangus or A , Suban or B and Petai
or C are used where referring to the interval comprising the lower and upper splits with
the intervening clastic sedimentary rocks and the A l , A 2 , Bl, B2, C I and C 2 are used for
10
With present mining operations (Fig. 1.4), PT. Bukit Asam exploits the coals from th
and A2 (Mangus) seams and Bl and B2 (Suban) seams as these seams are more readily
exposed for open pit mining. The upper seams (Enim seam and above) are not considere
discussed general coal geology and coal quality. In such studies aspects of the depo
environments that probably controlled many aspects of Bukit Asam coal were not of gr
concern. MCS Consultants (1960) mentioned the spatial variations in volatile matter,
carbon and calorific values but these were interpreted as effects of thermal alterat
also mentioned sodium and potassium variations but did not discuss why such variatio
occurred. Daulay (1985) discussed the petrology of Indonesian coal including Bukit A
coals, the coal types and rank variations (and the relationship to sedimentary and te
settings), and palaeoclimate but this was very much a preliminary study; aspects rela
to the Bukit Asam area was only a very small part of his study. He did not discuss s
Also, most previous studies did not discuss the elemental variation or mineral varia
Bukit Asam coals. These matters will be addressed in detail in this thesis.
of the coal.
3. T o provide a revised model for the formation of the coals based on a review of
deposition of the clastic units in the Bukit A s a m Coalfield, and additional measured
4. T o undertake a study of the major oxides and trace elements in the coal and
5. T o use coal quality data to determine the best use of Bukit A s a m coals.
distribution and the influence of igneous intrusions on the coal will be formulated. This
study will be of value for future researchers, the mining operations in the Bukit A s a m area
and electricity generation authorities as it will have an impact on mine planning, coal
CHAPTER TWO
GEOLOGY OF THE BUKIT ASAM AREA
2.1 INTRODUCTION
evolution of the South Sumatra Basin because the coal measures unit at Bukit Asam
of the sedimentary sequence in the basin and the deposition of the sediments was
by the climate, topography, structure and dynamic change within the basin once th
had been deposited. In this chapter, the geology of South Sumatra Basin will be d
with emphasis on the study area, that is, the local geology of Bukit Asam area. C
characteristics and nomenclature that are required as a framework for the petrogr
The formation of the South Sumatra Basin has been discussed by many authors inclu
(1978) and Daly et al. (1987). De Coster (1974) had access to a large data base d
from oil exploration programs and gave an excellent explanation of the geology of
the Central Sumatra Basin and the South Sumatra Basin as they were understood at
time. However, not a lot was written about the coal and its formation. Only the p
acceptable concept for the sedimentary framework of the basin in relation to the
The South Sumatra Basin is a very important fossil fuel-producing area in Indones
14
oil traps and economic coal deposits have been found, and exploited, in this basin. T h e
Tertiary metamorphic and igneous rocks. The basin is bounded by faults and uplifted
exposures of preTertiary rocks (which form the core of the Barisan Mountains) along the
southwestern margin, by the Lampung High along the southeastern margin, by the Sunda
Shelf along the northeastern margin and by the Tigapuluh Mountains along the northern
The South Sumatra Basin was formed as a result of plate collision and interaction betw
the Sunda cratonic mass, commonly called the Sunda Shelf and the Indo-Australian Plate
in the Early Tertiary. Plate collision during the Early Tertiary resulted in complex block
faulting and subsidence at the margin of the land mass (Fig. 2.2). T h e different rates of
subsidence between the blocks resulted in the development of Tertiary basins which are
which covered most of the cratonic periphery with the exception of a few high areas acting
as basin barriers. In Indonesia, this style of basin is called an intramontane basins. Coal
formed in these intramontane basins. Ombilin Basin, in which coal formed in a lacustrine
environment (Fig. 2.3), is one of the better-known examples of this type of basin.
During the Middle Tertiary, subduction of the oceanic plate against the continental c
continued but was accompanied by a reversal of the block movement and a general uplift
of the immediate continental crust. At the same time, d o w n warping occurred in the
backdeep areas and new sedimentary basins formed. The uplift of the blocks continued,
followed by volcanism and the development of a regressive phase in the backdeep areas.
these backdeep areas and thus the coals formed in a tectonically-active region and in
backdeep areas during a regional regression phase. However, Stalder (1976) stated that
during the period when the Muara Enim Formation was formed, that is, during the time
the precursor peats for the coals were being deposited, there was no tectonic activity
except for the uplift of the Barisan Range and axial subsidence of the basin. Thus,
although the basin experienced tectonic activity, this activity m a y not have been uniform
throughout the life of the basin, but fluctuated from time to time.
Stach et al. (1982) stated that most economic laterally-extensive coal seams are formed
active forearc basins. In these basins, the sediments commonly are very thick and coal
layers are relatively thin but of great lateral extent. Stach et al also stated that in backdeep
areas, the number of coal seams is usually less than in the forearc areas. In the South
Sumatra Basin, the coals formed in a backdeep basin but are both widespread and
The basal Tertiary unit, which unconformably overlies the preTertiary rock basement in
the South Sumatra Basin (Fig 2.4), is the Lahat Formation (called the Lemat Formation
by some authors, for example, Sudarmono, 1974; de Coster, 1974). This unit consists of
coarse clastic, continental sedimentary rocks such as conglomerate, breccia, shale with thin
coals intercalations and tuff. W h e r e the basin was deeper and where the sequence is n o w
thicker, the Benakat Shale M e m b e r also was deposited. This unit consists of shale,
marginal areas of the basin, the Benakat Shale M e m b e r gradually becomes coarser grained
16
and is known as an undifferentiated, coarse member of the Lahat Formation. The thickness
of the Lahat Formation is highly variable; it attains a thickness of more than 760 m in the
centre of the basin (de Coster, 1974; Sumuyut and Sarjito, 1989).
The age of the Lahat Formation is given as Late Eocene-Early Oligocene. This age is
based on spore and pollen dating of the clastic sedimentary rocks and K-Ar dating of tuff
The Talang Akar Formation generally was deposited unconformably over the Lahat
Formation although in the marginal areas of the basin it was deposited directly on the pre-
Tertiary basement. This unit consists of delta plain sandstone, siltstone and shale (with
intercalations of coal) that grade basinward into shallow marine sandstone and shale.
Towards the margin, coarser-grained clastic rocks are commonly found. The thickness of
the Talang Akar Formation varies; it is very thin along the margins of the basin but in the
central regions of the basin, such as near Bukit Asam, the thickness varies from 460 to
610 m (de Coster, 1974). In a report on the petroleum potential of the area to the
northwest of Bukit Asam, Sumuyut and Sarjito (1989) stated that two facies of the Talang
Akar Formation could be recognised; the basal facies is a coarse-grained facies up to 550
m thick and the upper facies is a finer grained unit (informally called the transitional
The age of Talang Akar Formation is given as Late Oligocene-Early Miocene and this is
based on the foraminifer assemblage N.3-N.5 as defined in Berner and Blow's planktonic
comprises the Basal Telisa Limestone M e m b e r (de Coster, 1974; Sudarmono, 1974) which
is defined on the basis of intercalations of calcareous sandstone in the lower part and
calcareous shale with abundant foraminifers and thin limestone layers in the middle and
upper parts of the unit. The unit changes laterally; in the middle of the basin there is
limestone whereas towards the margins of the basin, the limestone changes to calcareous
shale which in turn gradually changes to calcareous glauconitic sandstone on the extreme
marginal areas. Later authors (Hutapea, 1981; Koesoemadinata, 1978) regarded the basal
Telisa Limestone M e m b e r as a separate unit and it was given the name Baturaja
Formation; the remainder of the Telisa Formation was called the Gumai Formation. The
oil companies prefer to use the de Coster terminology but surface geologists, not associated
with oil companies, prefer to use the Koesoemadinata terminology because the two units
The thickness of the Telisa Formation varies greatly depending on the position in the
basin; in the main depocentre of the basin, near Bukit Asam, it has a m a x i m u m thickness
of 2,700 m . The age of the unit ranges from N.6 (based on the planktonic foraminifer
assemblages of Berner and Blow) at the base of the unit to N . 11 at the top of the unit.
The Telisa Formation was deposited when the marine transgression reached its maximum
stage and the whole basin was dominated by a marine environment. Gradually the sea level
fell and the Air Benakat Formation (previously called the Lower Palembang Formation)
The Air Benakat Formation consists of calcareous shale with abundant foraminifers,
18
glauconitic sandstone and limestone intercalations in the lower part. At the top of the
formation, the proportion of sandstone is higher and thin coal is intercalated with the
latter; plant remains are c o m m o n in the clastic layers, indicating a shallowing environment.
This unit was deposited in a neritic environment at the base grading to a shallow marine
The thickness of the Air Benakat Formation ranges from 1000 m to 1500 m although
Sumuyut and Sarjito (1989) stated that in the Limau area, northwest of Bukit Asam, the
unit is only 600 m thick. The unit has been assigned a Late Miocene age (de Coster,
1974).
Conformably overlying the Air Benakat Formation is the Muara Enim Formation (formerly
several coal seams. The Muara Enim Formation is defined as the interval extending from
the top of the Air Benekat Formation which is taken as the base of the lowest thick, wide-
spread coal layer (such as the Kladi seam) to the top of the stratigraphically highest wide-
Lithologically, the Muara Enim Formation comprises shale at the base and sandstone and
coal at the top; this indicates deposition in a shallow marine environment changing to a
paludal, deltaic and non-marine environment at the top (de Coster, 1974). In the middle
and top parts of this formation, tuff or tuffaceous claystone intercalations are also
common. This is consistent with the work of Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978) w h o stated that
the lower part of the Muara Enim Formation was influenced by a prominent set of marine
lower Muara Enim Formation, and an increased terrestrial influence at the top, resulting
in deltaic sediments and a greater influx of tuffaceous material, informally called the upper
The age of the unit is given as Early Miocene-Pliocene based on its stratigraphic pos
no fossil has been shown to be useful for age dating. The thickness of the unit ranges from
450 m , in the northern part of the basin, to 750 m in the Bukit A s a m area.
The Kasai Formation (earlier called the Upper Palembang Formation (de Coster, 1974))
was deposited conformably on top of the Muara Enim Formation. This formation was
deposited during the Plio-Pleistocene orogeny and is composed mostly of erosional detritus
derived from the Barisan Mountain and from folded units that had been uplifted during the
orogeny. T h e dominant lithologies are tuffaceous claystone, sandstone, tuff and occasional
Quaternary deposits comprise river deposits such as clays, tuff, gravels and sands wit
result of three separate episodes of orogenic activities - the mid-Mesozoic orogeny, the
During the mid-Mesozoic orogeny, the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic strata were
20
metamorphosed, faulted and folded into large structural blocks that formed belts which
were intruded by granite batholiths. These belts of metamorphic rock are composed of
various lithologies showing different degrees of metamorphism and deformation and are
exposed in the Barisan Mountains. The rocks are considered to extend into the basin sub-
surface.
The second orogeny was probably in the Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary and was
responsible for the formation of the major tensional structures including grabens and fault
blocks in many of the basins of Sumatra. These grabens and fault blocks generally trend
N-S and N N W - S S E and are tensional structures, which, together with the remnant
structures of the mid-Mesozoic orogeny, controlled the depositional pattern of the Lahat
(Lemat) Formation.
The configuration of the sediment thicknesses in South Sumatra Basin suggests that at
edge of the basin, immediately adjacent to the Barisan Mountains, the fault which formed
the graben had ceased moving but when the sediments were deposited, the fault was
activated and the thickness of sediment increased; hence the sedimentary units are
considerably thicker at the basin depocentre as a consequence. The fault was probably still
active at the time the Muara Enim Formation was deposited. T h e shape of the basin
supports this hypothesis in that the long axis of the basin parallels the Barisan Mountain
and the deepest part of the basin coincides with the graben-fault zone.
The last orogeny occurred in the Plio-Pleistocene and produced the most prominent and
recognisable structures in the South Sumatra Basin and elsewhere in southeastern Sumatra
(Fig 2.5). These structures include faults and folds which have a northwest trend. The
21
convergence of the Indo-Australian Plate against the Asian Plate resulted in the final uplift
phase of Barisan Mountain and also right lateral wrenching along the length of the
mountain, forming the Semangko Fault Zone which is still active today.
In the Bukit A s a m area only two Tertiary sedimentary units are exposed, the Muara Enim
Formation and the Kasai Formation (Fig. 2.6). Also exposed are Quaternary deposits and
igneous rocks. The Bukit A s a m area was only deformed during the Plio-Pleistocene and
later during the time of the intrusions when the deformation was at its maximum.
M u a r a E n i m Formation
The Muara Enim Formation, the oldest unit, consists of shale, siltstone, claystone,
sandstone and intercalated coal layers. This unit comprises most of the outcrop in the study
area. At the lower boundary between the Muara Enim Formation and the marine Air
Benakat Formation, is a coal bed named the Kladi seam which is widespread. The upper
boundary of Muara Enim Formation has been placed at the top of the stratigraphically
highest coal seam, the Niru seam, which has been traced laterally for a considerable
distance. Overlying this seam is a tuffaceous bed which belongs to the Kasai Formation.
Within the immediate Bukit Asam area, the Muara Enim Formation can be divided into
two units.
1. Lower unit. This unit consists mostly of coal, dark grey to black shale, brownish-
grey claystone, sandy claystone and a few coarse-grained sandstone beds. The most
22
economic coal in the Bukit A s a m area, comprising the A (Mangus), B (Suban) and C
(Petai) seams, is found in this unit. At Bukit A s a m the unit has been brought close to the
The coal seams were deposited almost rhythmical in the lower part of the Muara Enim
approximately 60 m between the Kladi and C seam to 30 m between C and B seams and
The coals in the lower unit are mostly bright banded coals which vary in thickness fr
(tonsteins). The shale is brown to black in colour and contains abundant detrital organic
Approaching the top of the lower unit and also between Bl and A2 seams is a tuffaceou
siltstone and a shale unit. The shale contains sideritic laminae and elongate nodules or
lenses which are locally called ironstone. This ironstone, which is dominantly silty rather
than shaly, is very hard, reddish-brown in colour; in many of the lenses and nodules;
bedding is discernible.
Pyrite is found in some layers which occur rhythmically throughout the unit but is mo
c o m m o n between the Suban and Petai seams. Very fine- to coarse-grained, bioturbated,
commonly show parallel lamination, graded bedding and cross bedding, the latter two
23
especially in a few beds below the Bl (upper Suban) seam and above the A 2 (lower
Mangus) seam.
sandstone bed with some coal or organic fragments, and quartz grains. This bed also has
2. Upper Unit. This unit comprises shale, coal, tuff, claystone and sandstone. The
boundary between the upper and lower units is the top of the A l (upper Mangus seam).
The upper unit has at least seven recognisable seams, one of which, traditionally, is called
the Hanging seam (because it was thought it have only limited lateral distribution, ranging
colour and tuffaceous, and is interlaminated with claystone, siltstone and fine-grained
sandstone. It coarsens upward, contains abundant detrital plant material and is in part,
sideritic siltstone intercalations have variable geometries ranging from layers (four layers
are prominent) to lenticular beds and dish-like lenses. Coarse-grained sandstone is found
a few metres below the Enim seam (the first coal layer above the A (Mangus) seam.
The Muara Enim Formation is approximately 400 m thick, and varies in thickness
Kasai Formation
The Kasai Formation can be traced in outcrop only in the southern part of the study area.
The unit is dominantly a tuff with a variable grain size and is rather unconsolidated. It is
24
white in colour, shows crossbedding and parallel lamination and conformably overlies the
Matasak and Kendarsi (1978; 1980) classified the dominant structures in the study area
The largest structural elements (Fig. 2.6) in the local area surrounding the PT Bukit
concession are generally folds which are thought to have formed during the Plio-
Pleistocene orogeny and before emplacement of the igneous intrusions. These folds
Some structures formed at the same time as the intrusions, for example, the anticlinal
dome, in Airlaya mine, which has a long axis orientated N N E - S S W axis. The d o m e is
interpreted to have formed as a result of the igneous activity, even though drilling did not
penetrate the postulated intrusions in Airlaya area. O n the flanks of the Airlaya D o m e are
numerous small faults (Fig. 2.7) which have various orientations, with one population
having a distinctive N N E - S S W trend (Fig. 2.8); many of the faults are oblique normal
faults.
The faults can be classified into two categories - faults that are parallel to the ax
Airlaya d o m e and are located near the axis of the d o m e and secondly, faults that have fault
planes generally perpendicular to the d o m e axis; the latter are dominant on both flanks of
the dome.
25
The parallel faults are characterised by greater lateral than the perpendicular faults and
more intense movement as indicated by slickensides on the fault plane surfaces. The
parallel faults are much more c o m m o n than the perpendicular faults which are generally
The heat flow was probably much higher in the more deformed area, possibly due to the
circulation of igneous-derived brines, and influenced the coal quality. This hypothesis
places the intrusion under the Airlaya dome. Unfortunately there is no data either from
The andesite intrusive bodies in the study area are well exposed in outcrop at Bukit Tapuan
and Bukit Penyabungan (both of which have been or are n o w quarried for fill and
dimension stone) and Bukit Asam. Bukit M u n g g u and Bukit Lengkuas, two other nearby
hills, also have been confirmed to be andesite (Mannhardt, 1918). Bukit A s a m (242 m
high) is a hill which has aridge-liketopographic profile trending north south. At the
Mannhardt (1918) suggested that intrusive bodies in the Bukit Asam complex are parts
one very large intrusion with Bukit A s a m and Bukit Lengkuas as the centres of the
intrusion. A sheet-like wing or sill spread away from the centres and penetrated the weaker
zones along bedding planes to the north to form the Airlaya dome, and to the south, to
Several drill holes in Suban mine, such as NSB 03, NSB 05, NSB 07, TA 65 and TA 64
26
penetrated these sheets of igneous rock between B and C seams, hence the interpretation
Minjbouw N.V. (1978) and Geological Survey Indonesia (1978), reported on these
intrusions.
It is widely accepted that the intrusions are andesitic in composition and contain
feldspar, pyroxene and glass. Several thin sections from Bukit Tapuan and Bukit A s a m
were examined for this study. The results confirm that most of the samples are andesites
(Plate 2.1); each generally has a similar composition and texture as the others.
texture with phenocrysts of plagioclase, hornblende, augite and olivine; biotite phenocrysts
occur in a small number of sections. The matrix comprises plagioclase and glass.
The main challenges regarding the intrusions are the origin of the intrusions, the shape
Musper (1937) suggested that the Bukit Asam andesite ascended near the eastern end of
the Sira Pulau Tabu anticline (Fig. 2.6), after which the intrusion separated into a number
of small domes. Musper also suggested that this intrusion probably has a close connection
with folding based on the fact andesitefillsthe fissures in the anticlines in the Bukit Sorelo
area, a location some distance from Bukit A s a m but one which is considered to be of
similar origin. The andesite intruded the weak zones after the deformation process
occurred, or alternatively, at least during the deformation associated with the rise of the
magma.
27
According to Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978) the composition of the andesite is notably
variable, although all samples appear to have abundant amphibole. The andesites are
The Geological Survey of Indonesia (1978) interpreted the Bukit Tapuan mass as a dy
and that Bukit A s a m was a laccolith, assuming the attitude of sedimentary beds adjacent
In the Bukit Asam and surrounding areas, six major coal seams are found in the Muara
Enim Formation and these are at such shallow depths that shallow open pit mining is
feasible.
After deposition, the coal seams experienced at least one tectonic event in Plio-Pl
time in the form of gentle folding and faulting. Soon after that, the plug-like igneous
intrusion intruded the coal measures. The total thickness of the coal seams in the Muara
Enim Formation mirror the whole thickness of sediments in the Muara Enim Formation
with the thickest intersections in the Bukit Asam area. A brief description of each major
Kladi Seam:
The Kladi seam occurs at the base of the Muara Enim Formation and is known to be
distributed over most of the South Sumatra Basin. However, it is only well developed in
the Bukit Sorelo area where it reaches a thickness of 9 m . The coal is a black banded coal
without any obvious clay layer. The Kladi coal overlies the fossiliferous (mostly
28
foraminifers) marine silty claystone sequence of the upper part of the Air Benakat
Formation.
partings (confirmed at several locations, for example, the measured section at the
Perimeter Ditch (Chapter 4) west of the concession area. The seam splits in some areas,
such as in the Banko area. The net thickest coal section is found in the Suban Jeriji and
Central Banko areas where 13 m has been recorded. In the study area, the average
thickness is 7.1 m , with a m a x i m u m thickness of over 9 m both east and west of Airlaya
mine. The seam thins towards the southern part of the study area. A tonstein which occurs
in this seam in the Muara Tiga area, has symmetrical wave-formed ripples.
The coal is a black, bright banded coal that is brittle due to intense clearing. At sev
The Petai seam overlies an alternation of silty claystone, siltstone and claystone whi
been considered by some authors (Musper, 1937; de Coster, 1974; Stalder, 1976) to have
formed during a marine incursion. Above the Petai seam are silty claystone and sandstone
lenses which contain sideritic nodules, pyrite, abundant organic matter and trace fossils
(burrows).
In the Bukit Asam area, the Suban seam comprises two distinct layers called the Bl and
B 2 seams; these are separated by grey claystone with siltstone lenses. The m a x i m u m net
29
two seams, Bl and B2. In the study area, two, rarely three, tonsteins are found in the Bl
(Upper Suban) seam (approximately 10 m thick) and only one tonstein can be recognised
in the B 2 (Lower Suban) seam (9 m thick). The coal is black and bright banded. However,
in the Suban area, Bl seam is only 4 m thick. Between the Bl and B 2 seams, a 3 to 5 m
Mangus Seam
This seam typically consist of two seams, the A l (Upper Mangus) and A 2 (Lower
Mangus) seams. The two seams are separated by medium- to coarse-grained tuffaceous
sandstone beds. The Lower Mangus seam typically includes a thin (0.4 m ) silicified coal
at the top and a thin tonstein approximately in the middle of the seam. Seams vary in
thickness from 2.2 to 12.5 m with the m a x i m u m thicknesses in the northeastern and
an area immediately east of the Airlaya mine. Three distinctive partings are present in the
seam and these have been referred to as tonsteins or pelletoidal clay bands (Haan, 1976).
A thin bed of hard siliceous coal has been noted in places at the base of the seam and
Enim Seam
The Enim seam has a m a x i m u m thickness in the North Suban Jeriji area where it has a net
seam which is found in the Gunung Meraksa area and equivalent to the Benakat seam
30
found on the northern side of South Sumatra Basin.
Enim seams overlies a thick, predominantly sandy sequence which has been interpreted a
delta front deposits (Haan, 1976) and is overlain by an alternating sequence of thin and
laterally persistent silty claystone, sandstone and coal which are considered to be a deposits
Jelawatan Seam
This coal seam exhibits c o m m o n splitting and is only of economic interest in the northern
part of the Suban Jeriji area. The Jelawatan seam is overlain by an alternating sequence
of claystone, siltstone and coal which indicates a long period of alternating shallow marine
and brackish to fresh water conditions during deposition (Haan, 1976). However, in the
southern and eastern parts of the area, conditions were not suitable for peat formation,
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
ii. data obtained from consultants' reports, unpublished reports and data collected b
the mine employees and other researchers; the latter are acknowledged where used.
The sedimentology of the sequence in the Bukit Asam mine concession, including Airlay
Fieldwork included measuring several vertical sections across mine faces, measuring
During the field work samples of the various sedimentary rocks, coals and igneous roc
were collected. Coal sampling was carried out in several ways. To study the temporal
vertical variation in the coal seams, samples were taken vertically after dividing th
into plies or lithotypes. Additional samples were taken 10 cm below each claystone,
especially in Al seam from which samples were needed to determine the influence of th
tonsteins on the elemental composition of the coal needed. For studying the influence
32
intrusions, composite samples from one seam (Al seam) were taken at varying distances
away from the intrusions. In all, a total of approximately 300 coal and claystone samples
Samples were crushed to approximately 1 cm grain size and split with a riffle until
sufficient material was available to make a polished block for organic petrography (100
g) and ash determination (maximum of 600 g, depending on the ash content of samples).
Splitting was carried out in the field at Bukit Asam whereas preparation of polished
of the samples and the ashing of samples for X-ray fluorescence ( X R F ) analysis was
Proximate analysis and elemental analysis data were supplied from several sources
including PT. Bukit Asam, the Mineral Technology Research and Development Centre and
the Directorate of Mineral Resources, Bandung, Indonesia. Data for several composite coal
samples from bore holes were obtained from the PT. Bukit A s a m coal mine leases. P T
Bukit A s a m also provided proximate analysis data for samples from the Airlaya area, a
Proximate data was also obtained from a report by the Indonesian Government to the
world bank; the report was written by a joint committee from the Geological Survey of
Indonesia, the Mining Technology and Research Development Centre and P T . Bukit
33
Asam. Proximate analysis data for samples from the Muara Tiga area (HD borehole series)
The preparation of samples for organic petrology were carried out in accordance with
C O A L S A M P L E S F O R M I C R O S C O P I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N B Y R E F L E C T E D L I G H T . Particulate
blocks were made and then polished manually although during the latter stages of the
Samples were crushed and split to give a maximum of 600 g of clean coal or 25 to 100
g for shaly coal and claystone where the latter samples were analysed. The samples were
ashed in accordance with U.S. Geological Survey Circular 735: GUIDELINES FOR SAMPLE
C O L L E C T I N G A N D A N A L Y T I C A L M E T H O D S U S E D IN T H E U S G E O L O G I C A L S U R V E Y F O R
was placed in a silica dish and placed into a cold muffle furnace with the door partly open.
The temperature was gradually elevated to 450°C to allow the moisture to evaporate and
the volatile matter to burn. After the emission of smoke had ceased at this temperature,
the temperature was gradually increased to 600°C to complete the ashing process.
Occasional mixing was undertaken to assure there is no organic matter was left unburned.
weight and weighed. Each sample was then mixed with a polyvinyl binder and pressed at
34
Organic petrography was employed to determine the rank and the maceral composition o
coal. Coal rank and coal type are two essentially independent concepts that should b
coalification that has been reached by the organic matter and is a function of the n
hence the term coalification. In this study, the rank is expressed as the vitrinite
Coal type essentially correlates with the type and relative abundances of the variou
constituents that were deposited as peat and the changes that occur during early sta
Samples were prepared as polished particulate coal mounts and analysed using inciden
white light and fluorescence mode microscopy. In this study, the coal petrographic t
used follow the Australian Standard AS 2856 (Standards Association of Australia, 1986
Committee for Coal Petrology Handbook (1963; 1971; 1975) and modified by Smith
(1981). This system provides a better method for discriminating vitrinite macerals in
from Bukit Asam than other system as it avoids using the rank-sensitive terms of hum
35
for coals that have a vitrinite reflectance of less than 0.5% and vitrinite for mac
similar origin but with a reflectance greater than 0.5%. As will be discussed later,
of samples from Bukit Asam area ranges from approximately soft brown coal to anthra
coal and hence spans parts of both the huminite and vitrinite ranges. Thus the Austr
Normally, point-counts of approximately 500 points, "on coal", for each block were t
Traverses were made perpendicular to the gravitational settling direction during set
Step distance and traverse spacing were altered in relation to the grain size of th
in order to obtain representative counts with at least 90 to 95% of the area of eac
covered during the point count; counts were only completed after a full traverse.
In general discussions, where specific maceral percentages are not required, the fol
dominant - >40.0%
major - > 10.0 to 4 0 . 0 %
abundant - >2.0tol0.0%
common - >0.5to2.0%
sparse - 0.1 to 0.5%
rare - <0.1%
absent - 0%.
Vitrinite reflectance measurements were taken using a Leitz Ortholux microscope fit
with a Leitz MPV-I microphotometer. All measurements were carried out using plane
garnet standards (YAG 0.917% and GGG 1.726% reflectance) and a synthetic spinel
2486 (Standards Association of Australia, 1989). The stage of the microscope was rotated
to obtain thefirstm a x i m u m reading and then rotated through approximately 180° to obtain
the second m a x i m u m reading. Each pair of readings was s u m m e d and the mean calculated
to give mean m a x i m u m vitrinite reflectance in oil immersion (^max). The output from
the galvanometer was scaled to give one half the reflectance hence the need to sum the two
readings. Readings were rejected if the pair of readings obtained were not within 5 %
The International Committee for Coal Petrology (ICCP 1971; 1975) and Stach et al
(1982) recommended that one hundred measurements should be taken to obtain the mean
varying the number of data points from 10 to 100, showed that the standard error of the
mean approaches the precision and accuracy as required by the Australian Standard where
as few as twenty readings were taken. Therefore, using this as a guideline, mostly thirty
reflectance readings were taken on the Bukit A s a m coal samples to obtain the mean
m a x i m u m reflectance.
subgroup based on the proportion of each subgroup in the sample as determined by point
counting. This method ensures that the readings accurately represent the various
Geochemical analysis was needed to study the elemental composition of the ash and the
mineral composition of the corresponding rock to determine the influence of the intrusions
on elemental composition of the coals. X-ray diffraction analysis ( X R D ) was used for the
XRF analysis was used to determine the major element composition of selected samples
both X R F analysis and Instrument Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA) were used to
used by Potts et al (1984). Instrument settings varied depending on the element being
analysed. For example, settings used for Pb and Rb, were an A g side-window
between the sample and the X-ray beam; for C u and Zn, the settings were 19 k V and 0.14
m A with a 0.05 m m Alfilter.Lead was analysed on the L p i line and Cu, Zn and R b were
analysed on the K a line. Counting times were 250 seconds, lifetime. Matrix effect
corrections were applied using the intensity of the Compton scatter from the sample as a
measure of their mass attenuation coefficients. Instrument drift was monitored through the
use of standards not included in the calibration. This technique has a 2 % relative error for
metal concentrations of greater than 40 jig/g with a 5 % relative error for detection levels
below 40 ng/g .
INAA analysis of 50 ashed samples from A2, Bl and B2 seams was contracted to
Becquerel Laboratories of Lucas Heights, N e w South Wales. This technique was used for
these samples because it gave a wider range of trace elements than the X R F equipment at
38
the University. The basic principle of I N A A is a powdered sample is irradiated with
nuclear particles in a reactor and some of the atoms interact with the bombarding particles,
converting the nuclei to isotopes of higher mass number. The isotopes are unstable and
decay relatively quickly, releasing g a m m a rays of various wave lengths. The emitted rays
are identified by their respective wavelengths using a spectrometer as the detector. The
above background.
XRD analyses were undertaken at the University of Wollongong using a Philips XRD
PW1130/90 generator set at 30 k V voltage and 40 m A current using a copper target tube
(Ka - 1.542 x 10"10 m ) . The samples were scanned from 4°29 to 65°26 at a scanning
Thin sections were prepared according to standard methods given by Hutchison (1974).
Thin sections were needed to determine the nature of the intrusions and some sedimentary
CHAPTER FOUR
SEDIMENTOLOGY OF THE BUKIT ASAM SEQUENCE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Two of the aims of this study are to determine the environments of deposition of the c
seams and discuss potential uses of the coal. To properly achieve these aims, an
understanding of the clastic units between the coal seams is needed as the mineralogy
coal, especially those plies adjacent to the clastic units, may be influenced by the c
units. Thus aspects of coal formation require an understanding of the clastic units ab
and below the coal seam. For example, there are numerous references in the literature
high pyrite contents in coal being associated with marine incursions after deposition
precursor peats. Also, mineral matter in coal greatly influences the coal quality and
Several workers have discussed the sedimentology of the Bukit Asam area of the Souther
Sumatra Basin but not all agree on the interpretations of the environments of depositi
Because of the lack of agreement as to the environments of deposition of the coals and
clastic interseam sediments, and the fact that much of the earlier work is probably no
outdated, some additional sedimentology of the Bukit Asam deposit was thought necessar
Thus a review of the sedimentology of the Bukit Asam Coalfield was incorporated as one
of the aims of this study. Mining activities in the Bukit Asam concession area opened
surface mines with good exposures of several of the seams and interseam units in the h
40
walls. Access to the high walls is relatively easy and thus it was possible to measure three
sections, one in each of the three mines, to provide additional data for this study.
Mannhardt (1918) was one thefirstto interpret the palaeoenvironment of the Middle
Palembang bed, now called the Muara Enim Formation. Long after that and with much
more information, several authors, such as Musper (1937), Stalder (1976), Nursarya and
Latief (1979), Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978) and Kinhill-Ottogold Joint Venture (1986),
interpretations.
1. Mannhardt (1918)
Based on his fieldwork in Bukit Asam and the surrounding areas, Mannhardt suggested
that the repetition of the coal measure sequence in the Bukit A s a m area resulted from a
continuous transgression of the sea. H e also stated that the coals were deposited on coastal
plains, and were deposited as in situ or autochthonous coals with the thickest net coal
layers and sediments in the centre of the depression (Fig. 4.1). H e noted that the
differences in thicknesses of both coal and clastic sediments in the different areas of the
basin were mainly controlled by irregularities on the transgressive plain. His conclusion
was based on the fact that the sedimentary rocks between the coal seams always showed
a marine influence in the form of glauconitic siltstone and sandstone; mollusc fossils were
between the B 2 and C seams in Airlaya pit (and other areas). These fossils were though
ripples, with consistent orientation (transitional to flaser bedding), and lenticular bedding
(starvedripples)indicate that the unit developed in the area where the tidal current was
too weak to transport coarse material to mudflats that were dominated by low energy
claystone and siltstone was thought to indicate that the interseam sediments came from one
2. Musper (1937)
Musper carried out extensivefieldwork in the area of the Lahat quadrangle which includes
the Muara Enim area. With more data available than for the compilation by Mannhardt,
Musper stated that glauconitic beds, which are prominent in the Middle Palembang bed
(or the Muara Enim Formation), were effusive or of volcanic origin and were not
some areas, a rich fossil zone approximately 175 m above the bottom of the Middle
Palembang bed. This bed contains lamellibranches, gastropods, scaphopods, echinoids and
even shark teeth. H e also cited the discovery, by the management of the mines at that
time, of Area (Sapharca) inaequivalvis (Brug.) at the top of the A (Mangus) seam in Bukit
A s a m mines. F r o m the abundance of the fossils, even though this might be a local
occurrence, he concluded that at least some parts of the Middle Palembang beds were of
42
marine origin. He also noted the abundance of plant drift wood in all beds in all are
identified the species of plant fossil, either from wood trunk or leaves. Based on th
fossil assemblages, Musper concluded that the plant remains originated from the flora
which is locally called the Middle Palembang period, and were only slightly different
that which now occurs on the mainland of Sumatra. He stated that the flora could not
assigned to plant associations of the sea and brackish water areas. Putting all these
together he suggested that there was a lagoon which was, at the beginning, open to th
sea; marine organisms may have inhabited the lagoon temporarily. Subsequently, as the
freshwater supply become more dominant from rivers, brackish water and limnic deposit
were formed. Eruptive materials were supplied by the rivers as well as from ash fall;
ash came from a westerly direction. Subsidence was continuous but with varying rates
the various parts of the basin. The subsidence rate was lowest in the Isau Isau and G
ranges and less coal developed in these areas. The volcanic eruptions increased in th
intensity and acidity increased from the bottom to the top of the formation. In the p
of quiet volcanic activity, extensive swamps flourished. Ash falls occurred several t
during deposition of the C (Petai) seam to the A (Mangus) seam interval, with the
occurrence of many tuffaceous dirt-bands in the coal seams and interseam sediments al
3. Stalder (1976)
Shell Minjbouw N.V. conducted a drilling program in the mid 1970s but did not publish
a report on the program until 1978. However, in 1976, some of the data were made
available through a report by Stalder. Based on the data from that drilling program o
Shell Minjbouw N.V. in the South Sumatra Basin, Stalder gave the most widely-accepted
- the total coal thickness closely follows the trend of the total isopach m a p of the coal
- the m a x i m u m thicknesses of the A (Mangus) seam and B (Suban) seam are located in the
area of Tanjung Enim and lie on the axis of the South Sumatra Basin.
- the lateral extension of B (Suban) seam is much less than that of the A (Mangus) seam
which was deposited throughout the basin; in the northern part of the basin, the total
thickness of the Mangus seam shows a similar net thickness to that in the south but the
- the m a x i m u m coal deposition shifted to the north during deposition of the Benakat seam
(M3).
- stratigraphically, the ash content of a coal is usually proportional to the thickness of the
seam. The ash content decreases from the Petai seam (C seam) to Mangus seam (A seam)
and then increases steadily towards the Lematang seam (Table 4.2).
locally; the clay-rich layers extend laterally up to 30 k m ; crossbeds and burrows are
sometimes observed.
- the widespread extent of the claystone layers suggests that large scale marine currents
were involved in the deposition of the claystone; the occurrence of foraminifers and
- the volcanic influence is noticeable over the entire Upper Muara Enim Formation (MPb)
interval from A l seam (Upper Mangus) to the top of the Muara Enim Formation; the
presence of euhedral quartz and the green clay mineral corrensite are indicative of a
volcanic input.
- at the same time as the Middle Palembang bed was deposited, the Eburna Marls were
44
deposited in the Bengkulu area, west coast of Sumatra.
- the marine facies is dominant in the southwest. South of Banko was under the influence
of marine conditions as also was the Arahan area where abundant pyrite is found in the
coal (Haan, 1976). The regional trend indicates that the Eburna Marls in Bengkulu area
1. The basin developed by regular subsidence between the topographic highs, presumably
the Barisan Mountains to the west and the Malayan Shield to the east, with the subsidence
2. The m a x i m u m coal thickness occurs along the basin axis and this is interpreted as
indicating optimum balance between plant accumulation (that is peat formation) and the
rate of subsidence. Degradation of the plant material was only restricted by the high water
table which was caused by subsidence; plant preservation was highest in the middle of the
basin. Lower subsidence rates at the edge of the basin caused more severe degradation and
this resulted in thinner coal seams along the margins of the basin.
3. The thinning of the coal seams from Suban Jeriji (northeast centre of the basin) towards
the south western part of the basin was caused by a more marine environment with more
4. The obvious marine influence, at least at the time the lower Muara Enim Formation was
being deposited, suggests that the basin was connected to the Indian Ocean.
5. The regular pattern in the ash content in the coal seams indicates that conditions were
stable until the deposition of Mangus seam after which tectonic quiescence occurred;
activity then progressively increased until the Lematang diastrophism which took the form
of uplift of the Barisan Mountain and this was coupled with volcanic activity which
45
gradually increased.
6. A s the basin subsidence slowed approaching the time the A (Mangus) seam was
deposited, the surrounding landscape become more mature, thus causing a decrease in the
volume of clastic detritus supplied to the basin; this produced thick seams without splits.
Stalder believed that the South Sumatra coal basin has an analog in the Oligocene to
After drilling over the entire South Sumatra Basin, Shell Minjbouw N.V. reported several
facts that were very useful for interpreting depositional systems even though Shell did not
study were:
- the middle and lower divisions (Ml and M 2 ) are shallow and marine-influenced units that
- the coal units above the Mangus seam ( M 3 and M 4 ) vary in thickness rapidly over short
distances.
- coal is less well developed in the northern part of the South Sumatra Basin.
- fossils such as molluscs and lamellibranches were found in the lower part of the coal
measures but are very limited in area of distribution and thus regional correlation using
these is poor. Haan (1976), w h o produced a report on the Shell Minjbouw N.V. data,
noted that numerous marine fossils were recognised above the Kladi seam in borehole A R -
- the M a n g u s tuff is a marker horizon that can be traced over most of the area.
46
Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978) then summarised the results of drilling program as expressed
in Table 4.1.
Nursarya and Latief (1979) disagreed with Mannhardt 1 s interpretation that the depositional
environment of the coal measures was a coastal plain and based this on the absence of
arguments of Nursarya and Latief were based on the coastal plain model of W e i m e r in
which a coastal plain is divided into four facies: fluviatile coastal plain, lagoon and tidal
zone, barrier island and offshore marine shelf. In the Bukit A s a m area they could not find
barrier sands that would protect the coal basin from the open sea. They interpreted the
tuffaceous sandstone between A l seam and A 2 seam as a channel deposit. They also did
not find any fossils in the sequence except plant fragments in the interseam sediments.
Mannhardt (1918), they argued that if marine invasions had occurred, these should be
recognisable over wide areas at the same stratigraphic position, rather than over limited
drilling program of Shell Minjbouw N.V. which showed that the claystone in the lower
part of the Muara Enim Formation (Ml and M 2 ) was deposited over a wider area than
was interpreted by Stalder (1976). They interpreted the origin of the claystone units to be
through marine currents as indicated by the occurrence of molluscs, foraminifers and low
Nursarya and Latief then proposed that the depositional environment of the coal measu
in the Bukit A s a m area was deltaic environment. The cyclicity of the coal layers was
47
mainly caused by the deposition of interdistributary bay sediments, and the switching of
the delta lobes, consistently from the bottom to the top. They quoted Westol (1968) w h o
stated that cyclic deposition of coal layers was only possible in a deltaic environment.
They also stated that the fluvial influence was high at the time of depositional. They
The consideration that the cyclicity in the coal measures at Bukit Asam was mainly caus
by delta switching is arguable. Most of the interseam sediments in the coal measures is
mentioned by Stalder (1976). Channel deposits or other coarse-grained sediments are not
dominant in the sequence below the Enim seam so that, it is not likely that the coal
The interseam sediments between Al and A2 seams probably are not channel deposits as
they formed from volcanic detritus deposited during a short period of volcanic activity
(Shell Minjbouw N.V., 1978). This interval was deposited over a wide area, according
to Shell Minjbouw N . V . (1978) and is a reliable time marker. The volcanic debris had
been transported and redeposited and therefore has sedimentary structures such as graded
bedding, crossbedding and also minor organic matter. T h e high influence of fluvial
processes m a y have enabled switching of a delta fan elsewhere in the margin of the basin,
but not in the study area. Sedimentation was controlled by the availability of volcanic
periods of active volcanism which probably happened several times between longer,
quieter periods during which the deposition of thick, wide-spread peat occurred. T h e coal
48
deposition needed a longer time of accumulation than volcanic detritus sediments.
In the tropical areas, where the rainfall is much higher than evaporation, the suspende
sediments in an estuary can be very low. A study of modern peat in Jambi by Cecil et al.
(1993) showed that the suspended load in the Siak and Kampar Rivers is low. They stated
that the dense rainforest in the tropical area prohibited or minimised erosion, although the
terrain in the catchment area is steep in parts and the runoff also high. Under these
The study of coal facies is best accompanied by a facies study of the interseam sediments
surrounding the coal layers (McCabe, 1984; Diessel 1992). A careful study of both coal
with the only difference being in the source material which, in the case of coal, mostly
consists of organic material; the process of sedimentation requires that the organic matter
coal depositional system; interseam rocks also influence coal quality. The coal and
interseam rocks do not necessarily have the same environment of deposition even if they
Peat can be deposited in many terrestrial sites although M c C a b e (1984) noted that the
An allochthonous coal is a coal that was deposited after transportation of organic mat
which was redeposited away from the sites of growth. In South East Asia, the classic
example is the recent peat deposit along the shoreline of the M a h a k a m Delta, Kalimantan,
which has been studied thoroughly by Allen et al. (1976) and Allen and Pizon (1986). The
detrital peat accumulated as a ridge between the tidal flat and the high tide beach zone.
The reworked plant detritus accumulated in the interdistributary lower delta plain tidal flats
and has a m a x i m u m thickness of 2.5 m . The lateral extension of the deposit subparallel
If this organic matter were to be preserved as a coal deposit, the coal would be thin lenses
with limited lateral extent within delta front deposits. The peat bodies are composed of a
fragmented canopy of detritus developed from various sources but mainly from
wood fragments, petiole fragments, resin bodies, fruits and seeds. Economic allochthonous
deposit are very rare and do not correlate with the deposition of the Bukit A s a m coal.
Autochthonous coal is deposited at the same location as where the plants grew (that is
coal is an in situ coals). Stagnant water acts as airlock and protects the organic matter
from oxidation and bacterial attacks. A waterlogged area in any physiographic setting is
a potential site for the deposition of coal. Diessel (1984) alluded to two settings that
commonly act as the depositional sites of autochthonous coal: marginal marine settings and
Included in this group are the peats of coastal marsh deposits, delta-associated swamps and
lagoons.
Coastal marshes are low-lying plains which are periodically inundated and which suppor
grasses, reed and rushes which tolerate brackish conditions. The marsh surface is the mean
high tide level and it is separated from the sea either by a barrier beach which forms by
surf action or salt marshes which are commonly formed because of the low energy
conditions along the coast and off shore. Peat accumulation is only possible if the tidal
fluctuation is low or a tidal inlet, which prevents the erosion of plant material and thus
aids plant accumulation, is established. Mangroves commonly line the tidal inlets and
muddy coastlines behind which grass and reed s w a m p expand. T h e roots of mangroves
form an interlocking network. This network is an efficient trap for sediments carried by
the flood tide, and protect the back swamp peat from being flushed by ebb tides or floods.
Lower delta plain marshes and swamps are located in interdistributary positions on the
delta plain up to the high water mark. The plants occupy the raised levee and
interdistributary troughs. A consistent high water table assures preservation of the dead
both from flooding or tidal effect and in some cases volcanic activity. This influx of fine-
grained clastic material raises the proportion of inorganic impurities in the peat and also
provides nutrients for the plant, thus enabling the plants to flourish. T h e effects of tidal
influences on the peat is commonly in the form of relatively high pyrite contents. The sea
water which isrichin salt and sulphate, enters the reducing environment of the s w a m p and
sulphate is reduced by bacteria; hydrogen sulphate and/or iron sulphide is/are formed.
51
Lagoon and bay environments form through the build up of barrier beaches as a result of
strong surf action or the formation of spits and bars, by long shore drift. These m a y
protect the coastal plain from the open sea. Eventually the lagoon becomes shallower
encourages algae to flourish and as a result algae m a y be the main contributor to the
deposits. The m u d s m a y be covered and laterally replaced by peat formed in the coastal
swamp.
Hydrologically, it m a y still have a connection to the sea water. The term paralic is used
for these deposits but the term also refers to deposits that have a facies connection and a
lateral coexistence with marine facies (Diessel, 1982). Belonging to this group of coal-
forming environments are the upper delta plains, lower delta plains, coastal plains and
alluvial plains. All are affected by marine processes, such as marine transgression and
regression. In contrast, there are many inland swamps that never have any connection with
sea water. The deposits formed in this environment are called limnic deposits.
Freshwater swamps occur in the upper delta plain zones, alluvial plain and lakes. Uppe
delta plain and alluvial plain swamps occur on flood plains between the distributary
channels in the delta system or adjacent toriverson the alluvial plains. In the latter case,
the swamps are separated from theriverby levees which are occasionally breached, during
which time silt and m u d are distributed over the peat surface and later m a y become
Limnic environments have no direct hydrological connection to the sea. The lakes occur
in inland areas or, if close to the sea, are separated from the sea by impermeable and
elevated barriers. Lakes also occur in higher altitudes such as in intermontane and
intramontane basins. These lakes m a y contain algae and sometimes high salt contents. In
humid climates, organic m u d accumulates on the lake bottom during the commencement
of the silting-up process and this leads into the formation of peat bogs. The lakes deposit
spreads over a relatively small area but it may become very thick such as the coal deposit
in the Latrobe valley where the brown coals are approximately 300 m thick (Gloe and
Holgate, 1991).
A s the Air Benakat Formation was deposited, the South Sumatra Basin was a shallow
marine basin, with abundant foraminifers fossil as the main fauna. The sediments consisted
of glauconitic sand, blue-grey and grey-brown clay and sandy clays commonly with
carbonate (Shell Minjbouw N.V., 1978). In contrast, the Muara Enim Formation (the unit
above the Air Benakat Formation) lacks fossils, except some patchy marine fossils in the
lower part of the unit. However the sequence contains abundant trace fossils. The sequence
is dominated by low energy sediment lihologies, such as claystone and siltstone (Stalder,
1976). Medium-grained sandstone is present, but is not significant. Basin-wide coal seams
are characteristic of the formation. Volcanic detritus is also abundant in this formation.
Only in the lower part of the Muara Enim Formation (Ml and M2) is the marine influenc
recognised. The lack of foraminifers fossil throughout most of the Muara Enim Formation
indicates that the basin was not favourable for this fauna, because the basin had a
freshwater input and was mostly not connected to the open sea. The penecontemporaneous
53
volcanic activity and associated uplift of the Barisan Mountain produced a barrier to the
open sea.
The Muara Enim Formation consists of numerous coal seams within silty claystone and
locally deposited sandstone lenses. The coal measures sequence has long been discussed
- Transgressive-regressive Origin. Since the work of Udden (1912), which described the
Pennsylvanian rocks in the Illinois Basin, cyclic sedimentation has been a popular model,
earth rocks or underclays and coal overlain by marine limestone and/or shale as well as
siltstone and sandstone which, in turn, are overlain by another seat-earth/coal succession.
Udden interpreted this pattern as cyclic sedimentation beginning with the deposition of the
seat-earth and peat and succeeded by the deposition of marine limestone and shales, as
marine encroachment occurred. The continued deposition of silt and sand raised the
surface of the basin to a level where a s w a m p formed and soil, producing a seat-earth
again; the peat subsequently formed. However the recognition of an erosional event, or
unconformity, at the base of the sandstone above the limestone by Weller (1930) led to
Ferm and H o m e (1979) and Wanless (1964) in the northern Appalachian Basin and Illinois
Basin respectively, a postcyclothem era began. Both authors suggested that the regressive
and transgressive sequences in these basins were mostly influenced by deltaic processes
comparable to the modern Mississippi Delta. Although Wanless (1964) claimed that the
54
deltaic processes are the most important factors in coal accumulation in the Illinois Basin,
they nevertheless retained the classical transgressive cycle as the origin of the mid-
continent cyclothem.
The delta autocyclic model has problems if it is applied on a basin-wide scale (Diess
1992) particularly coal measures such as the Bukit A s a m coal measures where the coal can
autocyclicity of a delta is possible if the fluvial process is dominant or, in other words, the
sediment supply is high so that delta switching commonly occurs as the sediment in the
mouth bar reaches the point where the suspended sediment can not be deposited any more.
The sequence then would be dominated by coarse channel and interdistributary splay
sediments, and probably coal seams. The coarse channel facies, according to Ferm and
Muara Enim Formation does not have all the above criteria; it is dominated by claystone
and siltstone deposits that indicate low energy sedimentation and lacks any significant
and A 2 seams is the best candidate to be a channel facies unit. It has graded bedding and
is also coarse grained, has been regarded as a channel deposit up until recently. The lateral
extent of this layer is reported by Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978) to be as widespread as the
basin itself and the interval is thought to be composed mostly of detrital volcanic products
which were deposited over a short period of volcanism, with perhaps some reworking of
FORMATION
1. Palaeogeography
The shallowing the South Sumatra Basin after the Air Benakat was deposited, was
followed by volcanism in the western part of the basin (located in the present-day position
of the Barisan Mountain). The abundant volcanic products and the formation of volcanic
islands formed a barrier along the western side of the basin and protected the interior from
the open sea. The basin become a large shallow lagoon. D e Coster (1974) suggested that
at that time the basin was a shallow basin of inner neritic to continental sea character, with
a few islands stranded along the west coast (Fig. 4.3). The basin decreased in size as a
result of a global sea level drop, probably in the Mid Seravalian, 13 M a . A s a result of
another sea level drop in the Messian, the South Sumatra Basin became a widespread area
of swampland and coastal marsh. The advancing vegetation occupied the swamp site (de
Coster, 1974) and the Kladi seam was deposited. The Kladi seam is thefirstsignificant
coaly interval and marks the lower boundary of the Muara Enim Formation. The
morphology of the basin probably was a vast low-lying plain which was entirely occupied
by mires. A n analogue for this vast low-lying mire would be the area along the east coast
Flat-lying topography is vulnerable to sea level fluctuations and this would have bee
case for the South Sumatra Basin at that time. A rise in sea level obviously would have
encroached upon the swamp, perhaps far inland. T o the west, n o w marked by the Barisan
Mountains, was an arc of highlands with at least one of active volcano which erupted
significant amounts of volcanic products on the surrounding areas (de Coster, 1974;
Hutchison, 1989).
56
2. Tectonism
The deposition of the Muara Enim Formation occurred soon after the subduction of Indian
Ocean Plate under the Sunda Shield. The back-arc basin of South Sumatra formed on a
dissected basement of graben and horst structures that have been active several times. With
the massive volcanic arc in the west and the Sunda shield in the east, the graben structure
zone would have rejuvenated the horst and graben structure. Sediment accumulated in this
weak area and caused local subsidence. Stalder (1976) recognised that the coal thickness
isopach follows the trend of the total isopach of the Muara E n i m Formation. H e also
recognised that the thickest coal measures succession is along the basin axis, suggesting
that higher rates of subsidence accommodated the preservation of the plant material rather
than oxidation and bacterial degradation more along the axis of the basin than along the
marginal area. D e Coster (1974) suggested that the basin isostatically subsided,
topographic highs were eroded and the deposition in the basin resulted in relative uplift
in the source area and subsidence in the basin area. The graben structures were probably
Fluctuations in sea level change the environment along a coastline dramatically. However,
eustatic sea level changes probably are never the sole factor influencing deposition along
eustatic control from the other controls is very difficult since there are no significant
distinguishing features.
Global cycles of sea level change were described by Vail and Mitchum (1979; Fig. 4.4).
57
The transgressive and regressive sequence in the South Sumatra Basin was probably
strongly influenced by global cycles after the Late Oligocene. Authors, such as Hutchison
(1989), recognised that global sea level changes had an effect on the sedimentation history
in the South East Asia region. Middle and Late Miocene regressions, as shown on the
chart of the classic global cycles of sea level changes of Vail and Mitchum (Fig. 4.4), are
clearly seen in all South East Asian basins as unconformities and general regressive cycles
which contain several subcycles. The Middle Miocene sea level drop is shown by the
deposition of the shallower Air Benakat Formation, above the Telisa Formation, in the
South Sumatra Basin. The Late Miocene sea level drop, which reached 200 m below
present sea level, is indicated by the deposition of the Muara Enim Formation the base of
4. Volcanism
Volcanism in Sumatra has been recognised as early as the time of deposition of the
tuffaceous facies in the sandstone-dominated Talang Akar Formation on the western side
of the Sumatra Basin (de Coster, 1974). Since that time, tuffaceous detritus was a major
component in formations, such as the Basal Telisa Limestone M e m b e r and the Telisa
Formation, on the western side of the basin. The source of the volcanic detritus is
presumed to be a volcanic island arc along the western side of the basin, probably where
During deposition of the Muara Enim Formation, volcanic detritus was brought in sever
times, such as when the tonstein in C seam was deposited. At the Perimeter Ditch location,
between A l and A 2 seams (Mangus Tuff) and three tonsteins in A l seam all are evidence
58
of increasing volcanic activity. The well-known Mangus Tuff and the three layers of
tonsteins in the A l seam are widespread throughout the basin (Shell Minjbouw N.V.,
1978). The increase in volcanic activity, as indicated by the above tuffaceous layers in the
upper part of the Muara Enim Formation and also tuffaceous layers in the overlaying
Kasai Formation, was also reported by de Coster (1974) and Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978).
Volcanism provided detritus which added to the total sediment flux and influenced the
sedimentary evolution of the basin. The high intensity of volcanism provided more
suspended sediment in the streams and therefore more significant progradation and lateral
5. Tropical Climate
Tropical climates have long been recognised as important factors in peat formation. The
high humidity and rainfall enables plants to grow rapidly. However, the hot humid climate
also promotes bacterial and animal activity which degrades dead plant material. The work
of Anderson (1964), showed that rain-fed mires tend to have convex morphologies and this
type of peat mire is known as a raised bog. The high rainfall also influences the water
salinity of the receiving basin. The abundant freshwater influx reduces the alkaline ion
A study of modern tropical peats in Jambi and Riau by Cecil et al. (1993) showed that
dense rainforest is the main factor controlling the volume of the suspended load in the
stream waters near the estuary. Under these conditions, sedimentation in the receiving
basin is minimised and stream avulsion rarely happens. They also found that the water in
rivers and estuaries has a low p H and low dissolved solid concentrations. A s a result there
59
is no carbonate deposition except for a minor amount of siderite in the Malacca Strait.
In the Bukit Asam area, sideritic zones occur in the form of nodules, clusters of nod
lenses or layers within the softer and darker claystone and siltstone (section 4.4.2). For
calcite, precipitation occurs when the pore waters become oversaturated as a result of an
low sulphate content and available F e 2 + (Boggs, 1992). Formation of siderite under a low
sulphate condition is possible if there is microbial reduction of the ions in the organic-rich
The Muara Enim Formation was deposited during a regressive period of a transgressive-
regressive cycle which controlled sedimentation in the South Sumatra Basin (see Chapter
2). Co-incidental with the initiation of the regressive phase was deposition of the Air
Benakat Formation which consists mainly of foraminiferal, shallow marine sediments (de
Coster, 1974). The deposition of the Muara Enim Formation commenced with deposition
of the Kladi coal and this was thefirstevidence of nonmarine deposition. Continued
freshwater conditions resulted in the deposition of abundant coal in the sequence which is
Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978) divided the Muara Enim Formation into four units, from the
i. M l which represent the sequence from the Kladi coal to the base of the C seam
60
(Petai seam);
M2 which is the sequence from C seam to the Al seam (Upper Mangus seam);
M4 which is the sequence from Kebon seam to the topmost Niru seam (Table 4.1).
This subdivision was based on a basin-wide study. However, in the concession area
Bukit Asam coal mines, only the upper part of Ml, the complete M2 and the lower p
of M3 are exposed and there was need to establish whether the features of the loc
sequence are the same as those of the corresponding sequence given by Shell for e
in the basin. In order to do this, sections were measured in the western wall in A
pit, the southern mining face in Muara Tiga Selatan and the Perimeter Ditch expos
Muara Tiga Besar Utara . The three measured sections are given as Figures 4.5 to
The Perimeter Ditch section was located in the new Muara Tiga Besar Utara mine an
represents the lower part of Muara Enim Formation (Ml and M2). Exposed is the
sequence from the Merapi seam to the Al seam (Upper Mangus), which is the boundary
between M2 and M3 in the Shell stratigraphic nomenclature; this is also the bound
between Lower Muara Enim Formation (MPa) and Upper Muara Enim Formation (MPb).
2. Airlava Pit.
The Airlaya pit section was taken on bench 5 of the mine, northern wall, close to
conveyor belt line, CE 53 (as it was located in 1994). The section covers the sequ
This section was measured on the mining bench of Muara Tiga Selatan. The sequence is
147 m thick here and covers the interval from above A l seam to the Enim seam (or the
The Merapi seam is the lowest unit of the coal measures. It is not exposed in any of the
measured sections. Also, it was not possible to examine the Kladi seam or the interval
between the Kladi seam and the Merapi seam as these are not exposed in any of the mines.
However, according to Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978), the interval above the Kladi coal is
a sequence of brown and grey sandstone, siltstone and claystone with minor glauconitic
sandstones. Shell Minjbouw N.V. found marine gastropods and lamellibranches in the
sequence between the Kladi and Merapi seams but freshwater fossils (molluscs and
lamellibranches) were also found near the Merapi seam. The latter finding is significant
because it was thefirstevidence to indicate that by the time the precursor peat for the
Merapi seam was being deposited, conditions had changed to freshwater. Earlier, it had
been noted that the Kladi seam may have been influenced by marine conditions.
The Merapi seam was only found in the Perimeter Ditch section (Fig. 4.5) where it is
composed of bright banded coal; the seam is only 0.5 m thick. This conforms with the
findings of Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978) w h o found the seam is not widespread, being
only found in the Enim area and the northern part of the basin.
Given the lack of data for the Merapi seam and the underlying units, it is not possib
62
ascertain what influences the underlying and overlying environments of deposition had on
This section, which also was only exposed in the Perimeter Ditch section and comprises
two units: a siltstone-claystone unit (collectively referred to as the claystone unit) and a
This unit extends from the top of the Merapi coal to thefirstsignificant sandstone bed (Fig
4.5). The contact with top of the Merapi coal is not erosional. T h e unit is composed of
sideritic silty claystone, locally referred to as ironstone. These ironstone layers occur 9 m
above the base of the unit (a 4 m interval) and again 30 m above the base (a 3.5 m
interval). Within each of these intervals, the ironstone occurs as two groups of four layers.
In other sections of the unit, ironstone nodules are c o m m o n . M a n y nodules and some of
the layers are distinctively red indicating oxidation of the siderite to iron oxides as
At the top of the claystone unit, is a 4.5 m thick interval which is composed of coarse
siltstone and fine-grained sandstone interbedded with four thin layers of harder siltstone
with a slightly higher siderite content than the adjacent siltstone but a content not as high
as the siderite layers lower down. This part of the sequence represents deposition in a
higher energy environment, perhaps a shallowing of the basin; this represents the first
The siltstone unit is interpreted as a freshwater lagoon sediment with the coarsening-
upwards top of the unit indicating a progradation basin filling mechanism. The abundance
of siderite suggests that the basin may have been under the influence of marine conditions
at this time. Siderite commonly forms in shallow marine conditions where either the
concentration of F e 2 + or sulphate ion (which is reduced to the sulphide ion) are limited.
The marine influence m a y have been the movement of pore waters from the marine
environment to the lake or m a y have been as a result of two major marine incursions
reflectingrisesin the sea level and corresponding to the two sets of siderite layers. Shell
Minjbouw N . V . (1978) found marine fossils in this unit elsewhere in the basin and were
thought to indicate that in some areas of the basin, at least, the environment was still very
However, siderite also forms in brackish and freshwater lakes. Krumbein and Garrels
(1952), with his fence diagram, showed that siderite m a y be formed in an environment
with a p H between 7 and 7.8 (neutral to slightly alkaline) and E h slightly below 0 (slightly
reducing). These conditions can also be found in freshwater or slightly brackish water
environments such as a lake. In the case of the South Sumatra Basin at Bukit Asam, a
brackish environment would have contained large amounts of bicarbonate and F e 2 + ions,
possibly derived from river water or from the volcanic products that contain high Fe
content.
observed in the Perimeter Ditch section and thus no definitive environment of deposition
could be defined for this lower part of the sequence. However, given the equivocal
64
environments in which siderite m a y be formed, the data from the Shell Minjbouw N . V .
drilling program a lacustrine environment is favoured. This does not exclude the possibility
of more marine conditions in the Banko and Arahan areas as postulated by Stalder (1976).
This unit comprises a group of 4 to 5 metres thick layers of sandstone and siltstone,
immediately below the C seam. The unit also has fining-upward silty claystone with
and, in the upper part, is dominated by finer-grained sandstone with abundant organic
matter and siderite. Scour marks at the base of the lowest sandstone layer shows
The polished blocks of this sandstone shows that in the finer grained sections, the roc
contains sparse lamalginite, with yellow to orange fluorescence, and sparse yellow to
analyses shows the rock contains quartz, kaolinite, muscovite mica with the finer grained
The grey, laminated siltstone and very fine-grained sandstone, contains abundant organi
matter especially at the top of the section. Bioturbation, flaser bedding and, in the
The fine- to medium-grained sandstone that contains quartz, muscovite and mica with
scour marks at the base indicates that this sandstone is a channel product deposited away
from the main channel. T h e presence of glauconite m a y indicate shallow, well aerated
65
marine environment but it might also have been a volcanic products (Musper, 1937) or
perhaps derived from older units during the immediately past weathering-erosional cycle.
The presence of organic matter in the sandstone indicates a terrestrial input for some or
The flaser bedding and ripple marks are associated with lenticular beds of the underlyin
siltstone strata, suggesting that this unit is in the high flow regime of a flat-lying tidal flat,
probably close to tidal channel or in the middle portion of the intertidal flat where currents
are swift and m u d is swept from the sand flats (Diessel, 1992). Bioturbation in the siltstone
indicates that the conditions were favourable for animal colonisation with plenty of food,
Environment of Deposition
The sandstone unit tends to coarsen upwards from the bioturbated siltstone to a fine- to
medium-grained sandstone indicating that the sequence was formed as one or more
either a distributary channel or a tidal flood channel. The palaeocurrents show directions
to the northeast, towards the depocentre. The lamalginite indicates the unit was formed
in a lagoonal environment. At the top of the unit, the grain size approaches that of clay.
The intercalation of siderite with the siltstone indicates a lowering of energy levels
In summary, the unit between the Merapi seam and the C seam was deposited in a
freshwater lagoon with probably several marine incursions in the lower part and
shallowing as the top of the sequence was deposited as indicated by the deposition of a
66
prograding delta sequence preceding quieter water conditions, probably a tidal flat,
This unit, which includes two thin coal layers, the lower immediately above the sandstone
unit described above, another separated from C seam proper by a claystone layer and C
seam proper, and the tuffaceous claystone between the coals, was only observed in the
Perimeter Ditch section. The two thin coal layers are 0.3 m (lower) and 0.6 m thick. The
claystone intervals contain abundant organic debris and ironstone nodules. T h e top thin
coal, that is the coal nearest to C seam, is a banded dull coal with a thin tuffaceous layer
in the middle.
The claystone is probably derived from fine-grained tuff, except for the upper clays
layer which also has two siltstone layers with waveripplesat the base and a tuffaceous
claystone layer at the top (Fig. 4.8a). The wave ripples have parallel crests and are
oriented towards 233° indicating N W or S E wave movement. Bedding is not always well
C seam is 7.5 m thick and contains black, bright banded coal with many resin bodies
are found in the top half of the seam. C seam extends over the entire South Sumatra Basin
(Shell Minjbouw N.V., 1978) and has a m a x i m u m thickness, in the Suban Jeriji area, of
13 m (Haan, 1976). C seam thus represents the third major phase of coal formation.
67
Environment of Deposition
The claystone and siltstone immediately beneath C seam are indicative of a low energy
environment before deposition, probably in a tidal flat environment. T h e thin coal layers
below the C seam, which are not continuous across the basin, indicate that plants had
already occupied some higher parts of the vast swampy flat-lying basin before the onset
of the luxuriant plant growth producing the precursor peat for C seam. T h e sometimes
poorly defined bedding suggests that the claystone immediately below C seam is a seat-
Whereas the claystone and siltstone in the Merapi seam to C seam interval were derived
from clastic detritus that originated from the weathering of existing rocks, the claystone
very large eruption) immediately after the lower coal was deposited, a second eruption,
of lesser magnitude before the precursor peat for C seam was deposited and three smaller
The wave ripples in the tuffaceous siltstone of the upper claystone layer in C seam i
not only an oscillatory current perpendicular to the crest line of the ripple but also a
shallow water body, possibly a lagoon/lake, indicating that the tuff was deposited in water
rather than on dry peat surface. Thus plant growth m a y have started to decline before or
of the lagoon was oriented subparallel to the crest of theripples,that is, approximately
233°. The wave lengths of theripplesrange between 45 to 60 c m and the amplitudes range
between 5 to 8 cm. The ripples indicate that the depth of the water was about 10 to 40 cm.
68
The continuous nature of the claystone layers suggests that the volcanic products totally
covered the peat surface. However, each time a tuffaceous layer formed, plants reoccupied
A complete section of this interval was exposed in the Perimeter Ditch section and the
upper part of the section was exposed in the Bench 5 section (Fig. 4.6). T h e interval
sandstone. A thin coaly shale is in the siltstone layer, approximately 10 metres above the
(a) The Perimeter Ditch section shows four units, a basal siltstone overlain by a seco
c m ) coaly shale.
claystone intercalated with yellow sideritic sandstone. This section contains abundant
with a total thickness of 4 m . The unit is composed of several thin layers with a maximum
thickness of 1.5 m . The sandstone is grey to green, with some red zones; the rock is fine-
to medium-grained, well-sorted and contains abundant organic matter and burrows. Parallel
laminations and trough crossbedding are found in the thicker sandstone beds whereas wave
69
ripples are found in the finer grained units. T h e ripple crests are parallel to 339° and
trough crossbeds indicate palaeocurrent directions towards 304°. A thin layer of red
sideritic sandstone occurs at the top of the sandstone unit with concentrations of siderite
manifested as nodules.
Environment of Deposition
terminated by the deposition of coaly shale which formed in a marsh on a tidal flat
environment in which clastic detritus was deposited with the organic matter. T h e grain size
of the sandstone indicates a low energy regime and this reflects a distal position from the
source. T h e basin became deeper as indicated by the deposition of laminated silt and clay
sands by flood tidal channels at the top of the sequence preceding the deposition of B
seam.
(b) In Bench 5, Airlaya pit section (Fig. 4.6), the interval between C seam to B2 seam i
sideritic siltstone and coarse-grained sandstone that contains pebble-sized clay intraclasts.
This sequence is strongly bioturbated, with abundant organic matter, pyrite and lenses of
sideritic siltstone up to 0.6 m thick (Figs 4.8c and 4.9b). Whereas in the Perimeter Ditch
section, four distinctive units were easily identified, in the Airlaya pit section the sequence
appears to be lithologically similar to the lower unit of the Perimeter Ditch section and is
The siltstone is grey to yellowish-grey, with some reddish-brown zones parallel to the
bedding planes and is laminated. Flaser bedding and ripple marks are c o m m o n sedimentary
pebble-sized claystone intraclasts occur near the centre of the unit. Bioturbation is
abundant with prominent trace fossil of the species Monocraterion, Scolithos and
or in the coarser grained siltstone or sandstone. Pyrite and sideritic nodules (Fig. 4.8d) are
c o m m o n in the lower part of the sequence, usually above the sideritic siltstone lenses.
Several samples were taken from the section for thin-section, polished-section and XRD
examination. The flaser bedding contains siltstone and hard brown claystone which, in thin
section, shows that it consists mainly of quartz ( > 9 0 % ) , siderite, organic matter and a
clay-sized matrix (Figs 4.8a and c). The quartz is medium-grained, angular to subangular,
well-sorted and has open packing. X R D analysis shows that the siltstone contains mostly
quartz. A thin section of the hard claystone show that it contains siderite and minor fine-
The medium-grained sandstone with large claystone intraclasts contains subangular quar
in a matrix containing siderite (Fig. 4.8b). The sandstone is yellow, medium-grained with
an open fabric. Grains of quartz and siderite cement visible in hand-specimen. The
sandstone commonly occurs as lenses of restricted lateral extent (Fig. 4.8c). The siderite
71
content is so high in some samples that the sandstone is better classified as a micritic
carbonate rock. Sample T S 12863 is a typical sample and is a sideritic claystone with
subangular quartz grains scattered throughout the samples. X R D analyses confirms that the
sample contains mostly quartz and siderite but also show pyrite and dickite.
A polished sample of sideritic sandstone (GM 25515) showed that it contains sparse
dispersed organic matter with a vitrinite reflectance in the range 0.8 to 1.07%. There is
observed. X R D analysis gives the composition of the sample as quartz, siderite and
kaolinite.
All petrographic samples from the C seam-B seam interval were taken from Bench 5,
Airlaya pit and have been heated by an intrusion (a parasitic cone under drill hole A L B 4 7 -
In the C seam-B seam interval in Airlaya pit, the coarsening-upward units show offsett
as is typical in a prograding delta lobe (Fig. 4.10). The prograding lobes are distinctive
on the western bench of Airlaya pit and in Muara Tiga Selatan. The strike and dip of the
lobes in the western face of Airlaya mine shows that the delta was prograding to the south.
Unfortunately, directional details were not obvious in the Muara Tiga Selatan. The Airlaya
pit is thought to be one of the depocentres of the basin with the water depth in the range
of 10 to 20 m .
Palaeocurrent measurements on the ripples (Fig. 4.8e) in the siltstone gives wave
Environment of Deposition
environment where rivers supply freshwater which is rich in oxygen and has abundant
organic matter for the nutrients. Given the high organic content of rock, it is sugges
that the delta was confined to a lagoon or lake. The greater abundance of organic matt
in the Airlaya pit section, compared to the Perimeter Ditch section indicates that the
Flaser and lenticular bedding in the sandstone with claystone intraclasts indicates i
deposited in an intertidal flat area where the current was relatively strong or, alte
The scenario envisaged for the C seam-B seam interval is that of a lagoon that was
and Musper (1937). Stalder stated that the lower Muara Enim Formation was formed in
a lagoon that had a connection with the open sea. His conclusion was based on the mar
fossils found in the lower part of the formation and the high water formation conduct
that was shown by the sequence below Mangus seam. Musper (1937) also suggested that
the Muara Enim Formation was formed in a lagoon environment with connection to the
The ground water in this section probably contained a high concentration of bicarbona
ions which entered the adjacent coal layers. This is shown by higher sulphur contents
73
B 2 seam (range from 0.26 to 2.39% with average 1.02%) and C seam (range from 0.42
to 2.52% with average 0.98%) compared to the other coal seams where A l , A 2 and Bl
seams have average sulphur contents of 0.65, 0.26 and 0.32% respectively).
The interval from the base of the B seam to the base of A 2 seam is exposed in both the
Perimeter Ditch and Bench 5, Airlaya faces. However, the two sections are quite
different.
In the Airlaya section, B seam is split into the Bl and B2 seams by a 4 m thick clast
wedge comprising poorly-bedded, blackish-grey claystone with yellow sideritic zones and
hard lenses of sandstone. The lower B 2 seam is a bright banded coal with a single
tuffaceous claystone near the middle of the seam. The upper Bl seam, is also a bright
banded coal but has at least three tuffaceous claystone layers, one of which is of very
limited lateral extent. Bl seam is up to 7 m thick. The seams are separated by three metres
of claystone which has a thin hard, sideritic siltstone near the middle of the section. The
claystone has abundant organic matter and burrows which occur below the hard sideritic
siltstone layers. B 2 seam has only one tuffaceous claystone with many rounded, 2 to 15
m m (at the base) diameter 'darts' and many organic stringers (Fig. 4. lie, Plate Fig. 4.1.
Graded bedding and parallel laminations are quite obvious in this Airlaya section.
In the Perimeter Ditch section, the upper part of the B seam is not well developed an
only 0.4 m thick; it is uneconomic and the seam nomenclature of Bl for this upper part
is not used extensively. The lower part of B seam is thicker, up to 7 m . This lower B 2
equivalent coal is a black banded bright coal whereas the upper coal is dull banded coal.
74
B seam is quite variable in other areas adjacent to the mine area, especially in relation to
the tuffaceous claystone layers. In the Suban area, Bl seam contains two claystone layers
and in the Klawas Tengah area ( K T A ) there are four tuffaceous claystone layers. This
indicates that during deposition of Bl seam, volcanic activity was an important process but
perhaps of limited lateral extent during some eruptions and not all eruptions were from the
Haan (1976) studied the B seam in the Banko area and recognised a marine influence on
the topmost dirt bands, especially in the South Banko Area. The claystone in the B 2 seam
was found to be 5 m thick. Haan gave two hypotheses regarding the thicker B seam in the
Banko area:
i. the volcanic detritus constituting this claystone was transported by water and the
source was closer to the Banko area with accumulation of the sediment rapid; and,
ii. the volcanic detritus was derived from ash falls and then reworked by water action
Borehole data show that B seam is not split in the Muara Tiga Selatan area and the
thickness of the coal commonly is less than the total thickness of B l and B 2 in the Airlaya
area. This indicates that the Muara Tiga Selatan area was probably not influenced by
volcanic activity suggesting that the volcanic vents were some distance from this area.
In the Perimeter Ditch section, the interval between the top of B seam and the bottom
A 2 seam is 16 m thick and consists of mostly claystone at the base which is gradational
into siltstone with a thin claystone immediately below A 2 seam. Sideritic siltstone occurs
75
in the siltstone at the top of the unit and in the 2 m of claystone above B seam.
In the Airlaya section, the interval between Bl seam and A2 seam is 15 m thick and i
dominated by dark brown claystone (with abundant organic matter) that is interlaminated
with hard yellowish-brown sideritic silty sandstone (Figs 4.8b and 4.9c). In the middle of
this subunit is a thin (0.5 m ) laminated dull coal layer known, by site geologists, as the
Suban Marker. The Suban Marker in only found in the Tanjung Enim and northern part
of the basin (Shell Minjbouw N.V., 1978). Immediately above the Suban Marker is a
white claystone.
At Airlaya, the bottom and top of the Suban Marker are dominated by interlaminated
claystone and coal-coaly claystone. The bright banded coal is only 0.1 to 0.3 m thick and
occupies the middle part of the unit. The section above the Suban Marker contains thin
tuffaceous claystone, pyrite, flaser bedding and manyripples.Ripples in the Airlaya and
Klawas areas indicate wave action normal to 275° (Fig. 4.8e). Burrows are c o m m o n but
Environment of Deposition
coarsen to siltstone at the top. This sequence suggests a prograding delta, distal to the
source. The receiving basin was probably a freshwater lagoon. Progradation of the delta
Compared to that in the Perimeter Ditch area, the basin depth in the Airlaya area wa
abundant organic matter; sediment of this size is indicative of a low energy regime.
Deposition in this low energy environment was interrupted by the poor development of a
marsh and low moor representing the lower part of the Suban Marker. For a short period,
the mire was possibly a high moor in some areas, giving rise to the vitrinite-rich bright
coal in the middle of the Suban Marker. However, this was a temporary state as the
sediment influx increased as indicated by the deposition of laminated dull coal layer at the
The mire was then completely drowned with later shallowing of the water as indicated
the deposition of sandstone at the top of the sequence. A tuff layer was deposited above
Pyrite is not seen in the Suban Marker and this indicates that the marsh or mire was
essentially a freshwater environment. This is also supported by the low sulphur contents
5. A2 Seam
The A seam comprises two splits called the A l and A 2 seams separated by a claystone
interval. The lower A 2 seam is exposed in both the Perimeter Ditch and Bench 5, Airlaya
measured sections. In both sections, A 2 seam contains black banded bright coal, with
lenses of silicified coal at the top of the seam and resin bodies up to 8 c m diameter
throughout the seam. A 2 seam only contains very thin (1 to 3 c m ) discontinuous claystone
layers. In the Klawas Barat area, approximately 50 c m above the base, a silicified coal
band is recognisable.
77
The silicified coal at the top of the A 2 seam is approximately 40 c m thick, is very hard
and commonly often causes great problems during mining. W h e n weathered, the lenses
Petrographically, two forms of silica are found: detrital silica which isfine-grainedquartz
grains, and diagenetic silica that formed as a result of recrystallisation of saturated silica
solution during the early diagenetic coalification stage or even peat development stage. The
most likely explanation for the high silica content of the coal is the result of leaching of
primary silica (syngenetic) from the overlying tuffaceous claystone layer (Chapter 5) and
coalifying plant tissue. Geochemical analyses (Chapter 6) show that the silicified layer
This interval is exposed in both the Perimeter Ditch and Bench 5, Airlaya sections and
comprises four units, from bottom to top, Unit 1, Unit 2, Unit 3 and Unit 4.
containing grains of quartz and minor organic matter; it is 0.3 m thick. X R D examination
sandy texture, laminated in the lower part, and consisting of fragment of quartz, lithic tuff,
pumice and organic matter. This unit is 5 m thick and contains m a n y rootlets at the top.
In the north west bench of Airlaya pit this layer is extremely hard and causes m a n y
problems for the bucket wheel excavators which are used to remove this interburden prior
78
to mining the A 2 seam. This behaviour is best explained if it is assumed that the quartz
content of the unit in that area is m u c h higher. Crossbedding and planar bedding can be
recognised in this particular area (Fig. 4.8g). X R D analysis shows that this second unit
One explanation for the character and occurrence of this unit is detrital quartz was mi
with the tuffaceous sediments during reworking of the sediment in this area. Another
leaching of the overlying material. A more plausible explanation is that the layer represents
Unit 3. Unit 3 is a tuffaceous coaly claystone with abundant organic matter but at firs
glance from a distance appears to be a thin dull coaly shale layer, 5 c m thick. This unit,
although relatively thin is laterally widespread and is easily recognisable in both sections
and in m a n y drill cores. Immediately beneath the coaly claystone are numerous rootlets.
Unit 4. Unit 4 is a white tuffaceous claystone grading into a brown coaly claystone wit
rootlets at the top. In the Perimeter Ditch area, this layer is a pale claystone. Organic
petrographic examination shows that this layer contains sparse to c o m m o n sporinite (with
Environment of Deposition
This interval is interpreted as a series of volcanic packages. T h e first and second layers
After deposition of these two units apparently there was a short period of volcanic
quiescence with widespread colonisation of the tuff surface by plants and an the initial
stages of the formation of a mire. The extensive spread of rootlets immediately below unit
3 are evidence of this. However, before it could develop into a large mire capable of
producing a significant thickness of peat, other volcanic eruptions produced a large volume
of ash which gave rise to the tuffaceous claystone at the top of the interval. Rivers and
streams feeding into the basin m a y have transported some of the volcanic products across
The Al seam-A2 seam interval is very distinctive in the field as it has a distinctive
colour when weathered. The interval is extremely consistent with the four units found over
a large part of the South Sumatra Basin. However, the interval with a long history of
controversy. Nursarya and Latief (1979) considered this layer to be a channel facies in a
fluvial-dominated deltaic system. O n the other hand, Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978), based
on their comprehensive drilling program, stated that the interval is widespread through out
the basin and derived from volcanic activity although no details were given. After the Shell
Minjbouw N.V. report, this layer was called the Mangus Tuff.
Based on the field evidence gained for this study, the A2 seam-Al seam interval is der
from volcanic ash and should rightly be called the Mangus Tuff.
7. Al Seam
The A l seam is exposed in all three measured sections although only the top half of the
80
seam was exposed in the Muara Tiga Selatan section (Fig. 4.7). A l seam contains bright
banded coal, 6 to 12 m thick and has three prominent,claystone layers of volcanic origin,
informally called Tl, T 2 and T 3 (bottom to top, Fig. 4.5). T h e base of the bottom coal
The top of Al seam is not consistent throughout the basin. In the Klawas Barat area,
the north of the study area, the coal above the upper claystone (that is, the upper part of
Muara Tiga Besar Utara, the top of A l seam is a coaly shale above thefirstclaystone
layer (T3) whereas in the Airlaya area, the same section is a bright banded coal. This
carbonaceous claystone in the top section of A l seam contains more pyrite (up to 4 % ) than
The claystone layers are typically tonsteins with thicknesses between 5 to 12 cm. G
texture (pelletic) is c o m m o n in each and all contain abundant quartz and commonly show
microcrosslamination (Figs 4.8h, 4.1 la to 4.1 Id). Rootlets are c o m m o n in the top part of
the layer. X R D analysis shows that kaolinite is the dominant mineral with minor quartz
and small amounts of natrojarosite (NaFe}(S0 4 ) 2 (OH) 6 ). A full description of the claystone
layers is given in Table 4.3. The prominent sedimentary structures in the claystone layers
Haan (1976) showed that Mangus seams (Al and A2) deteriorates in quality with a
decrease in seam thickness and more coaly shale in the southern part of the basin such as
in the Airlaway, Arahan and Banko areas. H e also stated pyrite content of the coal
81
increased and attributed this to a more marine influence. Thus in some areas, a high moor
mire continued to exist whereas in other areas conditions were not as favourable and a
Al seam has a slightly higher pyrite content in the top section of the seam which is
interpreted as indicating a slightly marine or brackish water influence. The higher sulphur
content of A l seam compared to those of A 2 and Bl seams (Table 4.4) also supports this
hypothesis. Given Haan's report of the deterioration in the quality of coal in the Airlaway,
Arahan and Banko areas, it seem reasonable that the marine influence was greatest in the
Arahan and Airlaway areas, decreasing towards the Klawas Barat area and the southeastern
areas from Banko to Suban where the pyrite content is also slightly higher in the top of
A l seam. T h e marine influence was least in the Bukit A s a m area, especially Airlaya.
This interval was only exposed in the Muara Tiga Selatan section (Fig. 4.7) and all
interpretations are based on this limited data base. This interval consists of three distinctive
units:
sideritic siltstone;
Unit 2 - a 9 m interval with three bright banded coals intercalated in the brown clays
The brown claystone of unit 1 is 80 m thick and is moderately laminated, with hard
reddish-yellow sideritic siltstone layers that are 5 to 10 cm thick and are interbedd
the claystone in rhythmical way comprising clusters of four layers or more. Some laye
above the top of Al seam. Bioturbation occurs in several layers but is not common in
layer. Spary calcite lenses are enclosed within the sideritic siltstone and also in t
claystone layer.
A polished block of brown claystone above the Al seam (GM 25520) shows that the rock
has dispersed organic matter with liptinite > vitrinite > inertinite. Liptinite compr
cutinite and suberinite, with orange fluorescence, sparse lamalginite (orange fluores
and sparse bitumen. Green fluorescing oil drops also occur. Abundant pyrite is disper
The thin coal layers in unit 2 which contain black bright banded coal except in the l
The upper unit, unit 3, comprises a series of coarsening-upward beds which grade from
organic matter occur throughout. The coarsening-upward units are 5 to 12 m thick, exc
sandstone which coarsens towards the top. The clasts are quartz, coal and lithic frag
Environment of Deposition
The brown claystone of unit 1 was deposited in a low energy regime and it is interpreted
hypothesis. The lower part of the claystone was probably deposited in slightly brackish
water as pyrite was found in sample G M 25520. The water was probably stagnant and was
Unit 2 is interpreted as having formed in the lagoon but by this time, it had
shallower, allowing vegetation to grow and form a mire. However this mire was very
vulnerable to water fluctuations and eventually drowned with initially claystone and then
abundant organic matter also indicates that the basin had considerable vegetation around
it with some of being brought into the basin during flood times. The polymictic
The lagoon shallowed again and the first Hanging seam, which is composed of bl
4.6 SUMMARY
The Muara Enim Formation was deposited during the middle of a regressive phase in a
followed by the inner neritic Air Benakat Formation which contains abundant marine
deposited and then the terrestrial deposits of the Kasai Formation. Thus the Muara Enim
Formation is a transitional unit between the inner neritic Air Benakat Formation and the
terrestrial Kasai Formation at the top of the sequence. The most important feature of the
basin was that regionally, there was an overall shallowing controlled by a regression.
Tectonically, the basin was in a depression zone of a back-arc basin in the Early Tert
Sumatra subduction system. The basement of the basin comprises dissected pre-Tertiary
rocks that were vertically displaced to form a horst and graben structure that was easily
rejuvenated. This depression zone was also vulnerable to subsidence as the young sediment
filled the basin. Higher subsidence rates were experienced in the depocentre which was
located in the Bukit A s a m area as shown by the isopach m a p of coal thickness for the
Muara Enim Formation. The source of the clastic detritus was probably more from the
west or south rather than from the Malayan Shield to the northeast because of the distance
to that provenance.
A tropical climate during the Tertiary, when the Muara Enim Formation was deposited,
suggests a restricted amount of suspended load in the streams and lateral avulsion was
probably rare. The tropical climate with high humidity and high rainfall assured a
freshwater supply to the basin. The dense tropical rain forest restricted erosion and as a
sea but the connection was restricted and eventually closed with the emergence of Bukit
Sea level fluctuations were significant, as pointed out by Hutchison (1989) and this
the main factor influencing the deposition of the coals in the Muara Enim Formation. The
dominance of fine-grained sediment in the Muara Enim Formation and the widespread
extent of thisfine-grainedsediments suggest that the basin was dominated by a low energy
regime environment during most of its Tertiary history. The basin was very vulnerable to
sea level fluctuations and because of the depth of the basin and the low-lying surrounding
topography, a rise or fall of the sea level would have affected a vast area of the basin.
After deposition of the marine Air Benakat Formation the Kladi seam was deposited on
the vast lowland of the basin. The sea level rose again with deposition of the Kladi seam-
Merapi seam interval. The sediment was dominated byfine-graineddetritus and again a
low energy regime prevailed. However, from this point in time, the environment was
or lagoonal system into which streams brought clastic detritus that was deposited in
A major influence on the development of peat mires and the subsequent coal formation
was volcanic activity. This influence lasted for almost the entire period that the Muara
Enim Formation was being deposited. M a n y small volcanic eruptions produced ash which
accumulated as claystone layers or tonsteins in the coal seams. The biggest eruption, which
may have been a series of closely spaced eruptions produced a vast volume of ash that
86
accumulated as the interval between A l seam and A 2 seam. Most claystone layers have
sedimentary structures such asripples,crossbedding and graded bedding and these indicate
Much of the data produced for this study showed that the generalisations put forward
the Shell Minjbouw N.V. program are applicable in the Bukit A s a m area but some local
but more detail has been added and the important and significant contribution of volcanic
CHAPTER FIVE
ORGANIC PETROGRAPHY
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Petrographically, the South Sumatra coals have been little studied by researchers, ei
for the determination of coal properties prior to mining development or for purely
scientific study, and not in the detail needed to fully quantify the coals in the var
seams. Among the first published data were those of Kinhill-Ottogold Joint Venture (1
who reported on the organic petrography of the coal in the Banko Barat Coalfield, an
to the southeast of the Bukit Asam Coalfield, and MCS Consultants (1980) who, as part
the Bukit Asam coal. Kinhill-Ottogold Joint Venture stated that the Banko Barat coal
mostly consists of huminite, with low inertinite and liptinite contents; resinite was
to be the most abundant liptinite maceral. MCS Consultants reported similar results.
However these studies were very general and relied on a very limited number of sample
i. Daulay (1985) and Daulay and Cook (1988) who studied the petrology of several
ii. Sarangih (1985) who studied the petrographic character of the Bukit Asam coal
iii. Waluyo (1992) who studied the petrology of Banko Barat coal.
From these petrographic studies the general character of the Bukit Asam coal, both
88
composition and rank, were established but details on variations in composition both
vertically and laterally, if any, were not established. The lateral variation in regional rank
was explored by Daulay and Cook (1988) but with a limited number of samples. The
some aspects of coal utilisation were also discussed. However m o r e detailed studies are
needed, especially to determine the spatial variations in relation to the effects of the
intrusions, and any associated alteration to the coal, with respect to maceral composition,
Thus, despite the above-mentioned studies, much of the coal in the Southern Sumatran
coalfields has yet to be studied in detail. This study was designed tofillpart of this void
in information. The project provides detailed data on the most prospective seam, the A
seam and compares these data with those for the stratigraphically lower seams which will
This petrographic study of the Bukit Asam coal has three main aims:
1. T o study the rank variations by measuring vitrinite reflectance of the samples; this
aspect of the study will determine the influence of the igneous intrusions.
3. T o examine lateral and vertical variations within the economic A seam to determine
if there are facies changes within the seam and whether these facies can be used to
The raw data collected for this study is given in Appendices 5.1 and 5.2. Previous data
89
from published papers and consultants' reports are given in Appendix 5.3. Diagrams
showing the vertical variations in macerals, maceral groups and mineral matter are given
in Appendices 5.4 and 5.5. Proximate analysis data are given in Appendix 5.6.
5.2.1 General
range from 0.3 to 2.6% (Daulay, 1985). This variation was considered to have been
caused mostly by the influence of intrusions ( M C S Consultants, 1980). For the samples
measured in this study, the vitrinite reflectance shows a range from 0.35 to 2.70% (Figs
5. la and 5. lb) with most values falling in the range of 0.4 to 0.46%. This represents the
rank of the samples that have undergone normal coalification, that is, is the regional rank
and the samples on which these values were measured lack a contact alteration overprint.
The values of 0.5 to 2 . 7 % are for coal that has been affected by the igneous intrusions.
The variation in vitrinite reflectance for each seam can be seen in Figures 5. lb, 5.2a, 5.2b
and 5.2c. The differences in distribution of P^max values between the seams, particularly
values above 0.5% are mostly a function of the sampling in that samples that had been
heated were not always collected equal distances from the intrusions nor were the same
number of samples collected for each seam. For all seams, the regional vitrinite reflectance
invariably falls in the 0.4 to 0.5% range and the reflectance for heated samples falls in the
range of 0.6 to 2 . 5 + % .
moisture content, a decrease in volatile matter and an increase in fixed carbon. Plots of
vitrinite reflectance against the inherent moisture and calorific values (Figs 5.3a and 5.3b)
90
show a linear correlation but the linear relationship breaks d o w n at higher ranks ( R ^ a x
> 0.6%). Figures 5.3a and 5.3b show that for a change in ^ m a x from 0.4 to 0.55%, the
inherent moisture decreases from 30 to 7 % , with an increase in the calorific value of 6300
to 7800 kcal/kg (d.a.f.), or a 1500 kcal/kg increase per 0.1% increase in Ryinax. For
reflectance values between 0.6% and 2.7% ^ m a x , the inherent moisture values are within
the range of 1 to 4 % and only a small increase in the calorific value occurs, from 8000
for coal in the early stages of coalification. In the early stages of coalification, peat
changes to brown coal with a fourfold reduction in volume (Ting, 1977a and 1977b). With
groups such as the -OH, - C O O H , - O C H 3 and - C = 0 groups; ring structures with oxygen
increase in relative carbon content (Stach et al, 1982; Bustin et al, 1983). During this
early stage of coalification, physico-structural changes are the dominant changes that
is intensified although the volatile matter shows little change; all these changes happen
In general, data from the literature, such as Stach et al (1982), suggest that from a
this range (sub-bituminous B/A), the calorific values range from 5500 to 7000 kcal/kg and
For Bukit A s a m coal, the increase in calorific value to 7000 kcal/kg (d.a.f.) is
accompanied by a decrease in moisture content of 7 % and this occurs over the vitrinite
reflectance range of 0.4 to 0.55 %. F r o m these data, it appears that the molecular structure
of vitrinite basically is not changed or is only slightly changed even though the moisture
content decreases substantially. Above an Ryinax value of 0.6%, the reflectance increases
rapidly with increasing calorific value and decreasing moisture content. This is mostly
controlled by the release of volatile matter and aromatisation processes (Stach et al., 1982;
from B 2 seam show anomalously low calorific values, well below most other samples with
an ^ m a x higher than 0.6%. These samples were taken from near intrusions. Both samples
have higher than normal ash contents ( 1 1 % for G M 2 5 4 9 7 ) and the lower calorific values
According to Stach et al (1982), during the high volatile bituminous coal stage (where t
volatile content is > 3 0 % ) , the reactions that bring about coalification are similar to those
that occur during the brown coal stage; as before, moisture content and volatile content
decrease, and calorific value increases. In the later bituminous stages ( < 30 to 1 0 % volatile
matter), volatile matter, which is related predominantly of the non-aromatic fraction of the
coal, falls rapidly due to the removal of aliphatic and alicyclic groups and the increasing
aromatisation of the humic complexes. Stach et al. (1982) also stated that in this range of
ranks, the reflectance rises proportionately to the fall in volatile matter because both
parameters are related to the degree of aromatisation of the vitrinite structural units.
For Bukit Asam coal, the volatile matter starts to decrease rapidly when the ^max reache
A s coalification takes place, aromatisation and the removal of alicyclic and aliphatic groups
are steadily removed and this is associated with a corresponding increase in vitrinite
compounds (aliphatic and alicyclic) does not occur even though the moisture content
decrease markedly. For ^ m a x above 2 % , the volatile matter does not decrease much
below 1 2 % . This is probably due to the strength of bonding of the remaining aliphatic
compounds which is high. Within this higher rank range, the increase in vitrinite
reflectance is due to increased alignment of organic entities parallel to the bedding (Stach
The effects of igneous intrusions on coal, oil shale and petroleum source rocks have been
the subject of many studies, mostly because heating by an intrusion increases the rank of
the coal or the maturity of the oil shale or source rock. This is useful for studying changes
in maceral structure which are associated with increasing rank. The emplacement of
m a g m a and lava may also be the cause of the circulation of hot hydrothermal fluids
through coal seams and this may cause an anomalously high coalification rate. The lateral
extent of the heat-altered zone depends on a number factors including the thickness of the
Hutton (1982) studied the effect of a dome-shaped dolerite intrusion in the Rundle and
Stuart oil shale deposits, Australia. For the oil shales, one intrusion had a m a x i m u m zone
of influence of 68 metres from the intrusion. The reflectance of vitrinite in the oil shales
increased from the regional vitrinite reflectance of approximately 0.3 to 6.9% near the
93
intrusive body.
The effects of the intrusion studied by Hutton had a more restricted zone of influence
is the case for intrusions at Bukit Asam. This was probably a function of comparative size
of the respective intrusions. Also, the change in coalification at the contact between the
for the oil shales than is the case for Bukit A s a m coal.
Frederick et al. (1985) studied the influence of igneous intrusions on the structure of
Australian high volatile bituminous coal; these authors used F T I R spectroscopy and solid
13
state C N M R spectroscopy to analyse the C - H aliphatic structures and aromatic
structures, respectively. In a study on the effect of two dykes that penetrated the Victoria
Tunnel seam in the Newcastle Coalfield, N e w South Wales, they found that towards the
to have occurred in the heated coal was the loss of oxygen functional groups with
subsequent replacement by hydrogen. Approaching the dyke, the aliphatic groups were lost
as a result of the breaking of the carbon-carbon bonds. In the sintered coal, aromatic
cross-linking was found to have taken place. It was stated that the cross-linking process
is analogous to the process of coalification under normal heat flow conditions but differs
in that the reactions occurred over a much shorter time because of the higher temperatures
involved. T h e study noted that although the dyke was relatively thin, the vitrinite
reflectance increased from 0.9 to 2.13% and the area of influence from the dyke extended
up to 36 metres from the dykes. T h e results of the study are summarised in Table 5.1.
Gentzis and Goodarzi (1990) studied the effect of intrusions on dispersed organic matte
94
in the sediments near the intrusions on Melville Island, Canada. They compared two deep
drill holes (Panarctic Drake Point D-68 and Panarctic Chads Creeks B-64) which
intersected two sills and one sill, respectively, and measured the reflectance of bitumen as
a measure of the maturity of the sequence. In the Drake Point D-68 drill hole, they found
that the effect of the granodiorite sill could be traced vertically by anomalous reflectance
values up to a distance of eight times the thickness of the sill; the upper sill was 45 m
thick with the aureole above it 330 m thick and the lower sill was 75 m thick; the zone of
influence was 484 m . The bitumen reflectance near the intrusions ranged between 5.8 and
6.8%.
The Chads Creeks B-64 drill hole penetrated a diabase sill with a thickness of 120 m.
effects of the intrusion in this hole could be detected for a distance of approximately 600
m above the intrusion. The reflectance of bitumen reached a m a x i m u m of only 0.6%. The
temperature of the diabase sill at the time of emplacement was estimated to be higher than
that of the granodiorite (1100° compared to 800° respectively). However, the maximum
reflectance was higher near the granodiorite sill. This was attributed to the probable
presence of another sill at slightly greater depth in the Drake Point drill hole.
Wang et al (1990) constructed mathematical models for determining the intrusion time o
sill-like igneous bodies using organic maturation parameters. They suggested that the
ability to infer the temperature of an igneous body, the time of intrusion and the cooling
time of the intrusion in the sedimentary sequence is crucial, especially in relation to the
The effect of intrusions on maceral structure has been studied by Creaney (1979). He
95
found that the Kamloops sub-bituminous coal from British Colombia had been thermally
retained cell structures typical of sub-bituminous coal. Bustin et al (1983) also found that
coal from a high heat flow area in Washington State, originally of sub-bituminous rank,
had been altered to anthracite; the anthracite still retained visible cell structure despite the
The present study area, where the igneous intrusions have several forms, provides an
excellent opportunity to study the relationship between shape of aureoles and the different
kinds of intrusive bodies. The study area has three types of intrusive bodies: the large
Bukit A s a m dyke, Suban sill in the Suban area and a vertical parasitic cone to the west of
Airlaya D o m e .
The Bukit A s a m dyke is the largest igneous body in the area and m a y have been the source
of m a g m a for all the other intrusions in the area. Field studies show that the Bukit A s a m
dyke penetrated the coal measures with considerable force causing brecciation in some
areas and the chaotic interfingering of sediment and intrusion close to the intrusion (Fig.
5.5). The effects of heating are clearly observable in the Balong Hijau quarry (Fig. 5.6)
which is an exposure in the aureole of Bukit A s a m dyke; here the aureole is 0.5 m to 1.25
k m wide.
In the Curuk Pangkul/Balong Hijau area, the intrusion appears to be associated with a
decrease in thickness of the coal measures sequence. O n the southern side of the intrusion,
the interval between A l and B 2 seams is only 8 m thick; this is m u c h thinner than the
96
normal thickness (40 m ) . O n the eastern and northern sides, a brecciated claystone zone
was formed. This zone is approximately 30 to 50 m wide. The sedimentary sequence also
was severely baked on the northern side of the intrusion (Fig. 5.6); the baking is now
recognised by black claystone with chaotic blocks of sandstone within the claystone.
The zone of influence of heating by the Bukit Asam dyke is limited to an aureole
approximately 0.5 to 1.25 k m wide. The dyke created an aureole 0.5 k m on the western
side (Muara Tiga Selatan) but 1.25 k m wide on the eastern side (Suban). The Muara Tiga
Selatan area does not appear to have been affected by the Bukit A s a m intrusion and there
and H D 5 5 .
In the Suban area, to the east of Bukit Asam, the aureole appears to be at its wides
reflectance values highest. However this aureole was not solely caused by Bukit Asam
dyke but may also caused by the Suban sill and the Bukit M u n g g u intrusion.
Dow (1977) suggested that the maximum thickness influenced by sill-like intrusion is
approximately twice the thickness of the sill. However, it might be expected that the
thickness of the alteration would be controlled by a number of factors other than the
thickness of the sill that is finally emplaced. These factors will include the temperature of
the m a g m a at the time of intrusion, the amount of m a g m a that flowed though the fissures
where the sill is n o w preserved, the amount of hot gases that were evolved into the
adjacent strata and the temperature of the sedimentary formations at the time of intrusion.
Pierre Shale in Colorado, were able to show that for that intrusion, the temperature
the dyke.
Raymond and Murchison (1988) indicated that, for the Midland Valley of Scotland, the
zones where marked contact effects are seen are much greater for the younger intrusions
than for the older intrusions. They concluded that variation in m a g m a temperatures is
insufficient to be the major cause of variability in the intensity of contact alteration. The
thickness of zones did not correlate with general indications of the amounts of m a g m a
intruded. They also concluded that the degree of sediment compaction, the volume of pore
water in the sediment and the initial maturation level of organic matter at the time of the
m a g m a intrusion are the significant factors that influence the scale of aureoles associated
with intrusions. Similar results have been reported by Pearson (1988) where the width of
metamorphic aureoles near igneous dykes was correlated with formation temperatures at
the time of intrusion of the dykes. Thus many of the above authors provide explanations
for the variability in the width of zones of heat altered zones of coals in a number of
coalfields. S o m e of all of the above factors are likely to have been important at Bukit
A s a m but, in addition, other reasons for the size of the aureole associated with the Bukit
A s a m intrusion are:
i. the immaturity of the Muara Enim Formation at the time of emplacement; and,
ii. the presence of unconsolidated sediments, including lignite, when the m a g m a was
emplaced.
Given that the width of influence for contact alteration effects on organic matter wil
98
with the formation conditions and water content of the sediments at the time of intrusion,
correlations can vary from province to province. Therefore it is unwise to adopt a simple
formula to indicate the relationship between the thickness of the zone of influence and the
thickness of the igneous intrusion. Plots of reflectance against distance from the igneous
bodies for Bukit A s a m show some variations in the trends (Fig. 5.7).
For Bukit Asam, the period during which igneous rocks were intruded was relatively
restricted to the Quaternary (Gafoer et al., 1986) and the range of depth of cover for the
Muara Enim Formation would also have been restricted (Kasai Formation and/or
Quaternary Deposits). S o m e variations in the water content would occur depending on the
lithologies present but lateral variation in the lithology would be limited (Stalder, 1976).
at sites close to those where heating had already been induced by an earlier phase of
intrusion.
The variations shown in Figure 5.7 could be explained in terms of the thickness of th
but, in most cases, direct measurements of the thickness of the sill are not available to
The geometry of the Suban sill was interpreted using the data from five drill holes that
penetrated only to the top of the intrusion. The sill has a m a x i m u m thickness in drill holes
T A 6 4 and T A 6 5 (50 m ) . T o the south, towards drill hole N S B 0 7 , the thickness decreases
and the sill splits into two thin sills. The sill thins to the southeast as can be seen from drill
99
hole data for N S B 1 0 , N S B 1 1 and N S B 0 7 where the sill is 11.67 m , 1.8 m , to 2.38 m
thick, from west to east, respectively. Towards the north, the sill also thins and probably
does not extend north of the grid line 9586000 near drill hole R27A. This assumption is
based on the observation that the rank of the coal decreases, consistently, from the Suban
Drill hole NSB04 was located close to the Bukit Asam dyke and intersected the top of t
sill at -63 m below sea level, much lower than other adjacent drill holes (for example,
R C 1 0 -17 m ; T A 6 5 - 6 m ) . Given the close spacing of all intrusions and the similar rock
types, it is logical to suggest that Suban sill was sourced from Bukit A s a m dyke as were
The southern and eastern limits of the sill remain unknown due to a lack of drill hol
From the thickness of the sill in drill holes N S B 0 7 , N S B 1 1 and N S B 1 0 , it appears that the
The influence of the Suban sill on the vitrinite reflectance can be seen in drill hol
which intersected the four coal seams A l , A 2 , A 3 and B 2 as well as the top of the
to 2.1%, that is, it increases at the rate of 0.02% per metre. This is higher than the
increase in drill holes associated with Bukit A s a m dyke and suggests that Suban sill may
have been intruded at a higher temperature than Bukit A s a m dyke or was larger. The latter
is unlikely given the known distribution from drill holes and the size of the respective
aureoles.
100
Laterally, the influence of the sill appears to be variable. A plot of the R v m a x for samples
from different locations in the Suban area, against the distance from the intrusion, shows
the influence of the intrusion. The data are summarised in Table 5.2. T h e plot, Figure 5.7,
shows the calculated distance from various sample localities to the intrusion and the
vitrinite reflectance of respective samples. The ^ m a x values for the samples from drill
hole R C 1 0 , which have known distances from the intrusion, are represented by Line 1.
Line 2 represents the ^ m a x values of sample from the mining face at locations SBA11,
i. the temperature of the intrusion in the area where RC10 is located was lower than
the temperature at the locality from where the samples on the line 2 are located or,
alternatively,
ii. the heat did not flow equally through the rocks from the intrusion.
Despite the apparent differences, the above data show a reasonably good correlation
between vitrinite reflectance and distance from the sill. This finding is important, because
either vitrinite reflectance or distance from a known sill can be used to predict the other.
Correlations such as these are extremely useful in exploration programs, mine feasibility
It is widely accepted that Rvmax values are influenced mostly by temperature and time
during which the coal is exposed to given temperatures; the higher the temperature and the
longer the coal is heated at any given temperature, the higher the R^mzx value. Although
101
the thickness of the intrusion. This clearly does not hold for the Bukit A s a m intrusions
Vitrinite reflectance in Suban area, compared to the other areas near Bukit Asam, is
considerably higher because the coal is heated from several intrusions. Suban sill has
influenced the coal from below, Bukit A s a m dyke has an influence in the west and Bukit
This intrusion was not intersected in any drill hole but its existence can be predicted from
the circular pattern, around drill holes A L B 4 7 and R C 6 0 , on the reflectance contour map.
A n iso-rank cross-section on the western side of Airlaya Pit (Fig. 5.10) suggests that the
relationship found for Suban area and using the assumption that the intrusion had a similar
The shape of the intrusion is that of a vertical cylinder or cone with a diameter of 10
150 metres (one half of the radius of the area of influence). Other small intrusions are
predicted from the data given in Figures 5.11 to 5.15. The m a x i m u m extent of the aureole
for the Airlaya parasitic cone can be estimated from the reflectance data. In the west and
east, the influence extends for approximately 500 m as indicated by the background values
for vitrinite reflectance at location A L A 13 in the east and locality H D 6 1 in the west. In
a northeast direction, the aureole is slightly wider as shown by the relatively high vitrinite
are also at background level. However, in an area 200 m to the southwest of A L A 1 3 , drill
holes B H A 1 1 to B H A 1 1 4 show much higher reflectance values (1.2%). This suggests the
Bukit A s a m m a g m a may have extended towards A L B 4 7 and further north under A L A 19.
The interseam vitrinite reflectance data from drill hole BH ALB47, show a progressiv
decrease from 2.16% in C seam to A l seam (1.26%). The nearby boreholes also show
similar vitrinite reflectance trends but with relatively lower reflectance gradients.
Another intrusion to the west of Airlaya Pit is indicated by the reflectance values.
Suban sill approximately 20 m below the lowest seam (B2)), the intrusion to the west of
Airlaya pit must be deeper than 20 m below the C seam in A L B 4 7 as indicated by the
As stated earlier, the Airlaya Dome was thought to have been caused by an intrusion
which was emplaced under it but which did not crop out (Matasak and Kendarsi, 1980).
However, the iso-reflectance contour m a p compiled for this study indicates the intrusion
that heated the coal in the vicinity of Airlaya D o m e , is not under the Airlaya D o m e but
on the western flank of the dome. Thus, the Airlaya D o m e m a y not have been caused by
The thickness of the coal seams near the intrusions decreases as the reflectance in
These decreases are quite marked with the seam thicknesses reduced to 8 7 % of the average
103
thicknesses away from the intrusions. In other coalfields of Indonesia, as well as in areas
of the Bukit A s a m Coalfield except those near intrusions, the thickness variations are not
large. For example, at Sangatta, Kalimantan, Nas (1993; 1994) and Geological Survey of
Indonesia (1978) noted very little variation. At Bukit Asam, A 2 seam is regarded to have
the most constant thickness of any seam in the South Sumatra Basin (Stalder, 1976).
However, near intrusions, the thickness of this seam decreases considerably with
increasing rank (Fig. 5.11). Where ^ m a x values change from 0.4 to 0.5% the decrease
in thickness is most dramatic and accounts for most of the decrease. Where the ^ m a x
changes from 0.5 to 2 . 7 % the decreases is less but still noticeable. N o evidence that
sedimentological features influence the thickness of the seam in this area is apparent.
One hypothesis for this phenomenon is the increasing temperature caused by the intrus
has driven out the volatile matter and moisture, thus decreasing the pore volume in the
coal, that is, the coal was able to be compacted more than if it had not been heated.
The vitrinite reflectance varies both laterally and vertical mirroring the lateral and vertical
variations in rank in the Bukit A s a m Coalfield. Daulay (1985) showed the regional trends
in vitrinite reflectance for composite samples from the A seam (Al + A 2 seams). O n his
Rvmax contour m a p (Fig. 5.12), the highest reflectance values were in the heated area to
the west of the open pit of PT. Bukit A s a m coal mine. In a mine to the west of study area,
Air Laway, the Rvmax values gradually increased from 0.37 to 0 . 4 % in the vicinity of the
of PT. Bukit A s a m concession area. The values reach a peak value of 2.6% in the vicinity
of the igneous intrusion in the Bukit A s a m and Bukit Tapuan areas (Fig. 5.12). The Ryinax
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data obtained in this study, together with the data from previous studies (Daulay, 1985;
Kinhill Ottogold Joint Venture, 1986) is used to construct more detailed maps showing the
lateral variation in vitrinite reflectance for the A l , A 2 and Bl seams in the P T . Bukit
Data from this study shows that almost all the variation in vitrinite reflectance can
attributed to the intrusions. The main outcrop of the Bukit A s a m intrusion complex appears
in the Muara Tiga Selatan area ( M S A ) , located approximately 500 m west of Bukit Asam,
the vitrinite reflectance values indicate no significant heating; in this area the vitrinite
reflectance values are similar to those on the eastern side of Airlaya which is known to be
in an area that is some distance from the intrusions and where the P^max valuesfitthe
normal regional pattern, for example, the P^max values for H D 5 5 , H D 5 4 , M S A 1 1 and
On the western side of Airlaya pit (AL), near ALB47 and RC60, the effects of the
intrusion are more pronounced compared to the effects in the eastern part of the basin. The
that a second intrusion, with an interpreted shape of a pipe-like body, perpendicular to the
bedding of the sedimentary strata, contributed to the heating because on other sides of the
Bukit Asam intrusion, close to the outcrop of the intrusion, the Rvmax values are normally
values are the same as the normal or background reflectance. However, towards Suban sill
(locality SB), the reflectance pattern changes quite rapidly. For example, at localities at
R C 3 9 and A L A 1 1 5 the reflectance values are 0.44%, increasing from 0.8 to 1.25%, near
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RC14, finally reaching 2 . 7 % in the southern part of the Suban pit and near the Bukit A s a m
intrusion.
The model that best explains the variations in the vitrinite reflectance values in
between A L A 1 1 5 and R C 1 4 and to the South, is that another intrusion exists and this
For the coal in the areas not effected by heat, the difference in P^max values, from the top
to the bottom of the seam, is low and with ranges from 0 to 0.07% per 10 m (Figs 5.16
and 5.17). Intraseam variation is easily recognised in samples from some heated zones but
again there is no consistent trend. For example, in Suban area the intraseam variation can
R ^ a x values increase slightly towards the base of the seam, ranging from 0.61 % at the
top to 0.65% at the base. There is an abrupt increase to 1.9% in the 10 c m ply above the
underclay or seat earth. At location SBA11, Rymax is 1.24% at the top of the seam and
gradually increases to 1.28 % approximately one metre before the bottom of the seam, after
which there is a sharp increase to 1.94% in the bottom one metre interval. Less
pronounced intraseam variations also can be recognised in the heated zone in the Airlaya
(0.57 to 0.74% across 0.6 metres of coal above the upper claystone of A l seam), and
A L A 1 7 (0.41 to 0.56% across 0.6 metres of the coal above the upper claystone of the A l
seam).
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In some heated zones intraseam variation are not apparent. At several locations, and even
close to the intrusion, the reflectance shows only small variations across the seam. For
example, at location A L A 1 1 , in the Airlaya pit the samples have values of 1.3% across
the full seam thickness. Constant values are also found for the seams at locations SBA21
(2.3%)andSBBll (2.7%).
One reason for the apparent variation in reflectance within coal seams could be the
samples from the various seams taken from drill hole samples. A total of eleven drill holes
were chosen. Nine of these drill holes were drilled through the complete series of coal
seams, from A l , A 2 (upper and lower Mangus), Bl and B 2 (upper and lower Suban) and
C (Petai seam); two drill holes did not penetrate the lowest seam, C seam. O n e drill hole
In general, the reflectance gradient shows a positive increase downhole with value
from 0.013 to 0.048% per 100 meters in areas where surface mapping or drilling provided
no evidence for intrusions. The lower part of the range is within the normal regional range
for the South Sumatran Basin. However, the upper part of the range is almost three times
higher than the norm. Drill holes with gradients in the high end of the range include
from 0.48 to 3.72% per 100 m . In all cases, the gradient depends on the position of the
One hole, ALB48, shows a negative geothermal gradient with the R^max values decreasi
with increasing depth (Fig. 5.21). The Ryrnax value for vitrinite in A l seam is lower than
that in A 2 seam and the ^ m a x of B 2 is much lower than that of the Bl seam. The highest
Rvmax value is for a sample in the A 2 seam that is overlain by the impermeable cap rock
of A2-B1 interseam sediment. The location of drill hole A L B 4 8 is close to the parasitic
Direct heating by the intrusions is one obvious cause of the increased reflectance
second cause it more likely to explain apparently inconsistent variations. For example, a
The rapid change in reflectance values is found both on the intraseam scale, for exa
at locality A L B 1 1 , and on the interseam scale, for example in drill hole A L B 4 8 . These
decreases appear to be due to local effects. In A L B 1 1 where the seam is nine metres thick,
the ^ m a x varies from 0.57% at the bottom of the hole, decreasing slightly to the middle
of the seam (0.55%) but then increases steadily towards the top (0.71%). The nearest
locations where the normal Rymax values were found were localities A L A 2 1 and A L A 12
where the reflectances (0.45 to 0.49%) were similar to the regional value in all ply
samples except the dull coal layer at the bottom of A 2 seam in location A L A 2 1 which has
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anomalously high vitrinite reflectance (1.94%). This location is distant from the parasitic
cone in the A L B 4 7 - R C 6 0 area (western part of Airlaya Pit), but close to the area of
influence of Suban sill. The interseam rocks between A 2 seam and Bl seam are
interlaminated claystone and siltstone with an organic-rich claystone at the top. The
topmost massive claystone layer may have acted as an impermeable cap rock when the
Suban sill was emplaced and this influenced the flow of associated hydrothermal fluids.
If the fluids were stopped by a less permeable seal they would probably remain in the
interseam rocks for a longer period, thus increasing the reflectance because of the longer
exposure to the higher temperatures. A similar phenomenon might also explain higher
5.4.1 Coal
The earliest petrographic data for coal from Bukit A s a m and the surrounding areas were
reported by Kinhill Ottogold Joint Venture (1985), Daulay (1985), Daulay and Cook
(1988) and Waluyo (1992). Kinhill Ottogold Joint Venture carried out maceral analyses
on 22 composite samples from various seams in eight drill holes in the Muara Tiga Besar
area, an area to the west of the Bukit Asam mines. The report stated that the coal
Daulay (1985) in a broader study, examined the organic petrography of a wide range of
Indonesian coals and stated that the maceral composition of most Indonesian coals is
to 1 0 % ) and inertinite constituting less than 1 2 % . With respect to samples from Bukit
Asam, Daulay reported that the coal is composed of mostly vitrinite (76 to 9 6 % , average
recognised the effect of igneous intrusions on the structure and maceral composition of the
coal. H e suggested that gelification of telovitrinite increased with increasing rank and
found that the proportion of telovitrinite in heated coal was higher than the proportion in
Daulay and Cook (1988) also published on Indonesian coals and suggested that the increa
limitations of the optical method. In other words, the telovitrinite could not be
distinguished from other vitrinite after it had been heated unless etching or some other
Waluyo (1992), as part of his study to assess the Banko Barat coal as a feed stock for
Suralaya electricity plants, studied the organic petrography of coal from Banko Barat, an
areafivekilometres south-east of PT. Bukit A s a m coal mining concession area. The study
showed that Banko Barat coal contains mostly vitrinite (83 to 9 6 % , average 8 6 % ) with a
4%) and low mineral content (0.2 to 6%, 2 % average). Waluyo also noted that
detrovitrinite, resinite and semifusinite are the dominant macerals of the vitrinite, liptinite
The present study generally confirms the findings of the previous studies but provides
110
greater detail because of the increased number of samples, more details on interseam and
intraseam variation (because of the sampling rationale to use ply samples rather than grab
or composite samples collected for previous petrographic studies) and a more in-depth
treatment of the origin of the coal. A total of 220 samples, ranging from claystone to coal
Maceral analyses for coal samples with ^ m a x values below 0.7%, showed that vitrinite
is the main constituent of the coal and coaly shale in the A l , A 2 , Bl and B 2 seams (Fig.
5.22 and Tables 5.3 and 5.4). Based on ply samples, vitrinite content ranges from 56.6
25.4% (average 5.3%) and inertinite content ranges from < 1 to 11.2% (average 3.8%).
Mineral matter in ply samples ranges from < 1 to 2 0 % (average 3.4%). However, the
average full seam mineral content for the four seams, A l , A 2 , Bl and B2, is only 2.3%.
understandable and can be explained in terms of the method of sampling. The previous
studies were based on composite seam samples or grab samples from the surface.
Composite samples give the average values for the whole seam and the grab samples are
not necessarily representative of the seam or ply from which the samples for this study
were taken.
Vitrinite in Bukit Asam coal is generally dominated by detrovitrinite with telovitrinite and
shows a relatively large variation (Fig. 5.23) indicating some variation in composition
between samples. T h e same trends can be seen more easily in the histograms for each of
of 56.6%) and gelovitrinite contents range from 1.4 to 2 7 . 6 % (an average of 9.2%).
association with resinite, whichfillsthe cell lumens, in some samples. Texto-ulminite and
samples.
Detrovitrinite comprises densinite in low rank samples and desmocollinite in higher rank
samples (P^max > 0.5 % ) . S o m e detrovitrinite layers are relatively homogenous and occur
detrovitrinite is usually well stratified, has a relatively finer grain size than other
matter. These layers tend to be less well defined and less stratified; the constituents are
commonly poorly sorted, and have a "dirty" grey appearance. In some samples gradations
Gelovitrinite (Plates 5.1 and 5.2) is commonly corpogelinite, phlobaphinite and porigel
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with minor eugelinite. Corpogelinite is associated with telovitrinite whereas porigelinite
is also commonly associated specifically with suberinite derived from bark tissue.
Liptinite in Bukit A s a m coal is generally sparse, with an average of 5.3%, but ranging
from 0.2 to 25.4%. Resinite, sporinite, suberinite, cutinite, liptodetrinite are the dominant
liptinite macerals but minor fluorinite and exsudatinite are also present (Fig. 5.25). The
highest liptinite content is in a sample from the Klawas area (GM25469); generally
samples from this area have higher liptinite contents, mostly resinite, than samples from
other areas.
Resinite content is variable, ranging from 0 to 16.2% (1.9% average). It fills cell lum
occurs as discrete globular bodies and as detrital fragments of various sizes in detrovitrinite
layers or mineral-rich layers. Discrete resinite bodies are black to pale grey in reflected
white light with yellow (low rank samples) to brown (high rank samples) fluorescence. The
resinite commonly has higher polishing relief compared with adjacent vitrinite.
The detrital resinite, by contrast, has negative to no relief, internal reflections and
spongy texture. This resinite has a yellow globular core surrounded by a duller/darker
yellow annulus. Samples with abundant resinite generally c o m e from the middle and the
top of the seams and the resinite is mostly detrital. The highest resinite content (16.2%)
miospores and pollen (commonly with a dumbbell shape). Sporinite is black to pale grey
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coal increases. Sporinite has a significantly higher polishing relief than vitrinite in low rank
coal. However, in heated coal from near the intrusions, it has a lower relief. Sporinite is
commonly closely associated with detrovitrinite. The highest sporinite content (4.4%) is
in a sample ( G M 2 5 3 6 9 ) from the middle ply of A l seam, just below the middle tonstein
Cutinite constitutes 0 to 4.8% of the coal (average 0.86) and is associated with
5.4c). Cutinite is black to grey in white light and has yellow (low rank) to brown (high
rank)fluorescence.The highest cutinite content (4.8%) is in a sample from the top ply of
always derived from leaf tissue, shown by the almost perfect leaf structures comprising
Suberinite is trace to abundant in Bukit Asam coal, ranging from 0 to 4.2% with an
average of 0.86%. Suberinite is associated with gelocollinite, porigelinite and cutinite. The
highest suberinite content (4.2%) is in a sample from immediately below the upper (T3)
(average 0.4%). The highest liptodetrinite content is in a sample from A l seam in the
sample taken from A l seam, Airlaya pit; in most samples,fluoriniteis absent or present
Exsudatinite (Plate 5.3c and d) infills cleats, wedge-shaped fractures or cell lumens. In
white light, exsudatinite is black in low rank coal and pale brown in slightly-heated coal
(coals in which the P^max is 0.5 to 0.8%). It has bright yellow fluorescence in low rank
In slightly-heated coal, exsudatinite has a plastic, gel-like nature and has higher reli
vitrinite. The reflectance is commonly low, 0.07 to 0.20% in samples where the associated
vitrinite reflectance is 0.42 to 0.53% and higher, 0.14 to 0.44%, in coals where Rvmax
The higher-reflecting exsudatinite is commonly associated with vitrinite that has a typi
brecciated appearance where it infills the fractures between the vitrinite grains. This
feature suggests that exsudatinite was originally liquid or at least highly mobile. This
vitrinite-exsudatinite association suggests that the exsudatinite m a y have been forced into
the vitrinite under high pressure and this caused the fracturing. T h e higher-reflecting
exsudatinite commonly is present in the slightly-heated coal, and rarely in lower rank coal
initiated or greatly increased w h e n the coals are heated. If the latter is the reason, this
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implies that if the heat source was not present, exsudatinite would not be produced until
the coals had reached the rank equivalent of 0.5 to 0.8% through normal coalification
A similar occurrence for exsudatinite was recognised in heated coal (P^max of 0.6 to
0.7%) from South Sulawesi (Pujobroto, 1991). In those coalsfluorinite,which had green
resinite, whereas the exsudatinite is the longer chain hydrocarbons derived from a variety
are of hair-size width to 3 c m wide. The fractures are usually wedge shaped and are
normal to bedding. The exsudatinite content in the Bukit A s a m coal is usually less than
constituted 3 % .
Inertinite (Plates 5.4a to 5.4h) is not abundant in Bukit A s a m coal and constitutes from
Semifusinite is commonly present as layers of oxidised plant tissue that was deformed
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average 1.0% for all coal samples). The commonly-associated macerals are detrovitrinite
Airlaya pit.
Fusinite content is low (average 0.5%) with the highest content of 4.8% being in sample
G M 2 4 8 8 8 from A l seam, Airlaya pit. Fusinite is derived from oxidised plant tissue and
it is postulated that during the peat stage, some of the fusinite m a y have been derived from
parts of the ombrotrophic mire that was burned. Fusinite is associated with a wide variety
Inertodetrinite is always present with the abundance relatively low (average 0.7%). It
Sclerotinite, although not abundant, is always present in the samples. The maximum
content is 2 . 8 % in a sample from the top ply of A l seam, Airlaya pit. Sclerotinite is
derived from teleutospores, fungal hyphae (plectenchyme tissue), stromata and sclerotia.
The teleutospores are commonly associated with detrital vitrinite macerals such as
some samples, sclerotinite is associated with layers of resinite bodies and in others it is
commonly associated with cutinite on the surface of leaf tissue and in layers of
detrovitrinite.
Macrinite is rare with most samples having no macrinite. The highest content is 1.6% in
sample G M 2 5 2 2 4 from A 2 seam, Airlaya pit. Micrinite was not found in the Bukit Asam
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coal.
4. Mineral Matter
Mineral matter (Plates 5.5, 5.6 and 5.7) is mostly clay minerals (identified by X R D
analysis as kaolinite in the small number of samples analysed) quartz, pyrite and rarely
calcite.
Clay minerals are commonly present as layers, disseminated pods or blebs in detrovitrin
layers or infillings in the cell lumens in telovitrinite. W h e r e the clay minerals occur as
disseminated blebs or pods in detrovitrinite, detrital liptinite macerals such as sporinite are
also abundant. T h e clay minerals are white to yellowish-white or black in white light but
Quartz grains are colourless and translucent and do not show any significant fluorescen
rocks (Folk and Pitman, 1971 cited in Boggs, 1992). However, in coal, chalcedonic quartz
framboidal structure. Most pyrite occurs at the top of the seams where it occurs with clay
minerals and in the shaly coal. In some samples where it is of secondary origin, pyrite
replaces the cell walls of fusinite or other macerals and is less commonly found as cleat
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fillings.
Calcite is present in a few samples but interestingly it is more common in the heated co
replaces the host macerals such as vitrinite and fusinite. Calcite characteristically fo
branching vein-like structures in the less heated coal whereas in strongly-heated coal,
has radial textures. Calcite has strong bireflectance and orange fluorescence.
The higher rank samples commonly are dominated by telovitrinite and as the rank
(P^max 0.6 to 0.8%), the detrovitrinite grains are more densely packed but the porosity
still exist. The liptinite maceral are generally grey as compared to black in the lower
coals (Ryinax < 0.4%). Some liptodetrinite can still be recognised; cutinite and sporinit
have dark orange fluorescence mode and exsudatinite shows a jelly-like appearance with
yellowish-orange to dull orange fluorescence. Some resinite and fluorinite still show a
bright yellow fluorescence. Secondary calcite also common in the slightly-heated coal.
In the strongly-heated coal, vitrinite reflectance 1.5 to 2.0%, telovitrinite is the only
vitrinite. The liptodetrinite and exsudatinite cannot be recognised; cutinite and sporin
still recognisable but the fluorescence intensity is extremely low. This apparent change
a function of the heating which has caused the samples to be artificially coalified whic
results in lower porosity in the coal and greater gelification, leading to the well-defi
liptinite and inertinite; samples of this rank are therefore not suitable for use in organic
facies analysis.
sclerotinite, sporinite and liptodetrinite are the dominant macerals suggesting that almost
all organic matter in the clay stone/carbonaceous shale is of detrital origin. This is
consistent with the origin of the claystone/carbonaceous shales which were deposited above
or adjacent to, and penecontemporaneous with, the peat. In fluorescence mode, the clay
minerals commonly fluoresce weak yellow to orange depending on the rank. In the higher
rank, heated samples, the clay minerals are dark brown, compact and non fluorescing.
Some claystone has stringers of vitrinite derived from plant tissues such as rootlets.
stringers are generally parallel to bedding but some are oblique or nearly normal to
bedding.
The carbonaceous shale samples with obviously high mineral contents are commonly
samples from the top of the seam, or more rarely, thinly-bedded carbonaceous claystone
The interseam variation in maceral composition is not very large, and probably not
significant as can be seen in Figure 5.26 and Table 5.3 which show the full seam average
maceral content of the four seams in the study area. All seams from the lowermost B 2
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seam to the top A l seam have high vitrinite contents (88.0 to 9 0 . 5 % ) , and low liptinite
(4.2 to 5.0%) and inertinite contents (4.1 to 5.5%). However the proportion of each
maceral group in the respective seams is slightly different. Bl seam has the highest
vitrinite content and the lowest liptinite and inertinite contents. However, the vitrinite
content in the other seams is only slightly less. B 2 seam has highest liptinite and inertinite
Mineral matter (discounting the claystone partings) progressively increases from the
deepest seam (B2 seam) to the top seam (Al seam). This could be related to an increase
Seam Descriptions
Vertical variation in maceral content occurs between plies in each seam but the differences
are not great (Table 5.6). Vertical profiles of the various maceral groups show this
(Appendix 5.5).
Al Seam
A l seam contains three clay stones layers, informally named (from bottom to top) Tl, T2
and T3. These clay stones are composed mostly of volcanic-derived kaolinite, which
commonly has a lapilli-like appearance but lacks the concentric zoning commonly found
in lapilli, and organic material which is dominantly stringers of coal thought to have been
derived from logs, pieces of branches and rootlets. A description of each claystone was
vitrinite content of plies is consistently high from the bottom of the seam to the
top, commonly exceeding 8 0 % by volume except for slightly lower values (50 to
8 0 % ) in the plies immediately below and above the clay stones; the lower vitrinite
content in these plies is partly due to a higher proportion of mineral matter but is
also due to increased proportions of liptinite and inertinite; average seam vitrinite
content is 88.6%.
G M 2 5 0 9 7 (10.5%) and G M 2 5 3 6 9 (19.5%); ply samples from above and below the
claystones have slightly higher liptinite contents especially near the middle
claystone (T2); in T 2 claystone, the main liptinite macerals are mostly sporinite and
resinite; this is, however, not always the case as there are variations laterally.
inertinite content decreases from the bottom of the seam to the top although the
differences are small; the ply samples below the claystones tend to have higher
inertinite contents whereas the ply samples above the claystones commonly have
mineral content is highest near the bottom of the seam (where the plies are
commonly clayey coal) and at the top of the seam where the coal is a dull coal;
slightly higher mineral contents were also found in the ply samples immediately
below and above the claystones; pyrite is lowest in the bottom part of the seam
(below thefirstclaystone, Tl) and increases towards the top of the seam, especially
above the upper claystone (T3), a marker interval that is consistently recognised
in all areas of the Bukit A s a m Coalfield; the pyrite content at the top of A l seam
ranges from 0.2 to 4.2%, with the highest content, being in a sample from the
A2 Seam
Vitrinite is the main component in A2 seam, commonly constituting more than 80% in
each ply sample except for the silicified ply at the top of the seam where the vitrinit
content is lower as a result of the increased silica content. Average seam vitrinite c
In A2 seam, liptinite content is commonly less than 10%, although in one sample the
liptinite content is slightly higher at 12%. In some plies, liptinite content is sligh
Inertinite content in A2 seam also shows no definite trend. The upper part of the seam
a slightly a higher inertinite content at some locations but at other locations the re
holds. Because the variation appears to be random, no geological explanation for the
variation is apparent.
The mineral matter content in A2 seam is extremely low. In several samples from a
number of locations, the mineral matter content is much less than 1%. However, at the
top of the A2 seam is a silicified coal ply in which the coal has abundant amorphous or
chalcedonic quartz. Coaly shale from the bottom of the seam also has a high mineral
content (11 to 73%). The higher mineral content in the bottom ply is attributed to mixi
of the underlying, poorly consolidated seat earth and the plant detritus during the ear
The maceral composition of this seam is dominated by more than 9 0 % vitrinite (Table
5.5). However, in some plies the vitrinite content is as low as 5 6 . 6 % (for example,
Liptinite content is low compared to the other seams with the exception of sample
Inertinite content is low, even though in some samples it constitutes 7.2%. The highes
In Bl seam, mineral content shows a more varied pattern compared to the other seams.
Mostly, the mineral content is low in the coal plies except in the plies below the roof and
above the floor of the seam. Again, this is attributed to mixing of organic and mineral
matter in the lower ply and precipitation of silica, and perhaps other minerals, from the
overlying clastic unit in the case of the ply immediately below the roof.
B2 Seam
Vertical maceral profiles of B 2 seam are similar to those of other seams. Vitrinite content
is high in the bright banded coal ( 8 8 % , Table 5.5) which characterises this seam and
slightly lower in dull coal, which also has a higher mineral matter content, at the top and
bottom of the seam. Liptinite content is relatively constant at between 3.2 to 9.4% and
inertinite content also shows little variation. A slightly higher liptinite content is found in
the samples from the bottom dull coal ply. The mineral content is remarkably low except
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in the bottom ply and the dull coal ply at the top of the seam.
C and D Seams
These seams are not exposed in the study area and ply samples from drill holes were n
available. Some data for composite samples are available for these seams but no deta
the variation in maceral contents can be determined. The limited data for C seam used
Although the overall mineral content of the Bukit Asam coal is relatively low, there
small but significant increase from the B2 seam to Al seam, indicating an increase in
input of mineral matter through time. Possible explanations for this include:
i. an increase in volcanic activity over time with a consequent increase in ash fall
iii. an increase in the amount of volcanic detritus brought into the peat mires by st
activity;
iv. an increase in the amount of dissolved mineral matter brought into the peat mire
Of these hypotheses, increased volcanic activity appears to be the most likely. This is
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i. the claystone partings in the upper seam are true tonsteins and are of volcanic
origin;
iii. precipitated amorphous or chalcedonic quartz (opal A ) lenses occur in the upper
iv. as a general trend, the Kasai Formation and the upper part of the Muara Enim
An increasing volcanic activity hypothesis implies that during the deposition of the
precursor peats volcanic ash was brought into the peat mires either as airfall detritus,
washed into the mires by streams, or quartz and other minerals were precipitated from
solutions which had dissolved silica and other elements from interseam sediments and
claystone layers. S o m e of the quartz m a y have been derived from devitrifying glass in the
volcanic ash. Typical mineral contents for the various seams are summarised in Table 5.5.
Low mineral contents in coal have been attributed to a number of processes by many
authors but only two of the more c o m m o n hypotheses will be discussed here:
- increased groundwater activity, such as leaching, during peat formation and early
Both hypotheses developed over a period of time and both hypotheses have a number of
supporters. Fisk (1960) proposed that an analog for many coal-bearing strata was the
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Mississippi Delta in southeastern U S A . Chemical analysis of the peat from the Mississippi
Delta showed that the ash content was at least 55 % with an average of 7 7 % (moisture free
basis). This is a major problem when trying to explain the origin of Indonesian low ash
coals using the Mississippi Delta model. The high ash and sulphur contents in the
Mississippi peats and the presumed coal precursors do notfitwith the low ash-low sulphur
contents of the economic coals in many parts of the world, including Indonesia. Thus the
Mississippi Delta is probably not a good analogue for Bukit A s a m and other Sumatran and
Indonesian coals.
The Mississippi Delta hypothesis became a contentious issue as more detailed studies
as those by Frazier and Osanic (1969), Koster (1983) and Koster and Baley (1983) were
undertaken and its use as a model for low ash coals was abandoned by many. These
authors found that the ash content of peat formed in abandoned delta lobes is very high
with the minimum ash content being only as low as 1 7 % . Peats containing less than 2 5 %
In other studies, McCabe (1984) stated that most peats in deltas, coastal or flood p
environments contain high ash, so that these environments apparently are not always the
site of economic, low ash coal-forming peat accumulations. M c C a b e also noted that the
only exceptions to the high-ash peats were the areas where raised bog and floating mires
developed.
Recent studies of modern tropical peat in Malaysia and Indonesia by many researchers
showed that the raised, rain-fed peat mire that is c o m m o n in tropical areas always has a
low ash yield. Anderson (1964; 1983) based his work on elevated mires in Sarawak
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(Malaysia) and noted that the ash content is usually less than 5 % . Coleman et al (1970)
also noted low ash contents (less than 1 or 2 % ) in the tide-dominated Klang Langat Delta
of Malaysia. The studies of tropical peats in the Baram Delta (Sarawak, Malaysia) and
Jambi peat (Sumatra, Indonesia) by Esterle et al (1989) and Esterle and Ferm (1994), and
peat in the Siak Estuary, Riau Province (Kampar, Indonesia) by Supardi et al. (1993)
confirmed this finding. However, low ash peat deposits are not restricted to mires formed
in tropical climates. For example, Styan and Bustin (1983) recorded low ash (0.5 to 1.5%)
in the raised mires of the Fraser River Delta, British Colombia. The c o m m o n aspect of
The Bukit Asam coal has low pyritic sulphur and ash contents and this is consistent
the chemistry of raised peats. L o w ash in coal, such as the 2.3% seam average for Bukit
Asam, is only possible if there was minimum sediment influx when the peat was deposited.
The coal measures sedimentology (Chapter 4) indicates that the peat was mostly deposited
in an environment which was influenced by marine conditions in some parts of the South
Sumatra Basin, early in the coal measures history but that this influence became less with
time and fresh water environments were dominant. However, the marine influence was not
as significant in the Bukit A s a m area as elsewhere. Coal with a strong marine influence
above the seam roof is known to be high in pyritic sulphur especially in the top part of the
seam. A n example was given by Diessel (1992) w h o found that in the Borehole seam of
the Newcastle Coal Measures, Australia, the sulphur content increased from the middle to
the top of the seam from 0.5 to 0.8% because of a marine influence above the coal. In
content.
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Cassagrande et al (1980) and Cassagrande (1984) also noted that higher pyritic sulphur
values have a close connection with a marine influence during peat deposition. T h e low
pyritic sulphur values for Bukit A s a m coal indicates that the marine incursions recorded
elsewhere in the South Sumatra Basin seldom reached the mires, except perhaps in the
southern part of the basin which was more vulnerable to the marine incursions.
The most likely explanation of the consistently low ash and low sulphur contents of the
Bukit A s a m coal is deposition in a raised mire. The presence of restricted marine units in
the coal-bearing succession can be easily explained in terms of changing sea levels at
crucial times.
The higher proportion of liptinite and inertinite in samples that contain higher minera
content is in accordance with the studies of Esterle et al (1989) and Esterle and Ferm
(1994). Esterle et al studied the Jambi and Baram Delta (Sarawak) peats and showed that
the highest liptinite and inertinite contents are in sapric peat (defined as a dark brown to
black peat) with < 3 3 % fibres and a fine granular texture with a colloidal matrix (Table
5.7), which also contain higher ash and sulphur content. D e h m e r (1993), w h o studied peat
from Palangkaraya, Central Kalimantan, also recognised that the base of the peat is
characterised by the presence of sapric peat which contains abundant humodetrinite and
minor structured huminite and a relatively high liptinite and inertinite content.
condition in which the water tends to flow into the mire and the water table is always
above the peat surface. The high water flow maintains a neutral p H ; the water also carries
nutrients from the underlying claystone and mudstone. Conditions are more likely to be
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aerobic and this encourages the degradation of the plant tissues by aerobic bacteria thus
producing fine-grained plant detritus rather than preserving large phyterals. Sporinite,
detrovitrinite and liptodetrinite are c o m m o n constituents and hence they are sometimes
Rheotrophic conditions during the early stages of most seams at Bukit Asam are clearly
indicated by the dull coal plies at the base of the seams and the increased mineral contents
in those plies.
and the implication is, therefore, that penecontemporaneous volcanic activity contributed
to luxuriant plant growth during the peat-forming stage of coal seams. In modern
Arboreal plants were thought to have been the major constituents of precursor peat
Musper stated that, based on the fossil stumps found in the M u a r a Enim Formation, the
precursor peats for Bukit A s a m coal were dominated by plants similar to those that are
prolific in the modern rainforests of Sumatra. H e also noted that the plant communities
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were probably not associated in any way with mangrove plant communities.
Volcanic ash also influences the pH of the mire. The hydrolysis of volcanic glass, and
associated silicates, by waters flowing through peat tends to increase the p H and this
favours increasing bacterial activity. The rampant bacterial activity in the mire would result
in a peat dominated by degraded vitrinite and other macerals. This phenomenon has been
recognised by M o h r and van Baren (1954, cited in Diessel (1992)) in modern tropical
peats in Indonesia.
Given the above information, it is to be expected that for the Bukit Asam scenario,
volcanic detritus, the most logical precursor for the tonsteins or volcanic claystones,
deposited over the precursor peats would influence the conditions within the upper layers
of the peat. The waters percolating through the upper layers of the peat would probably
contain higher nutrient levels and higher p H values, due to the decomposition of volcanic
glass and other components. Peat above the volcanic detritus would be less influenced
because the waters would tend to move d o w n under the influence of gravity.
Crowley et al (1989) studied the effects of volcanic ash on the maceral and chemical
composition of the C coal in Emery Coalfield, Utah. They found that coal samples from
directly above the tonsteins were enriched in desmocollinite, telinite and detrocollinite as
swamp condition.
Their interpretation was mainly based on the work of Raymond et al (1985) who studied
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recent peat in Costa Rica where a recent layer of volcanic products had been deposited.
Raymond et al. found that volcanic ash layers had destroyed existing vegetation and
In Bukit Asam seams, the plies immediately below and above the tonsteins show significant
differences in hand specimen characteristics to the adjacent coal layers. T h e plies below
have higher liptinite, inertinite and detrovitrinite contents than the coal plies immediately
below. The detrital macerals, such as sporinite, liptodetrinite and inertodetrinite, are also
more abundant. Correspondingly, the telovitrinite content is commonly lower and the
mineral content is commonly below 5 %, but this is slightly higher than the mineral content
The abundant detrital or attrital macerals in the ply beneath a claystone probably repres
the early stages of the drowning of the raised mire where the water influx into the mire
was extensive and the degradation also escalated, resulting in an abundance of degraded
movement into the peat plies below the volcanic layer and thus a greater influx of fresh
water, resulting in more prominent bacterial activity and greater oxidation of plant
material.
The plies above claystone show less convincing trends. These plies comprise
detrital/attrital macerals. In some areas, samples from these plies contain less detrovitrinite
and detrital macerals than the coals immediately above and this indicates that the water
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movement to the mire was still prominent in some areas after the plants re-occupied the
mire. O n the other hand, some of the ply samples above the claystone have higher detrital
maceral contents. Inertinite content is mostly lower; sclerotinite is present in all ply
When the mire was covered with volcanic ash, the peat would subside which would be
equivalent to a rise in the water level and the basin would become equivalent to a flat
plain, covered by shallow water and volcanic ash. Initially, plants would probably still
grow with only a small amount of the plant matter preserved together with the tuff
fragments. However, later, most parts of the mires would be subject to oxic waters which
would result in degradation of the plant matter and higher contents of degraded macerals
in the resulting peat. Thus this would have the same effect as that found by Cohen et al
(1987) where volcanic ash layers destroy existing vegetation and produce ponding of water
above. This process also explains the 40 c m layer of silicified coal at the top of A 2 seam
and the occasional patches of silicified coal at the base of the seam; this occurrence is
The silicified coal at the top of the A2 seam was thought to have originated as a resul
leaching of tuffaceous sediments between A 2 and A l seams immediately above the coal.
cross-beds. However, this is only an apparent feature resulting from weathering which is
vi. crystalline silica with a bladed texture in fractures in vitrinite or other organic
matter.
dissolves, producing a high silica solution (Boggs, 1992). This silicaflocculatesto produce
solution with a low concentration of silica and this slowly precipitates quartz crystals. T h e
In the case of the silicified coal in A2 seam, syngenetic Si-rich sediments were mixed wi
the peat water as indicated by observation (iv) above. These waters percolated d o w n into
the top peat layer would have been enriched in dissolved silica due to the decomposition
of volcanic glass and minerals in the ash layer. A s the plant tissue was degraded, m u c h
A similar layer of silicified coal in the base of A2 seam in one hole, KBA21, is more
difficult to explain. Given the underlying lithologies and the coal above, dissolved silica
probably c a m e from the siliceous claystone and siltstone and w a s then forced through the
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peat under pressure prior to compaction and coalification. The silica flocculated in th
plant tissue. As diagenesis continued the flocculated silica recrystallised and fractur
Type 1 _
T
Type 2 yPe TyPe T
yPe
Type 3 — > silica-rich solutions — > 6 & 5 — > 5
Type 4
The thickness of the tonstein in the mire should reflect the volume of detritus given o
from the explosion of the volcano, although a single tonstein could represent a single
eruption or multiple eruptions. Studies on modem peats in Indonesia so far, have proven
to be of Utile use for evaluating the origin of tonsteins. Esterle and Ferm (1994) note
there is no evidence for ash fall deposits in any of the peats from Sarawak, Jambi or t
Baram Delta. That the peat in the Baram Delta, Sarawak, does not have ash is
understandable because this region has been far from volcanic activity during the last
years. However, the Jambi deposits are very close to a main centre of volcanic activity
the Barisan Mountains, Sumatra. Koster (1983) and Koster and Baley (1983) suggested tha
the volcanic ash has already largely dissolved and that the leaching had decreased the
content by one third; in addition other dissolved matter would be absorbed by the plant
as nutrients.
Other possible explanations for the apparent lack of ash/ash-derived clay layers in th
are that no volcanic ash reached the area; alternatively, volcanic activity during the
formation of the peats was not intensive enough to produce large ash clouds which would
have had the lateral distribution to allow the formation of tuff layers in the area.
The distinctive volcanically-derived claystones in the Bukit A s a m coal indicates that the
135
volcanic activity was sufficiently intense during formation of the peat to form widespread
ash falls and consequently claystones. The A l seam claystones can be traced over the
known extent of the seam and can be recognised even where the seam is not developed
(Stalder, 1976).
Calcite is a small but significant secondary component of heated coal. Ca-rich water wa
probably derived from the m a g m a and, as pore water, moved through the interseam
sediments and entered the coal, precipitating calcite in the cell lumens or cleats. The
Coal facies analysis is based on assumptions that the composition of coal, represented by
accumulated and that the composition of peat is a function of two parameters, the plant
materials that survived the decomposition processes and the physico-chemical and
biochemical processes that occurred after plant matter was deposited. Both parameters are
influenced by the ground water level relative to the peat surface. Plant matter has a higher
chance of being preserved if the water table is above the peat surface. In cases where the
water table is lower than the surface of the peat, the plant matter m a y not be preserved but
if it is, it will be more or less oxidised. Additionally, a root system has a strong chance
of being preserved (Esterle and Ferm, 1994). A higher ground water table also increases
the degree of gelification which also influences the petrographic composition of the coal.
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Tasch (1960) tried to relate lithotypes to the range of wet and dry conditions which were
thought to reflect the differences in the rate of subsidence. Fusain was thought to form
under dry conditions and this was taken to represent slow subsidence whereas durain was
considered to represent rapid subsidence because it was considered to have formed under
wet conditions. The generalisation that the dullness of the coal is a function of the
heterogeneity of coal composition and does not indicate the relative wetness or dryness of
conditions during deposition is too simple as Diessel (1982) stated. T h e dullness of a coal
may be caused by the content of fusinite, sporinite, alginite or several other macerals. This
Hacquebard and Donaldson (1969) and Hacquebard (1993) used microlithotypes as the
basis for coal facies analysis. These authors plotted the results on two triangular diagrams
showing the different mire types using the terms described by Osvald (1937) and
Teichmuller (1962). The mires where the peat was deposited were divided into four
categories: relatively dry terrestrial forest moor, wet forest moor, limno-telmatic reed
moor and open moor lakes. The use of microlithotypes as a tool for facies analysis proved
to be popular and variants of this technique have been used widely by m a n y authors.
Of the several workers who applied the microlithotype technique with modification, Smyt
(1984) related the coal petrology of the Cooper Basin coal (Australia) to the depositional
environment. Her study was based on the hypotheses that coal with abundant vitrite +
clarite was deposited in a wet forest environment whereas the inertite-rich coal was derived
from herbaceous plant communities with the plant detritus deposited in a relatively dry
evolution of the depositional environment from a wet environment such as a lower delta
coal deposits that formed in the troughs of rapidly subsiding basins contain abundant
vitrinite and the microlithotype associations are generally vitrite plus clarite. Coal deposits
that formed on the shelves of marginal basins, or slowly subsiding cratonic basins, have
low vitrinite contents but high inertinite contents; microlithotypes are generally durite plus
inertite.
Furthermore, Smyth pointed out that the Cooper Basin coals formed in a fluvio-deltaic
environment during the Permian; vitrinite-rich coal formed on an alluvial fan (braided
fluvial system) and in deltaic environments whereas the vitrinite-poor coal were deposited
lower delta plain setting whereas vitrinite-poor coal formed on alluvial fans, in meandering
Smyth's study relates to coal deposited during a specific time period, the Permian, and i
Tertiary Indonesian coals because the Cooper Basin coals are inertinite-rich whereas
On a more general basis, although microlithotype analysis has become one of the most
widely-applied tools for interpreting coal depositional facies, the method is unlikely to be
suitable for use with the vitrinite-rich Tertiary coals of Indonesia because in almost all
cases, especially the Bukit A s a m coal, vitrite or clarite are the only microlithotypes, with
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the latter not c o m m o n , and therefore changes in maceral composition might reflect changes
achieve better discrimination between coal types, it is necessary to have one, or preferably
Diessel (1982) proposed a facies analysis method using conventional maceral analyses as
the data base. His method was based on assumptions that macerals are the products of
depositional conditions in the peat bog and biochemical processes after deposition. In some
indicates limnic or lacustrine conditions because algae need free water to grow.
One basic assumption was biochemical processes that occur after the deposition of plant
material m a y produce diagnostic macerals depending on the conditions prevailing at, and
immediately after, the time of deposition. Most inertinite macerals are influenced by at
least partial oxidation, although they m a y be derived from a wide range of plant tissue,
suggesting relatively dry conditions for peat deposition. Thus, Diessel used simple ratios
of some of the key components because he believed they have significant diagnostic value.
The diagnostic macerals were considered to indicate specific conditions during deposition.
In the vitrinite maceral group, vitrinite A (telinite and telocollinite) was considered to have
a high diagnostic value with the telovitrinite macerals derived from the incomplete
gelification of xylem and cortex tissue under moist conditions. Vitrinite B, which
detritus from various sources), was of less diagnostic value. Diessel suggested that soft
tissue (leaves, grasses, shrubs and reed-like plants) might be the dominant source materials
The liptinite maceral group was thought to have two indicative macerals: sporinite which
that is derived from algae that also grow in lakes or ponds. Other liptinite macerals were
Except for micrinite, all inertinite macerals are considered to have been deposited in o
Diessel used two diagrams with his facies analysis techniques. The first diagram, then
called the D - W - R triangle (Fig. 5.27), compares the diagnostic macerals and the non-
diagnostic macerals. W is placed on the left-hand side of the triangle and represents wood-
derived macerals such as fusinite, semifusinite and vitrinite A . O n the opposite apex, D
comprises dispersed macerals that are commonly associated with sub-aqueous conditions.
Macerals used here include alginite, sporinite and inertodetrinite. At the top of the triangle,
the R apex, the remaining macerals are represented. In general, coals with a high content
of less diagnostic macerals (detrovitrinite, cutinite, resinite) mostly occupy that portion of
The second diagram was a T-F-D diagram (Fig. 5.27) in which the lower part of the
triangle was divided into two parts based on the assumption that diagnostic macerals are
represents gelified macerals, was indicative of wet forest, and plotted on the T side;
fusinite and semifusinite, representing fusinitised macerals, were indicative of dry forest
moor. Coals of this type plot near the F apex. Both of these contrast with open moor
conditions, the domain near the D apex, which is an equivalent domain to the D domain
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To relate the triangle to the facies map, the TFD triangle was sub-divided on the basi
component ratios. The TF/D ratio is called the wood ratio because it is a measure the
amount of wood-derived material in the coal. Conditions relating to the wood ratio are:
- if TF/D > 1, the population is subdivided again, based on dry or wet conditions usin
If the TF/D ratio is > 4, wood-derived macerals are so dominant that the T/F ratio can
be considered to be a Gelification Index that ranges from +4, for highly gelified mate
to -4 for highly fusinitised material. Diessel considered that the changes in the T/F
Diessel (1992) modified his previous, rather complicated triangle facies to a more use
friendly diagram. He introduced the Tissue Preservation Index (TPI) which is actually
modification of the wood ratio in his previous scheme. The TPI is a ratio of structure
versus unstructured macerals; it indicates the degree of humification of the plant bef
preservation of the macerals and the proportion of wood preserved into the peat. High
values indicate a balance between plant growth and peat accumulation versus a rise in
ground water table. Low TPI values indicate a predominance of herbaceous material or o
a large scale, the extensive destruction of woody material because of the extensive
GI = Vitrinite + Macrinite
Semifusinite 4- Fusinite + Inertodetrinite
The Gelification Index (GI) indicates the relative dryness or wetness of the autochthonou
peat-forming conditions. The TPI is plotted against the GI and the facies, or the peat-
Many researchers have applied Diessel's techniques. For example, Calder et al (1991a,
1991b) applied a maceral-based method for interpreting ancient mire ecosystems and used
criteria from the classification of modern peatlands such as ground water, ionic and
nutrient supply, pH and vegetation type. The method of Calder et al. (1991) uses two
parameters; one is called the Ground Water Influence Index (GWI) and the second is called
The GWI, which is controlled by the water supply and the pH conditions in a mire, in
essence, compares the strongly gelified macerals and weakly gelified macerals.
The strongly gelified macerals are gelocollinite, corpocollinite, and unlike previous
techniques mineral matter is included; the weakly gelified macerals are telocollinite, t
and desmocollinite. The interpretation that corpocollinite is only the product of extens
from the primary secretions of living plant tissue, especially bark tissue, that becomes
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gelified immediately after the death of the plant (Teichmuller, 1989).
For Indonesian coals, that corpocollinite should be part of the numerator of the GWI is
a reasonable assumption because in many coals this maceral is a primary maceral rather
numerator of the VI, together with telinite and other structured macerals because it al
commonly is found in low-pH ombrogenous peat bogs. This is in contrast with woody
plants (lignin-rich plants) which commonly occupy the higher pH areas that are also
wetter. The GWI, in some respects, is an analogue for Diessel's Gelification Index. The
VI = Telinite+Semifusinite+Fusinite+suberinite+resinite
Desmocol+alg+spor+inertodet+cutinite+liptodet
VI is analogous to the TPI of Diessel and other ratios of the structured versus
"unstructured" macerals; the latter includes macerals derived from plant matter that ha
affinities to water or very wet conditions such as alginite and sporinite and gelocolli
The inclusion of cutinite as one of the unstructured macerals should be questioned. Cut
is not only deposited in marginal aquatic areas, it may also be deposited in other part
the mire where leaves or stem tissue may be preserved. This association is particularly
143
c o m m o n for the Indonesian Tertiary coals. In other words, cutinite m a y be plant species
The major mire types identified by Calder et al. (1991) were limnic areas (open water),
swamp, fen and bog; these were thought to represent a succession from rheotrophic to
the limiting condition for an environment where the ground water table no longer has any
influence and the mire is solely rain fed. L o w values for the V I represent marginal aquatic
conditions or mires dominated by herbaceous plants; a high V I indicates the mire was
anoxic conditions resulting in good tissue preservation; macerals which indicate this
ii. maceral associations that commonly are deposited in a reed marsh under anoxic
iii. maceral associations that are deposited under dry, oxic conditions; inertinite
The three associations are plotted on a triangular diagram that shows several domains,
Mukhopadhyay's triangular diagram and the TPI-GI diagram to interpret the facies
ii. Petersen (1993) who carried out facies analysis on lower and middle Jurassic coal
iii. Hacquebard (1993) who presented a facies study of Carboniferous coal from
Crosdale (1993) was one of the first to question the validity of coal maceral ratios a
i. unstructured macerals are not always derived from herbaceous plants; angiosperm
ii. the formation of inertinite is not related to the position of the peat surface in
relation to the ground water table; it is related to seasonal changes in the hydrology
of the mires.
iii. detrital and attrital macerals (detrovitrinite) are not indicative of biochemical
gelification.
processes; they are derived from allochthonous processes and the organic matter
is attrital; Crosdale cited the common occurrence of the vitrinitic matrix in all
In summary there are m a n y arguments and some disagreements regarding the use of
maceral analysis for facies studies. The cause of the diversity of thought is the validity,
important maceral for facies studies because it is present only in an insignificant number
of coals. This is probably true for the Australian Gondwanan coals. O n the contrary,
within the mires and Teichmuller and Teichmuller (1982) and Teichmuller (1989) stated
that some of corpocollinite forms just after the death of the plant. Esterle et al (1989)
divided the humocollinite in peat into two maceral types - gelinite and corpohuminite.
Gelinite originated from humic colloidal gels and is equivalent to the corpogelinite of
Teichmuller (1982 and Teichmuller (1989) and consists of corpotextinite derived from cell
walls with tannin and cellfillings,and corpodetrinite derived from degradation residues
attrital form whereas the cell wall form is a primary maceral, having been part of the
It is obvious that corpocollinite, the homogenous massive vitrinite with mostly a sphero
shape, does not have a single origin but m a y be derived from different precursors or by
different processes either during deposition of the peat or during the coalification that takes
place after the formation of peat. Consequently, the use of corpocollinite in any facies
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analysis technique must be a limiting feature of the technique. If other macerals are of
equivocal origin, and this is the case as discussed below, the use of macerals in a facies
peat bog. Diessel (1982) had a different opinion. H e believed that desmocollinite was
derived from plant detritus, transported and deposited under wet conditions. H e used
On the other hand, Crosdale (1993) did not agree that desmocollinite was derived from
transported plant detritus. H e cited the study of Esterle et al. (1989) on Malaysian peats
in which the authors stated peat was dominated by a matrix derived from plant attritus
in peat ranges from colloidal material in sapric peat to watery, fibrous material (from
which clear water can be extracted) infibricpeat. With at least two types of peat matrix,
it is possible that the matrix m a y be of two origins, derived in situ or transported prior to
deposition. Distinguishing between the two is difficult and observations of features in the
peat are needed and these are not always made. Esterle et al. (1989) and Esterle and Ferm
(1994) did not discuss the origin of the matrix, she only described the matrix as organic
material that is dominated by plant attritus. Also, the abundance of water in peat,
especially in the matrix of peat, does not assure the preservation of sedimentary structures
that m a y have existed before the auger drill or sampling equipment penetrated the peat.
Thus when examining peat, the physical associations of the components m a y be an artefact
147
of sampling and/or preparation or m a y be primary features which are significant in
(Diessel, 1982).
The problem of the origin of inertinite is even harder to solve. Diessel (1982) stated
inertinite macerals are the products of at least partial oxidation of a wide range of
vegetable matter and suggested relative dryness was needed during the formation of such
components. H e pointed out that Gondwana coals commonly contain abundant inertinite,
but some are dominated by vitrinite. Even taking the Gondwana coal as a reference, it is
rather problematical because the abundance of inertinite in the Gondwana coal is still the
subject of discussion and disagreement. So far, no reasonable consensus for the origin of
sub-arctic to cool climates of the Southern Hemisphere in the Permian with the vegetation
Smyth (1984) recognised that some Triassic coals contain more than 80% inertinite and
she inferred that these coals were deposited in a subarctic climate with tundra and
age; are w e to infer that these coals formed in a w a r m or tropical climate just because they
contain very little inertinite: The inference of a subarctic climate for inertinite-rich coals,
is not based on firm ground because Pleistocene peats deposited in subarctic climates in
the interglacials have very little inertinite; they only contain 0.1 to 2 % (Koch, 1966; 1969;
cited in Teichmuller, 1989). Another well-cited example is that of the peat deposits of the
Fraser Delta in British Colombia, Canada, which consist mostly of vitrinite and liptinite
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instead of inertinite and yet these peats formed in a cold climate.
Other evidence as to the equivocal origin of inertinite is available. The tropical peat
1992) yet tropical peats are presumed to have low inertinite contents. According to Styan
and Bustin (1983), high inertinite contents are only found where peat is exposed to
flooding with the p H of the water normal (pH = 7) and/or to desiccation and oxidation.
Shearer (1994) stated that, based on artificial coalification experiments, the coalification
process increases the ratio of nonreactive material relative to reactive material. F r o m these
experiments, it was concluded that the maceral composition of the coal m a y not reflect the
composition of the peat before the coalification process begins. However, it is possible that
some of the Carboniferous coals of the Northern Hemisphere which only contain minor
inertinite whereas others contain abundant inertinite, yet the climate for both types of coals
1. It is possible that the Gondwanan plants of Permian to Triassic age may have been mor
susceptible to oxidation. In Tertiary coals, much of the inertinite is derived from fungi or
sclerotinite in Bukit A s a m coal (Plate 5.4b) shows that the epidermal tissue that once
protected the sclerotia cluster was converted to semifusinite. This means the fungal tissue
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is also susceptible to oxidation. However, this cannot explain the gradation from vitrinite
2. The atmosphere in the Southern Hemisphere during the Carboniferous to Triassic may
have contained abundant oxygen which favoured oxidation of plant detritus. Alternatively,
forest fires m a y have been c o m m o n thus increasing the proportion of organic material
changing to inertinite or, alternatively, water may have been more saturated with oxygen
the peats.
because the origin of inertinite in these coal has not been adequately explained. The
controls on the formation of inertinite in Gondwanan and other inertinite-rich coal remains
to be solved.
The Bukit A s a m coal was probably deposited in settings similar to those of some modern
tropical peats. Anderson (1964; 1983) has already recognised that the domed peat deposits
in Sarawak (Malaysia) have low ash and interpreted these as analogues for low ash coal.
Esterle et al. (1989) and Esterle and Ferm (1994) showed the spatial variability of tw
kinds of peat deposits in the Baram Delta, Sarawak, and in the estuary of Batanghari
River, Sumatra, Indonesia (Fig. 5.28). The Baram Delta peat developed into a mature
ombrogenous peat bog. The domed surface rises 10 m above the river level and is the
level reached by most flood events. The Baram peat has a clay layer at the base of the peat
150
and above this the peat is composed of decomposed fine-grained hemic peat (Table 5.7)
that is interfingered with sapric peat at the margin of the deposit. It is overlain by a
sequence which comprises increasingly better preserved hemic peat with abundant well-
preserved woody stumps, then coarse-grained hemic peat with fibric peat that is derived
On the other hand, the Batanghari peat is a low-gradient domed peat which only rises 3
m above theriverlevel and has a concave shape at the base of the peat. Flooding by the
Batanghari River maintains water and nutrients for a flourishing arborescent plant
community within the peat depositional area. The base of the peat, above the underclay
the margins of the deposit and in the area close to the levee. This fine-grained hemic peat
is then overlain by the hemic peat with abundant tree stumps. Coarse-grained hemic peat
only occurs at the centre of the deposit. Fibric peat did not develop in this area.
According to Esterle et al. (1989) and Esterle and Ferm (1994), petrographic examinatio
of the peats shows all peat types consist of > 9 0 % vitrinite maceral precursors and only
small amounts of liptinite and inertinite precursors. Sapric peat sometimes contains a
slightly higher abundance of liptinite precursors but this depends on the location.
Commonly, higher 'liptinite' values occur at the margin of the deposit (for example, 3 1 %
at the margin of Baram peat). High inertinite precursors occur near the river bank in the
Jambi deposit. N o distinctive fusinite layers were recognised. Degraded tissues and matrix
attritus constitutes a large portion of the fine hemic and sapric peat and gradually
diminishes in abundance in the hemic and coarse-grained hemic peat; both constituents are
largely absent in fibric peat. These changes hold for both the Baram and Jambi peats.
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The degree of decomposition and stage in the evolution of the plant succession can be
inferred from the ratio of the cellulose to lignin components and lignin biodegradation
products. The higher the ratio, the fewer the woody plants in the mires. Chemical analysis
of carbon functional groups in the peats, from both deposits, shows that the proportion of
iii. the central part of the deposits compared to the margin of the deposit; and,
iv. the top of the deposit compared to the middle or the lower portion of the deposit.
These findings support the hypotheses given by Preston et al. (1989) that chemical
form of syringyl lignin) indicates that the peat was derived from an arborescent plant
lignin. Strongest lignin biodegradation occurs in sapric peat and the proportion of the
In summary, from the work of Esterle et al. (1989), Esterle and Ferm (1994) and others,
it appears that tropical domed peats develop in a range of environments ranging from
rheotropic wet environments, which have abundant nutrient and relatively abundant
dissolved oxygen in the water, to oligotrophic environments which have a low nutrient
supply and depend on the nutrients supplied from rain water (ombrogenic environment).
The plant community develops from arborescent plants to shrubs and these are succeeded
152
by herbaceous plants. The water conditions change from high pH-high oxidising condition
stages of peat formation, at the bottom of the peat mire, and decreases in intensely to
the top of the deposit and also from the margins of the deposit to the centre of the de
Cecil et al (1993) in their study of tropical peat in Riau, Indonesia, concluded that
allogenic factors are the main factors driving the cyclicity of some coal measures
sequences. They found that in the estuaries of the Siak and Kampar Rivers, siliciclasti
sedimentation was minimal and this was the result of the rain forest being located with
the ever-wet climatic zone near the equator. The result is low levels of sediment input
the estuary but some erosion. The suspended load in the river water is minimal and this
results in no sedimentation occurring in the estuary. Under this condition delta switch
stream meandering or barrier bar migration, which are commonly caused by a high
Cecil et al. also suggested that the east coastal plain of modern Sumatra and other isl
close to it, were the result of transgressive and regressive processes (allogenic) rela
the Central Sumatra foreland basin. A thick, extensive peat deposit formed on the poorl
drained coastal lowland. Initially the peat was formed in rheotropic conditions as a pl
topogenous bog that then developed into a more ombrogenous, domed peat deposit. The
peat development probably was always under oligotrophic (nutrient-poor) conditions caus
Initially, various published facies plots were initially used for the interpretation of the
environments of depositions for the Bukit A s a m coals. However, in most cases the plots
did not give sufficient resolution or in some cases, simply failed. For example, the GI-TPI
plots for Bukit A s a m coal are shown in Figure 5.29. Using this model, A l seam coal was
deposited mostly in a limno-telmatic environment with high GI values and low TPI values.
According to Diessel (1992), peat of this composition formed under three possible
i. if the ash content is high due to epiclastic layers (claystones that originated during
ii. if the coal has high ash and epiclastic layers, the peat was mostly derived from
iii. if the ash content in the coal is low and epiclastic layers are u n c o m m o n , the peat
The Bukit Asam coal fits condition (iii) best in this scheme but it is unlikely that
On a GWI-VI diagram (Calder et al, 1991; Calder 1993) Bukit Asam coal plots in a
number of environments ranging from limnic to bogs (Fig. 5.30). The coals have an
extremely low vegetation index and this indicates an abundance of herbaceous plant
precursors. Peats derived from these types of plants are commonly deposited as raised bog
peats or in marginal aquatic zones. Bukit A s a m coal plots in the respective positions
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because of the high proportion of detrovitrinite. However, Bukit A s a m coal is very
different to the Westphalian coals of Canada which have a low detrovitrinite content as
described by Calder et al (1991) and Calder (1993). Calder's diagram was devised for the
Westphalian coals, that is, coals that have low detrovitrinite contents. It appears to have
limitations when applied to Bukit A s a m coal which have a high vitrinite content which was
The sampling method used in the study of the Bukit A s a m coal enables comparison
between plies and between seams. The evolution of a peat mire should be revealed by
variations in the composition of the plies. Given the limitations of the Calder and Diessel
techniques, facies interpretation for the Bukit A s a m coal was based on the following
parameters which are thought to be the most important factors for interpreting the
1. Detrovitrinite Content. Based on the tropical peat studies in Sarawak and Indonesia
by Esterle et al (1989), Supardi et al (1993) and Esterle and Ferm (1994), the proportion
of densinite and desmocollinite matrix tends to decrease from sapric tofinehemic peat and
therefore are commonly deposited in a subaqueous environment with relatively high pH.
that survives the degradation processes, either due to the size of the original plant material
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and/or the p H of the water. C o m m o n l y , stumps or fragments of stumps are found in hemic
peat or coarse-grained hemic peat (Esterle and Ferm, 1994). Although most of the
arborescent plants are largely degraded in the marginal areas of the peat bog, due to high
bacterial activity, some tree stumps survive; the remains such types of stumps can be found
in the hemic and coarse-grained hemic peat in Baram and Jambi peat deposits. This
suggests that the size of the plant material m a y also influence the telovitrinite content of
a coal. In the top layers and the central zone of the peat bog, the p H is commonly very
low and the preservation of the plant tissue is at a m a x i m u m . However in these areas, the
plants are stunted and the peat should consist mostly of material derived from herbaceous
plants. In summary, coal with abundant telovitrinite, or preserved plant tissue, is formed
from:
of peat always contain "matrix" detrovitrinite and preserved tissue derived from the
ii. fibric peat derived from shrub-like plants if the preserved tissue is not associated
4. Mineral Content. The mineral content of a coal represents the influx of detrital
minerals, such as clay minerals, into the mires during flooding. Syngenetic mineral matter
indicates a low moor condition that is vulnerable toflooding;if the pyrite content is high
Vertical profiles of the variations in maceral contents and mineral matter for various
A l seam:
The A l seam is 9 m thick and contains three tonstein layers, from the bottom to the top,
Tl, T 2 and T3. The coal layers between the tonsteins are banded bright coal except for
the ply immediately above the underclay (seat earth) which is a banded dull coal and at the
top of the seam where the coal is interlaminated bright coal and duller coaly claystone.
Above the underclay, a layer of dull coal to coaly shale has a high mineral content (1
86.9%) and contains vitrinite as the dominant maceral constituent (29 to 61.6%). O f the
The sporinite, liptodetrinite and inertodetrinite contents are low (maximum 2.4%). This
layer is interpreted as a clayey peat that commonly interfingered with sapric or fine-
grained hemic peat which represents the early stage of a peat-forming mire characterised
by rheotrophic conditions.
Between the basal layer and the Tl claystone, is a 0.6 m ply of bright banded coal wit
locally, in the Klawas Barat area, lenses of silicified coal. This layer contains a maximum
of 6 % mineral matter (commonly only 0.5%), except for the 10 c m zone under the
tonstein Tl. The vitrinite content is 86 to 9 6 % comprising relatively low telovitrinite (7.4
Barat), and A L A 1 2 and A L A 1 3 (Airlaya), the lower part of this ply contains higher
telovitrinite and lower detrovitrinite contents than the upper part. The sporinite,
inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite contents in the lower part of the layer are much higher
locations and the detrovitrinite content decreases slightly in the Klawas Barat area. The
slightly higher than in the plies below (1.8 to 7.9%). The low mineral content in the bright
banded coal indicates that during and after the deposition of the basal A l ply, the area was
cut off from a sediment supply, possibly because of the raised nature of the mire, and
because of the distance from the stream to the mire, the suspended sediment in the river
water was effectively filtered by the vegetation. The higher concentration of sporinite,
inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite in the lower part of the bright banded coal suggests water
transportation of the precursors of these macerals. This indicates that the mire was still
influenced by water movement possibly because it was still a topogenous/low moor mire
and the concentration of suspended sediment in the water had decreased to a very low level
The bright banded coal layer between the basal ply and the Tl tonstein was deposited as
an ombrogenous peat.
The higher abundance of telovitrinite in the lower part of the bright banded coal probab
detrovitrinite at the top of the layer is c o m m o n in ombrogenous peats which are dominated
After the deposition of Tl claystone, the mire morphology did not change markedly as
indicated by the gradational contact between the coal and the claystone. The mineral
Between the two is a bright banded coal. The vitrinite content is 84.5 to 9 3 . 4 % comprising
T 2 claystone. The high vitrinite content, including abundant detrovitrinite, and the
extremely low mineral content, suggest the coal was formed as an ombrogenous peat. The
higher proportion of telovitrinite compared to the layer below T l claystone indicates better
preservation conditions probably caused by lower p H values in the mire suggesting the
Above the T2 claystone, is a bright banded coal consisting of vitrinite (86.2 to 93.8%
inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite content is commonly low (0.6 to 3.6%). The mineral
content is extremely low (0.2 to 7.6%) but is slightly higher in the 10 c m plies above the
T 2 claystone and below the T 3 claystone. The mire in which this coal formed was an
ombrogenous mire.
Above the T3 claystone, the coal is dominated by vitrinite, commonly exceeding 85%. Th
mineral content, and pyrite specifically, increases towards the top of the layer. The
Macroscopically, the upper coal layer comprises bright banded coal layers ranging from
and shaly coal and thinly-bedded dull coal. This coal varies markedly in thickness between
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locations, decreasing towards the north (Klawas Timur area) and is reduced to a thin,
interbedded bright coal and shale. Commonly, the bright banded coal has a high
telovitrinite content and the ratio of telovitrinite to detrovitrinite is higher than that of the
coal layer below. At location A L A 1 6 , telovitrinite is dominant (62.3%) with only minor
detrovitrinite (7.8%). Sporinite, inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite contents are also lower
The low mineral content and the maceral composition indicates this layer was derived fr
plant material was at a minimum. This is only possible in the top part of an ombrogenous
peat bog. In this zone, fibric peats are dominated by preserved plant tissues and a only a
low percentage of degraded plant material is preserved (Esterle and Ferm, 1994). The
higher tissue preservation in the top part of A l seam suggests that the rate of subsidence
decreased slightly after the deposition of T 3 claystone then increased rapidly, leading to
The pyrite content (Fig. 5.31) in the coaly shale at the top of the seam is highest in
southern area (Suban), northern part of Airlaya, the Klawas Barat and Klawas Timur areas
(0.6 to 1.8%). L o w concentrations of pyrite are found only in the middle part of Airlaya
pit near A L A 1 1 2 , A L A 1 4 and A L A 1 1 where pyrite is present only in trace amounts. The
pyrite content in coaly shale samples at the top of A l seam at locality A L A 18 is high
(4.2%). The coal below the coaly shale layer, is composed dominantly of telovitrinite
(43.0 to 51.0%). This maceral assemblage indicates that the peat was formed in the middle
The greater abundance of coaly shale in the northern part of study area, and the incre
in coal thickness in the southern area, indicate that the margin of the mire was to the north
of Klawas Barat. The gradual increase in mineral content towards the top of A l seam after
the deposition of the bright banded coal, indicates gradual inundation and with it came, a
greater sediment supply to the mire and this terminated the peat deposition.
A2 Seam
Unlike A l seam, A 2 seam has no distinctive claystones, except one thin (4 cm),
discontinuous blackish-brown layer in the middle of the seam. This layer is not found at
all localities. The coal is bright banded with an approximately 40 c m thick zone of
The lower part of A2 seam is a dull coal which consists mostly of detrovitrinite (52.4
67.4%) and lesser amounts of telovitrinite (13.0 to 24.6%). The mineral content varies
from 0.2 to 8.4%. Pyrite is absent except in the northern part of Airlaya (ALA22) where
one sample contains 1 % pyrite. The bottom layer also has a slightly higher sporinite +
inertodetrinite + liptodetrinite content (1.2 to 3.6%) than plies above. This layer is
probably derived from fine-grained hemic peat in which detrovitrinite was dominant. The
relatively low mineral content indicates it was not derived from sapric peat as these peats
basal dull coal layer is a thick, bright banded coal layer (2.5 m thick) that
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occurs everywhere except in the Klawas Barat area where the silicified coal was formed.
(55.2 to 76.2%) and lesser amounts of telovitrinite (9.0 to 26.2%). Telovitrinite contents
increase toward the middle of the seam except in the area near A L A 2 1 . T h e mineral
content is extremely low (0 to 0.2%) except in the Klawas Barat area where the silicified
Above this layer, at location ALA21, a thin coaly claystone ply is found. A one metre
thick ply above this claystone has a low telovitrinite content (6%) and a high detrovitrinite
content (up to 61.6%). Sporinite, inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite content is relatively high
(8.6%). The mineral content is also slightly higher (2.8%) than in the underlying plies.
A n increase in the proportion of telovitrinite towards the middle of the seam indicates that
the peat mire tended more towards a raised mire where the p H of the water decreased
resulting in better preservation. This trend is not found in the A L A 2 1 area where, locally,
the abundance of detrital macerals and mineral matter is higher. In this area, there appears
to have been a local depression in the mire surface where the water level was higher than
peat surface.
Between the above layer and the silicified coal at the top of the seam, is 7 to 8 m of b
banded coal. In almost all locations the detrovitrinite content increases towards the top of
the seam. This trend, at some locations, for example A L A 2 2 and K B A 2 ) shows an
liptodetrinite). T h e mineral content is consistently low towards the top of the layer (0 to
0.4%) except at location A L A 2 3 where the mineral content is high (6.4%). T h e trend of
accompanied by increasing detrital/attrital macerals towards the top of the seam indicates
that the mire was drowned but no sediment influx came into the mires. At the top of the
seam, the p H of the water in the peat was evidently higher, because the higher water table
The coal was largely deposited in a raised peat bog, with gradual development from
topogenous peat at the base to a raised mire for the middle of the seam. A b o v e that, the
peat was gradually drowned as can be seen by the higher detrovitrinite content and the
BISeam
Bl seam, or upper Suban seam, contains more claystone than any other of the seams in
the Bukit A s a m Coalfield. T w o claystones are found to the south west of Airlaya (ALB11)
and four claystones in the Airlaya (ALB12) and Klawas Timur areas.
than in the adjacent coal plies (1.8 to 8 % ) . Resinite is also abundant (0.2 to 8.4%).
detrovitrinite and 20.8 to 2 9 . 8 % telovitrinite. Other macerals are not abundant except in
the ply samples below the claystone, second from the top at locality A L B 12 and below the
first claystone from the top in K T B 1 . These plies have relatively high resinite (2.2 to
content is higher in two areas A L B 1 2 and K T B 1 1 (0.44 to 7.2%) but average in ALB11.
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The coal was deposited in an ombrogenous peat mire. Volcanic activity in the early stages
of peat development produced the three volcanic claystones in the lower part of the seam.
B2Seam
The B2 coal seam is 3.7 to 6.35 m thick with one volcanic claystone near the middle of
the seam. The lowermost part of the seam is a dull coal 10 to 40 c m thick, comprising
abundant detrovitrinite (59 to 74.4%) and minor telovitrinite (5.4 to 7.8%). T h e sporinite
content is generally low in samples from Airlaya but slightly higher in Klawas Timur
Above the claystone is a bright banded coal that has abundant vitrinite (90%) which
resinite and detrital maceral content is present in samples from the Klawas Timur. The
The uppermost ply in B2 seam is a shaly coal that contains abundant detrovitrinite (40.
Airlaya area than in the Klawas Timur area where there is also higher telovitrinite contents
greatly elevated. Mature development of the peat did not occur as telovitrinite-dominant
5.7 SUMMARY
Bukit Asam coal has been heated by intrusions in some parts of the study area and this has
significant amounts of telovitrinite and minor gelinite. This composition indicates that the
mires in which the peat was deposited were mostly of a raised high moor type but these
did not reach the mature stage of peat development as indicated by the maceral
composition which points to a lack of fibric peat (abundant structured vitrinite and minor,
or absent, development of a detrovitrinite matrix) at the top each peat episode except for
Al seam. The mires of Bukit Asam were subjected to basement subsidence with the rate
When the upper part of the Al seam was forming, the subsidence rate was probably l
and this provided an opportunity for the mire to develop as a raised bog. This is indicated
by the formation of fibric peat. However, soon after that, either subsidence accelerated or
arisein sea level occurred and the mire wasflooded,resulting in the termination of peat
development. The pyrite content is very low with a slight increase at the top of A l seam
CHAPTER SIX
GEOCHEMISTRY
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Goodarzi (1995a) stated that the dominant factors controlling the geochemistry of coal
are:
ii. nature of country rock, tectonic setting and hydrologic conditions; and
These factors also appear to control the abundance and distribution of elements in the
Bukit Asam coals. Of significance is the influence of volcanic detritus on the trace el
Geochemistry of coal was defined as the chemical composition and chemical properties o
coal (Bouska, 1981). Thus the study of coal geochemistry is a broad study covering
several areas which can include the study of the factors controlling the formation of c
the alteration of plant material during coalification, the geochemical principles gove
the concentration and distribution of trace elements in coal, and the structural and ch
relationships of coal. Swaine and Goodarzi (1995) stated that coal contains most elemen
in the periodic table with data available for 66 of the elements. For this study, only
concentration and distribution of the major oxides and trace elements will be consider
because these are of major significance when considering utilisation of the Bukit Asam
coal.
166
Coal is a sedimentary rock that consists of organic and mineral matter in various
proportions. The organic materials are mainly aromatic and aliphatic compounds which
consist essentially of the elements C, H, O (van Krevelen, 1981; Stach et al, 1982; Bus
et al, 1983). From a utilisation viewpoint, the "impurities" in coal are usually the mi
matter which is defined as all forms of inorganic material associated with coal. Accor
to its origin, mineral matter can be divided into three groups (Mackowsky, 1982; Bustin
etal, 1983):
a. mineral matter that originated from and was apart of the original plant; this
mineral matter is commonly organic complexes within the original plant tissues and
b. mineral matter that formed during the first stage of coalification; this mineral
minerals that are precipitated or introduced into the peat/coal deposit by water or
c. mineral matter that was introduced to the coal after the consolidation process,
that is, during later stages of coalification; these minerals were formed by the
mineral matter is commonly deposited in the pores, cleats and fissures and are
The meaning of the term 'mineral matter' is very different to the meaning of the term
'ash'. Ash is the residue remaining after combustion of the coal (Bouska, 1981). The
167
mineral constituents of the ash can be quite different to those in the coal and are formed
as a result of chemical changes in both the mineral matter and organic materials during the
complex chemical structures with the formation of metal oxides and the release of H 2 0 ,
The analysis of coal ash provides an approximation of the mineral content of the coal,
assumption being the ash is derived solely from the minerals in the coal (Kiss, 1982). This
assumption is likely to be most valid in high rank coals but in low rank coals the ash is
not derived fully from the mineral matter. According to Kiss, one third of the ash in
brown coal from the Latrobe Valley of Victoria, Australia, is derived from organic sulphur
dependent on the combustion conditions. Kiss suggested that analyses of ash should be
regarded as a result obtained from an empirical test and no other conclusion should be
drawn from it. However, Bouska has a slightly different viewpoint, even for this extreme
example. Bouska regards the elemental constituent of the ash as still useful as an indicator
of the coal constituents because it reflects the major constituents of mineral matter
(Bouska, 1981).
The chemical constituents of mineral matter in coal are influenced by many factors that
are not fully understood. Swaine (1990), stated that the trace elements in coal are the sum
of organic-bound trace elements and mineral-bound trace elements. Whereas as this is true,
Davidson (1996) stated that "even for elements found to be associated with the organic
matter, there is no firm evidence for them being organically bound in the higher rank
coals". Furthermore most of the "trace element content in coal is associated with three
168
major minerals: pyrite, kaolinite, and illite. However, the minerals in coal are not
uniform, either in composition or physical properties (such as particle size and density)".
The organic-bound elements are inherently part of the coal either as organic or inorganic
elements that adsorbed into the coal. The mineral-bound elements are c o m m o n l y present
as discrete primary minerals that enter the coal as detrital influx or post coalification
secondary cleatfillingsin the coal. Other factors that influence the mineral matter in coal
are the condition of mires when the peat was deposited, the coalification process, the
interaction between inorganic sediments in the coal measures sequence and the
groundwater during coalification and igneous intrusions into the coal measures sequence.
Bouska (1981) stated that some trace elements are present if coal mostly as organo-met
complexes of chelate type whereas others are bound into the coal as functional groups or
sorbed onto the organic matter. Furthermore, "there is no doubt that the coal seams are
Mineral matter in coal has been known, for a long time, to cause technical and
environmental problems during combustion. Coal which contains a high mineral content
which does not decompose during combustion, that is, produces a high ash and particularly
high bottom ash, is generally causes fouling and slagging in the boiler w h e n the coal is
combusted. Several elements such as Cd, A s , H g m a y cause health problems in the areas
surrounding a power plant. However, a more positive view for combusted coal waste
products has arisen in recent times and studies on the possible reuse of the ash have been
undertaken for several years. For example, Keefer (1993) indicated that fly ash can be
Davidson (1996) stated that eleven elements "commonly found in coal are potentially
hazardous air pollutants". These, together with the average and range of concent
Be 2 0.1 - 15
Cr 20 0.5 - 60
Mn 70 5 -300
Co 5 0.5 - 30
Ni 20 0.5 - 50
As 10 0.5 - 80
Se 1 0.2 - 10
Cd 0.5 0.1 - 3
Sb 1 0.5 - 10
Hg 0.1 0.02 - 1
Pb 40 2 - 80
The chemistry of the Bukit Asam coal has been reported by M C S Consultants (1980),
reports contained ultimate analyses data and the major element content of the as
samples analysed were whole seam samples covering a wide area of the South Sumat
Basin and do not provide a detailed enough data base to effectively predict the
problems likely from the combustion of Bukit Asam coal. Only one sample was anal
for the trace elements content and this was done by MCS Consultants.
The main aims of this section of the study are to determine the major element and trace
element geochemistry of the coal and determine if the coal type or interseam cla
sediments have influence the geochemical composition of the coal, and to determi
differences in the geochemistry of the heated coal compared to the unheated coal
study uses the limited previously published data on the analyses of the ash yiel
addition selected samples were also analysed. Apart from coal, samples for ashin
selected from the tonstein layers and the ten centimetre coal interval immediate
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and below the tonstein, and from the sedimentary rocks above and below the coal seams.
Details in this study should be regarded as a preliminary study of the major element and
trace elements in Bukit Asam coal but they do show some significant trends that need to
be considered in utilisation studies of the Bukit Asam coals and form a basis for additional
studies.
The process of transformation of plant matter to peat depends on the conditions within peat
mires. The Eh and p H of the mire influence the accumulation and dispersion of trace
elements (Bouska, 1981). L o w p H and anoxic conditions retard the degradation process
and assures a higher degree of preservation of the plant matter. O n the contrary, if high
p H or neutral p H and oxic conditions are prevalent, aerobic bacteria activity is promoted
Low pH and anoxic conditions occur where the mire is isolated from persistent floodin
because it isfloodingthat generally causes an influx of mineral matter and oxygen. Plant
nutrients become very limited in supply under these oligotrophic conditions. Under these
conditions, shrub-like plants and stunted plants are the only plant community that can
survive. The low p H conditions assure better preservation of the plant matter and this leads
to the formation of a raised mire. In humid tropical areas, raised mires can develop
because the abundant nutrient supply for the plant growth is supplied by the high rainfall.
The raised nature of ombrotrophic mires decreases the chance of flooding and marine
water incursion. The chemistry of the peat is then only influenced by the plant community
171
and possibly by minerals deposited by wind or fallout from the atmosphere such as
volcanic detritus. T h e low p H in the raised mire also causes severe leaching of any
elements that enter the mire. This results in a suite of coals that contains extremely low
High pH and oxic conditions occur where there is a continuous water influx, other than
from rainwater, into the mires. T h e water influx maintains high oxygen contents in the
water and carries the mineral matter that supplies nutrients for the plant; importantly, an
influx of cations results and this maintains a high p H condition. T h e degradation of the
The low topographic nature of this type of mire is vulnerable to marine or brackish wate
incursions which bring salt and minerals to the mire system. The reaction of incoming salt
and minerals, with the mire, results in precipitation of n e w minerals in the peat. Drever
(1982) stated that a marine water incursion which brings waters with sulphates 250 to 300
times higher than fresh water to the reductive condition of mire, m a y result in the
precipitation of FeS precursors. These will later be transformed to pyrite in the peat
(Casagrande, 1987). T h e elemental content of the coal derived from this kind of peat is
External factors which influence conditions within the peat include ash-fall from nearby
deposits. The volcanic ash introduced nutrients to the mires for the plants and also added
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Ruppert and Moore (1993) studied tonsteins in the Tertiary coals of South Kalimantan.
They were able to differentiate tonsteins that originated from ash-fall and from those that
originated from water-borne sediments. They stated that the claystone layers associated
with volcanic ash deposits contained abundant kaolinite and some blue luminescent quartz
that contained abundant Ti, Zr and Y inclusions. Ti oxides, K-feldspar, barite, pyrite and
sanidine were also found in these rocks. The water-borne deposits were characterised by
the presence of chromite that was interpreted as having been derived from nearby
metamorphic rocks. Ruppert and Moore also recognised that Ca, C u , Ni, Z n , Ba, Sr and
N a contents were higher in the coals than in the volcanically-derived tonstein layers.
Zielinski (1985) studied the mobility of elements in a tonstein which had been altered
kaolinite in the Eocene W y o m i n g coals. It was found that tonsteins were highly leached
of the major elements except Al and Ti. Moreover, it was also recognised that the alkaline
trace elements R b and C s were also highly leached from the tonsteins. T h e transition series
metals were moderately leached and Ga, Zr and H f were immobile and were residual in
elements such as Th, Ta, N b , R E E and Y were leached from the tonstein under the swamp
conditions. The migration range of the mobile elements was very limited, to 20 m m , in
Crowley et al. (1989), based on their study of volcanic ash layers in the Late Cretaceo
C coal bed, Emery Coalfield (Utah), stated that the coal directly above the tonstein is
drained mire after the volcanic ash-fall. T h e layer below the tonstein was enriched in
was also recognised an enrichment in the coal immediately above and under the tonstein
of some trace elements such as Zr, N b , T h and Ce. Spears and Lyons (1995) studied
tonsteins in British coals and by recognising the immobile trace element content in the
tonstein, they were able to recognise the tectono-magmatic setting of the parent volcano
Forest fire may produce considerable ash debris and may be eventually preserved in the
mire as a layer or completely dissolved in the mire water. The ash composition m a y enrich
the peat with elements that survive either leaching by humic acids or absorption by plants.
6.2.3 Coalification
The process of coalification begins after the peat mire is covered with sediment.
material is compressed and thus its volume is reduced and as a result, water is lost.
the formation of colloidal matter which is precipitated in the more resistant tissue of the
During coalification, the chemistry of coal obviously changes. The decrease in the volu
results in concentration of the elements. At the same time, the aromatic structural unit
begins to form. According to Wilson et al (1984) the aromatic rings are defunctionalised
and the functional groups are replaced by hydrogen. T h e cross linking between aromatic
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structures occurs later in the coalification process. The release of the functional groups
Lindahl and Finkelman (1986) showed there is significant variation in the concentrati
Sr, Ca, Ba, Na, and B, decrease in concentration with increasing coal rank. Lindahl and
Finkelman (1986) suggested that the organic functional groups, in which the elements were
bound, were destroyed as the rank increased and this resulted in the mobilisation of
associated inorganic elements. Bouska (1981) suggested that the distribution elements
follows the pattern of the early metamorphism phase of clay minerals with increasing rank.
the interseam sediment and redeposit them in the coal. It has been k n o w n that a marine
roof will enrich the pyrite content of the coal. For example, Diessel (1986; 1992)
recognised higher concentrations of pyrite in the tops of coal seams, with a marine roof
deposited during a marine transgression, in the Hunter Valley, Australia, and in Germany.
However, there was no evidence as to whether the high pyrite content in the top part of
the seam results from a syngenetic process (during the transgression) or an epigenetic
process in which the redeposition of pyrite from the roof layers by leaching processes is
Neuzil et al. (1993) studied the influence of marine strata, below a peat deposit, on
geochemical constituents of the peat. It was found that there is no evidence of any
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influence of the substrata on the geochemical composition of the peat. It was suggested that
the much higher pore water content in the peat is the main reason w h y the pore water
over a relatively short period of time. The temperature of intrusions, according to Bouska
(1981), m a y range from 200 to 750°C. Bouska showed that the ash content of the coal
Intrusions in a coal measure sequence may influence the elemental content of the coal
two ways:
- the rise in temperature may decompose some minerals thus forming a new suite of
- hydrothermal gases and liquids m a y enter the coal measures sequence and introduce
MCS Consultants (1980) indicated that sulphur content in the Bukit Asam area is highe
in coals that had been sampled in areas that had been heated by intrusions. For example,
for A l seam the back ground sulphur content ranges from 0.2 to 0.67% but in the heat-
affected area in the west bank of Airlaya (ALB47), the sulphur contents increased to 1 %
to 1.5%.
for utilisation studies they are not so useful for geological studies. In the present study,
the sampling was carried out ply by ply according lithologic type of the coal. Additional
samples from below the known tonsteins were also taken as were samples from the roof
and the floor sediments. With this sampling strategy, the behaviour of major and trace
elements in seams can be better understood. The raw data for major oxides and trace
elements are given in Appendices 6.1 and 6.2, respectively, and vertical profiles of some
of the trace elements and major oxides are given in Appendix 6.3.
Samples were analysed for major oxides in the XRF laboratory of the School of
and B 2 seams were analysed. The major elements content of the samples is given in
Appendix 6.1.
The samples were firstly divided into two types, coal (ash content < 15%) and shaly
elements content in each; each group was then grouped into three categories according to
the degree of heating by the intrusions: unheated samples (Ryinax < 0.5 % ) , slightly-heated
samples (R„max from 0.5 to 0.8%) and strongly-heated samples (Ryinax > 1.3%). The
reason for this was to determine if the elemental composition of each type of sample was
influenced by the intrusions, that is, did the heating add or delete any element.
The unheated coals and coaly shale/carbonaceous shale/tonstein are dominated by the me
oxides Si0 2 , A 1 2 0 3 and F e A (Table 6.1, Fig. 6.2) with other metal oxides in the range
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shale/tonstein. The Si0 2 and A 1 2 0 3 contents are much higher in slightly-heated coal than
the other hand, F e ^ , S 0 3 , and C a O are lower in the slightly-heated coal (Table 6.1). In
the strongly-heated coals, the Si0 2 , A 1 2 0 3 and F e ^ contents are less than those in the
slightly-heated coals but significantly more than in the unheated samples. The overall trend
The high Si02, A1203 and Fe^ contents reflect the mineralogy of clay minerals and
quartz as seen petrographically and with X R D . A similar major oxide composition for the
shaly coal/carbonaceous shale/tonstein group also reflects the clay mineral and quartz
higher, but less in the slightly-heated samples, than in the unheated samples. The A 1 2 0 3
is higher in the slightly-heated samples and less in the strongly-heated samples, compared
to the unheated samples; the FejOa is approximately the same in all three. However, these
results are likely to reflect the variation in the composition of the original samples and
Table 6.3 shows the average major oxide contents on a seam by seam basis (ply thickness
weighted). A 2 and Bl seams have the highest Si02 contents (45 and 4 9 % respectively).
content (5.8%) compared to A 2 and Bl seams. The S 0 3 content in A l and B 2 are higher
(9.1 and 10.6%, respectively) than in A 2 and Bl (5.4 and 1.2% respectively) and the
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N a 2 0 is highest in B 2 seam (5.3%).
A high S03 content (7.7 to 40.6%) was reported in the low rank brown coals from
Victoria (Gloe and Holgate, 1991). Kiss (1982) stated that the organic sulphur contributes
approximately 3 0 % of the total ash weight of low rank and low sulphur coals. In
combustion processes, the organic sulphur isfixedby Ca, Na, M g and Fe that is in the
coals.
Bl seam is somewhat different to the other seams as it has the highest Si02, Ti0
The only previous trace element data for the one full seam sample from Airlaya pit
- trace elements with concentrations below 1 ppm: As, Ga, Co, Cr, Sc, and Li,
- trace elements with concentrations equal to or slightly higher than 1 ppm: Pb, M o , Zr,
- trace elements with concentrations much larger than 1 ppm: Ba (55 ppm), Sr (23 ppm),
For this study, trace element data were obtained for ply samples using two methods, X R F
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and I N A A . The use of two methods provided data for a broader range of elements than
otherwise would have been available if only the X R F facilities in the School of
Geosciences, University of Wollongong had been used. I N A A analyses were carried out
Appendix 6.2 and a summary of the data is presented in Tables 6.4 to 6.14.
The XRF method was used for samples from Al, A2, Bl and B2 seams samples and the
additional I N A A data were for samples from A 2 , Bl and B 2 seams. Five samples from
Al seam were analysed by both methods for comparison. Only four elements, Th, Rb, A g
and Zn, were c o m m o n to both methods (Table 6.5). A g content could not be used for
comparison because it was mostly below or near the detection limit for both methods.
Graphs of X R F values versus I N A A values for Th and Zn (Fig. 6.3) show a reasonably
good correlation, with the exception of T h in one sample, suggesting that values obtained
represent sample versus sample variations rather than method versus method variations.
The sample with the anomalous result is a tuffaceous tonstein from thefirsttonstein of A l
seam (T3) and it was taken from the strongly-heated zone in Suban. The Z n contents
obtained by the I N A A technique are consistently higher than those of the X R F values
whereas the reverse is true for Th. The differences may also indicate differences in the
XRF analysis was carried out on a total of 109 samples (seven localities) from Al s
and 19 samples (two localities) from A 2 seam, 11 samples from Bl seam and seven
samples from B 2 seam were analysed. These X R F analyses provided data for the elements
Ni, Zn, Cu, Pb, Rb, Sr, Ga, Y , Zr, N b , T h and Ag. Full analyses are given in Appendix
6.2A and a summary of the range and average for trace element is given in Tables 6.6 and
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6.7.
For many elements there is no apparent trend in the concentration of the respective
elements when unheated and heated rocks are compared with differences in many cases
well within the limits of the instrumentation. For example, in coaly shale and tonste
average Ga content ranges between 23.2 and 24.4 ppm; for nickel the average values ar
lowest in the slightly-heated samples and highest in the strongly-heated samples. How
i. Sr, Y and Pb contents are higher in the unheated samples compared to the heated
sample is heated; for example, the concentrations of Sr, Y and Pb in the unheated
samples averages 197.8, 59 and 32.8 ppm respectively, whereas in the slightly-
heated samples the concentrations are 120.3, 38.4 and 29.2 ppm; in the strongly-
heated samples the values are 58.5, 43.1 and 19.9 ppm, respectively (Table 6.7);
the ranges of concentrations show this trend except the minimum value for the
ii. Zr has the lowest average concentration in the strongly-heated samples (171.4 ppm
and the highest average concentration in the slightly-heated samples (322 ppm); the
latter value is only slightly higher than the concentration in the unheated samples
(299 ppm); the minimum and maximum values show this trend although some
overlap of the ranges occurs; the trend indicates a loss of zinc when the shaly coal
i. the concentrations of Ni and Zn decrease with heating, with the amount of heating
needed not very great; the average concentrations of these trace elements are 36.9
and 223 p p m in the unheated coals, 23.9 and 124 p p m in the slightly-heated coals
and 27.4 and 155 p p m in the strongly-heated samples, respectively; Sr and T h also
ii. Y concentration is higher in the heated samples; the average concentrations of the
elements are 180 p p m in the unheated coal, 223 p p m in the slightly-heated coal and
Comparing the concentrations of elements (ash basis) in the coal group with those in
shaly coal/tonstein in slightly-heated samples, almost all elements are higher in the coal
than in shaly coal and tonstein, except Rb, which is always higher in the shaly
coal/tonstein.
As stated earlier, this method provided data on a wider range of trace elements, including
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Sb, As, Ba, Br, Ce, Cs, Cr, Eu, Au, Hf, Ir, Fe, La, Lu, M o , K, Rb, S m , Se, Se, Ag,
Na, Ta, Th, W , U, Yb, and Zn, with the added advantage that the detection limits are
lower. For this part of the study, sample selection was restricted to a limited number of
samples. Full analyses for each sample are given in Appendix 6.2B and a summary of the
For the unheated samples, and disregarding rock type, the elements can be categ
three groups:
1. Elements with average concentrations of more than 700 ppm (Ba, K, Na and Fe)
2. Elements with average concentrations between 10 to 300 p p m (Ce, Cr, Hf, La, Rb,
3. Elements with concentrations mostly less than 10 ppm (Sb, Br, Cr, Eu, Au, Ir, Lu,
Generalising, for the element in Groups 1 and 2, many elements, with exception
and Cs, have higher concentrations in coal than in shaly coal/tonstein. Some of the more
- As (average values of 42.5 ppm in coal and 17.1 ppm in coaly shale/tonstein),
K, Rb and Cs are known to be related to the occurrence of mixed layer clay minerals in
one suite of U S A coals (Rimmer, 1991). K, Rb and Cs are alkali metals and commonly
substitute for one another in various minerals. The shaly coal/tonstein from Bukit Asam
also contains a significant proportion of clay minerals and it is probable that the grouping
of these elements, and their high concentrations, are a function of the clay content of the
samples.
some elements in Group 2 (Sc (55 ppm), Rb (38.1) and Zn (272 ppm), and some
2. Bl seam contains highest concentrations of Co, As, La and Cs. C o and As are
3. B2 seam has the highest concentrations of Ce, Hf, Th, Eu and Yb.
(University of Wollongong), was used to analyse the relationships between elements and
between samples.
within a data array by linking together those variables (R-mode) or objects (Q-mode)
which are most strongly correlated (Harbaugh and Meriam, 1968; Davis, 1973). A perfect
positive linear correlation, where the correlation coefficient (r) is 1, means that by
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knowing one factor, the other factor can be predicted to a very small degree of error and
After calculating a full correlation coefficient matrix, the relationship between the vari
or objects can be simplified by progressively combining the variables with the greatest
For the R-mode cluster analysis in this study, the data were not refined and were examined
(major and trace-elements from X R F analysis) and 27 variables for A 2 , Bl and B 2 seams
(trace-elements by I N A A method).
Al Seam
In Al seam, the dendogram for R-mode cluster analysis shows four main clusters or
groups (Fig. 6.4). The main groups are linked by low similarity coefficients, ranging from
-0.12 to 0.11. In Group A , the six variables are mineral matter, ash yield, Si0 2 , R b , K 2 0
and vitrinite reflectance. T h e mineral matter (%vol) has a strong positive similarity
coefficient with the ash yield (%wt) as expected. R b and K 2 0 are correlated whereas Si0 2
other variables is as expected because the mineral matter consists predominantly of silica
The vertical profiles of the ash content and various elements and oxides in A l seam (Figs
6.5 to 6.8) show significant trends. Figure 6.5 shows the relative increase in Si0 2 and the
decrease in R b and K 2 0 in the shaly coal/tonstein layers and the opposite in the coal plies,
specifically, Si0 2 content is high in the tonstein and the shaly coal at the bottom and the
top of the seam and also in the three tonstein layers (Tl to T 3 ) .
Cohen and Stack (1996) suggested that some plants produce authigenic silica during
peatification and Cohen et al. (1987) also recognised diatoms and fresh water sponges in
domed peats and suggested that these were probably the source in part, at least, of the
silica in the coals. Neither of these reasons is likely to be the cause of the high silica in
the Bukit A s a m coal. T h e primary cause is the abundance of volcanic ash that was input
to the peat mire to form the tonsteins at the time these plies were forming.
Both the petrography and the geochemistry support the hypothesis that the high silica
content in the plies adjacent to the tonsteins and the top and bottom of the seam were
formed by solution of silica from the tonsteins and deposition in the coal plies. T h e high
XRD analysis shows that the tonstein above Al seam contains mainly quartz, kaolinite,
pyrite and natrojarosite. T h e shaly coal at the base of the seam contains quartz, orthoclase
and illite. The tonstein layers commonly contain quartz and kaolinite except the lower
tonstein layer which contains kaolinite, tridymite and illite. K 2 0 and R b are commonly
associated with mixed layer clay minerals that are not present in the tonstein layers in the
Bukit A s a m coal. This strong correlation between R b and K 2 0 and clay minerals suggests
that the coal plies contain a greater relative proportion of clay minerals and a relatively
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lower proportion of quartz and chalcedony than the tonsteins.
increasing reflectance of samples taken from near the intrusions. In these samples, the
mineral content is commonly higher. Bouska (1981) also recognised increasing ash content
Group B comprises Ni and Mn03. Both parameters commonly have higher values in coal
organic matter. However, at one location ( A L A 12), the vertical profiles show that the
concentration of Ni parallels the ash content in the shaly coal layers at the top of the seam
The shaly coals at the top and the bottom of the coals are allochthonous and some of
tonstein layers are derived from volcanic ash-fall deposits. This m a y indicate that both Ni
and M n 0 3 were derived from clastic detritus that was introduced to the mire rather than
Group C contains Zn, Pb, FeA, Sr, P205, CaO, S03, MgO and Na^O and is
characterised by the gradual increase in the concentration of these elements in the coal
toward the top of the seam and low concentrations in the shaly coal/tonstein (Fig. 6.6).
The progressive increase in the concentration of these elements towards the top possibly
parallels the plant evolution during the process of doming of the peat. Esterle and Ferm
(1994) and Cohen and Stack (1996) showed that in modern tropical peats, the mire evolves
189
from a planar peat that is dominated by more arborescent plants to a domed peat that is
characterised by sapric peat derived from shrubs-like plants. They also recognised that
Group C can be subdivided into three subgroups (Figs 6.6 and 6.7) - Clt C2 and C3.
Group C x contains Zn, Pb and F^O-j. This group is characterised by a gradual increase
in Zn, Pb and F e 2 0 3 contents in coals towards the top of the seam and a very strong
negative correlation between the elements and the tonstein T l , T 2 and T 3 . At some
locations, the coal samples immediately above or below the tonstein have significantly
shows the same trends as the other members of the subgroup but the concentrations are
higher immediately above the tonstein. The mire forming above the tonstein would have
been poorly drained and this possibly permitted greater preservation of the plant material.
The higher Pb in these plies suggests that Pb and the other elements in the group are
associated with higher preservation of the plant tissues. Pb, Z n and F e ^ probably
indicate an association with sulphides, in this case pyrite. Galena and sphalerite have been
Group C2 contains Sr and P205 and these elements are more concentrated in coal than
shaly coals/tonstein samples and are more concentrated towards the top of the seam.
Another characteristic of Sr is the lower concentrations in the coal plies immediately above
and below the tonstein compared to adjacent plies. In low rank coals, Sr is reportedly
associated with phosphate minerals such as apatite [Ca 5 (P0 4 ) 3 ] or phosphorite that could
be of volcanic origin. In this case, Sr replaces the C a as they are in the same group in the
190
periodic table (Ha). Phosphate minerals may also be derived from animals with phosphate
skeletal structures if these were incorporated in the mire. According to Stach et al (1982)
Crowley et al (1989) postulated that coal layers immediately above tonsteins are form
from "well fed" plants because more nutrients are available from the volcanic ash than the
peat. She also suggested that above tonstein, peat is poorly drained and this leads to a
higher water table and, as a result, a higher degree of plant preservation. Sr content is
probably related to the degree of preservation of plants in the peat and is derived from the
tonstein.
Group C3 has four members, CaO, S03, MgO and Na20. Species in this group are also
more concentrated in coal rather than in tonstein and shaly coal. The close association of
C a O and S 0 3 probably indicates the presence of gypsum in the samples with gypsum
sulphur during combustion as reported by Crowley et al. (1989). The other alkaline
elements such as N a and M g are also fixed by the release of organic sulphur during the
combustion process.
Group D, with species Ga, Ti02, A1203, Y, Zr, Nb and Th is characterised by low
concentrations of the species in the bottom and top plies the shaly coal, moderate
concentrations in coal and in the 10 c m intervals immediately above and below the tonstein
(Figs 6.7 and 6.8). Group D can be divided into two subgroups, D , and D 2 .
191
values in coal and shaly coal samples (for example, approximately 20 p p m for Ga; Fig.
6.7), regardless of the ash content and higher values in the tonstein and coal immediately
above and below the tonstein. T i 0 2 and A 1 2 0 3 are likely to have been derived from
volcanic products, probably rutile, ilmenite and other aluminosilicate minerals in the coal.
It seems unlikely that Ti0 2 , A 1 2 0 3 and G a were derived from detrital sources as shown by
the low concentration in the shaly coals at the top and bottom of the seam. The distribution
patterns indicate that Ti0 2 , A 1 2 0 3 and, to a lesser extent Ga, survive leaching from the
tonstein.
that have been exposed to leaching by low p H mire waters. In Bukit Asam, the G a content
in the coal above and below tonsteins at some locations, are higher than in the tonstein.
This indicates that G a is less mobile and has migrated limited distances. Similar patterns
have been recognised in W y o m i n g and Emery coal (Utah) by Goodal (1983) and Zielinski
(1985). They suggested that the low p H of the mire water is responsible for the
mobilisation of Ga. T i 0 2 and A 1 2 0 3 show a gradual increase from the bottom to the top
of the seam; the increase in G a from the bottom to the top of the seam is not as noticeable.
D2 subgroup contains Y, Zr, Nb and Th (Fig. 6.8). These elements have far higher
concentrations in the ten centimetre coal plies immediately above and below the tonstein
than in the tonstein. The concentrations of these species in the shaly coal at the top and
bottom of the seam are lower than in the coal plies. The negative correlation with the ash
content probably indicates that these elements are more commonly associated with organic
matter and that they m a y have been mobilised from the volcanic ash originally, probably
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from a mineral, associated with zircon, by ground water after deposition of the peat and
then became bound in the organic matter in the coals immediately above and below the
Crowley et al (1989) also recognised a similar pattern in the Emery Coal Bed, Utah.
According to Wedepohl (1969; 1978) D 2 elements are relatively immobile during low
in the samples immediately below and above the tonstein than in the tonstein, indicate that
these elements are mobile as shown by Zielinski (1985) and Crowley et al (1989). Goodal
(1983) and Zielinski (1985) suggested conditions of low p H in the peat, due to humic
A2 Seam
A 2 seam only contains one thin tonstein of very limited lateral extent and at some localities
no tonstein. The A 2 coal has an extremely low ash content. R-mode cluster analysis was
applied to two sets of data: the trace element data obtained from I N A A analyses and the
The dendogram for A 2 seam shows 6 main groups: A , B (Bl and B2), C , D (Dl and D2),
Group A, contains two parameters vitrinite reflectance and ash, and again this is
Group B has six members - Sb, Hf, U, Th, Na and Ta which are divided into two
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subgroups, one (Bl) containing Sb, Hf, U and Th, and a second (B2) containing N a and
Ta. The elements in this group have lowest concentrations in shaly coals and highest
concentrations in coal. The concentrations are highest in the middle of the seam and
decrease toward the bottom and the top of the seam. Petrographic data show that
telovitrinite and gelovitrinite contents follow the same pattern suggesting a strong
correlation between vitrinite and group Bl elements. According to Shotyk et al. (1990) U
and C u are soluble under aerobic conditions with a depletion in the top and lower parts
of seams, probably due to oxidation which is more severe at the top and the bottom of the
seam.
The samples above the underclay (seat earth) have abundant Cs, Rb, K, Ba, Fe, Ce and
La. Petrographic data (Chapter 5) show that inertinite content in these samples is
significantly higher than in the coal above this ply sample. This might suggest that the
(1989), inertinite forms in marginal areas where the water is always flowing past or
the elements Th, Ce, S m , E u and Zr. The absorption of elements from underlying strata
by the coal seam is impossible, according to Neuzil (1993), because the pore-water in peat
is more saturated than the pore-water in the clay underneath; migration of elements does
According to Wedepohl (1969; 1978), U and Th are responsible for the radioactivity in
coal. Both elements commonly are present as functional group complexes (Swaine 1990).
194
In Precambrian to Mesozoic organic-rich sediments, spherical bitumen with a
zircon/uraninite core, known as thucolite, are commonly found which, under microscope,
can be recognised by radiation rims. Both elements are clearly organically bound in the
thucolite association. Zircon and monazite are also commonly considered to be the main
sources of Th and U in minerals. The origin of Sb in coal is not clear. Swaine (1990)
suggested an organic association for Sb but this element also m a y be present in sulphide
concentration from the top to the bottom of the seam except for the layer above the floor.
included in the mobile element-reactive element (low ionic potential) group (Crowley et
al. 1989). It can be introduced into, and removed from, porous lignite by water. Ta has
similar chemical properties to N b (Wedepohl, 1969; 1978) and both are associated with
zircon.
Group C has two members Ba and Fe (Fig. 6.10) although the two are not strongly
part, from plants. Lyons et al (1989) discussed the occurrence of B a in coals but gave
conflicting views. They stated that Ba, Ca, M g and Sr are most likely to indicate higher
amounts of clays, carbonate, other minerals and a nonmarine origin.. However, later they
stated that living tree ferns biologically fractionate Ba and a variety of other elements
suggesting that Ba might be organically associated in coal especially if some of the parent
plant material is derived from tree ferns. In A 2 seam samples that have not been heated,
Ba concentration is highest in the middle of the seam and depleted in the roof and floor
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of the seam. This indicates that most Ba originates from plant material. Fe probably
originated from plant material where components such as chlorophyll contain Fe (Bouska,
1981). The pyrite content in A 2 seam is very low and in many samples, zero; thus Fe
cannot be sourced from pyrite. The Ba and Fe profiles closely resembles the vitrinite
profile, which is a measure of the degree of preservation of plant in the peat during
peatification.
Group D has two subgroups. Subgroup Dl contains Br, W, Lu, Yb, Eu and Sm and D2
from the top to the bottom of the seam except the samples immediately above the floor of
the seam which have higher concentrations. According to Lyons et al. (1989), data on the
geochemistry of vitrinite in coals from Australia, England and Canada showed Br and W
are the most organically-bound elements. O n the other hand Lu, Y b , E u and S m are
associated with kaolinite. Thus the clustering of elements in this group may be a function
of low concentrations of these elements in the ash rather than a geological association.
insoluble compounds in the ash and is immobile. O n the other hand, Z n originates from
degraded plants and, is enriched when degradation occurs (Wedepohl, 1969; 1978) and
Group E contains Ce and La. Ce and La contents are positively correlated with ash cont
and reach a m a x i m u m in the shaly coal samples (Fig. 6.10). C e and La have similar
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atomic numbers and both are rare earth elements (REE) and are reported to be closely
related (Kendrick, 1985). The light rare earth elements (LREE) are released during the
breakdown of volcanic ash and the preferred host is clay minerals. O n the other hand, the
heavy rare earth elements (HREE) are commonly hydrolysed or bound to organic
complexes and migrate from the partings or tonstein into the coal.
elements in floor samples and low values at the top of the seam. Above A 2 seam is a
related to detrital mineral but not with volcanic ash. The low R b content at the top of the
A 2 seam is in accordance with the previous discussion on the A l seam. Rb, Cs and K are
associated with illite, mica or mixed clays which contain potassium (Rimmer, 1991).
The R-mode dendogram for the X R F data can be divided into four clusters (Figs 6.11 to
6.13):
Group A: This group is divided into two subgroups Al and A2. Subgroup Al show an
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association between ash, mineral matter and silica content as expected and again this is
related to the silicified coals at the top of the seam which always show higher Si0 2
contents. Subgroup A 2 (Rb, K 2 0 and Pb) shows a different pattern with a low level in the
silicified coal zone. This confirms that the silicified coals was formed purely as a result
rocks between A l and A 2 seams and were not the result of water-borne detritus.
The coal immediately below the silicified coal in A2 seam also contains abundant Ni and
Zn that may have been leached from claystone layers. These claystones are not volcanic
ashes deposits but are thought to have been deposited as water-transported sediments.
Group B: Species in this group are characterised by high contents in the coal and this
interpreted as indicating an association with, and probably derived from, organic sulphur
Group C: This group contains Ni, Zn and Zr. Ni is the only element in this group that
shows high values in the silicified coals at the top of the seam. Again Zr contents are
highest at the top of the seam and gradually decrease to the bottom of the seam indicating
that Zr was also derived from leaching of interseam sediment between A l and A 2 .
Group D: This group contains Cu, Ti02, Sr, P2Os, A1203, Y and Nb. Again the close
correlation between the Sr and Sr 2 0 5 suggest that phosphate minerals derived from
volcanic ash m a y have been the source of these entities. The profile of these elements in
the A 2 seam show that the highest concentrations are in the plies above and below the thin
tonstein in A 2 seam. This suggests that the phosphate minerals were derived from
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leachates from the tonstein. Ti02 and A1203 are probably derived from the tonstein as
well. The presence of Cu is not easily explained and may be coincidental, especiall
Bl Seam
The R-mode cluster analysis dendogram based on INAA data for Bl can be divided int
Group A - Rvmax, Cs
association.
Group B: This group is characterised by higher concentrations in the top and botto
of the seam and lower values in the claystone samples. As the roof and floor sedime
K20 in the roof and floor samples (Fig. 6.15) suggest that Rb and K20 have a close
than in the claystones, roof and floor. These elements are organically-bound elemen
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Anomalously high levels of these elements in the lower part of the seam at location A L B 1 2
is thought to reflect the higher abundance of detrovitrinite and other detrital macerals
in the claystones, shaly coal, roof and floor (Figs 6.16 and 6.17). Again, these elements
Group E: This group is characterised by extremely low concentrations and this may be the
The R-mode dendogram and vertical profiles (Figs 6.18 to 6.20) using XRF data show a
B2 Seam
A smaller number of samples were analysed for B 2 seam than for the other seams. The
preliminary results obtained show a similar pattern to that for Bl seam (Figs 6.21 to 6.24).
Q-mode analysis is used to analyse the clustering of samples rather than the clustering of
properties of the samples. Thus if Q-mode analyses is applied to samples from one seam,
it shows the relationships or correlations between the samples, for this study ply samples,
Q mode analysis (Fig. 6.25) was applied to samples from seven localities for Al seam (in
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Airlaya-ALAl, Suban-SBAl and Muara Tiga Selatan-MSAl), two localities for A 2 seam
(Airlaya-ALA2, and Suban-SBA2) and two localities for Bl seam (Airlaya-ALBl and
Suban-SBBl).
Al Seam
The Q-mode dendogram for A l seam gave four groups with some of the groups as
expected given that the sample population includes samples of coal, shaly coal, tonsteins
and claystones.
Group A: This group is dominated by the shaly coal/tonstein/ claystone samples. Inc
in this group are samples from the roof of the seam, the floor of the seam, the three
tonsteins, and the coaly shale immediately below the roof and above the floor. One
subgroup of clean coals is included in the group and there is no apparent geological reason
for this.
Group B: This group comprises samples that have extremely low ash (subgroups 8, 9,10
11 and 12) but the samples did not always come from the same strata. This indicates that
the samples from different strata sometimes have similar chemical constituents, regardless
The samples in Group B are commonly samples from near the intrusions and samples tha
Group C: This group consist of samples that contain relatively high amounts of ash.
are several subgroups in this group. S o m e samples in some of the subgroups can be
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correlated with each other laterally. These samples commonly c o m e from the coaly shale
under the roof of the seam and a few come from above the floor of the seam in the
Group D: This group contains coal samples that have 6-15% ash content and which come
from the 10 centimetre ply immediately below and above the tonsteins, and some shaly
Although the Q mode analysis distinguished between different types of samples, it did no
distinguish between samples from different seams and different claystone and tonstein
layers.
R m o d e analysis of data combining macerals, major oxides and trace elements in coal
samples shows that there appears to be little correlation between specific elements and
specific macerals (Fig. 6.26). The macerals commonly cluster in groups 3 and 4 whereas
the elements and oxides cluster in groups 1, 2 and 3. In a few cases, some macerals are
in the same cluster with elements or major oxides; only two correlations are apparent:
fluorinite with M n 0 4 .
However these relationships are doubtful because both the macerals and the
oxides/elements have such low concentrations and any association m a y not be real, only
6.6 DISCUSSION
Bouska (1981) states that elements in ash from combusted coal are derived from the
original plants (primary ash matter), minerals admixed with the coal as water- and wi
circulating waters and bound to the organic matter during coalification (mainly from
overlying clastic beds, tectonic fractures and basin margins) and elements derived f
igneous intrusions. It is probably that for the Bukit Asam coals, elements were deri
One of the factors controlling the behaviour of elements in water is the ionic poten
which is the ratio of the charge of the ion and ionic radii (Mason, 1966). By compari
the ionic charge of the elements and ionic radii, Mason divided the elements into th
i. the first group contains the elements with low ionic potential; in aqueous soluti
they form soluble anions; included in this group are the alkali metal elements Li,
Na, K, Rb, Cs and some of Group IIIA elements, Ba, Sr, and Mn;
ii. the second group contains elements that have moderately high ionic potential and
which are deposited as hydrolysates; included in this group are the REE, Sc, Fe,
Ga, Al, Mg, Be, Th, U, Zr, Ti, Mn, Nb, Ta, V and Si; and,
iii. the last group contains elements which have high ionic potential and form solub
complex anions.
During leaching, the soluble cations remains in solution and are easily mobilised. T
explains the low concentration of Rb, K and Cs in the tonsteins as these are mobile
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elements.
Elements that form hydrolysates are the most inert or immobile elements because the
hydrated ion is precipitated from solution. This explains the high contents of Ti0 2 , A 1 2 0 3
and G a in the tonstein. Other elements in this group, such as N b , Y , Zr and also T h and
U , should be immobile but, according to Goodal (1983) the low p H of the mire water and
possibly water percolating through the coal seam mobilises the elements and they are
The abundant Rb, K, Cs in the roof and shaly coals at the top of the seams is probably
caused by the presence of K-rich clay clastic minerals such as mixed layer clays or illite.
Lyons et al. (1989) studied the elemental associations with vitrinite in a number of
American, English and Australian coals and stated that a number of elements are in
"dominantly inorganic association" in all coals; the elements were Al, A s , C o , Cs, Cu,
Fe, Hf, La, M g , Ni, Si, Ti, T h and Yb. They stated that quartz and low-temperature ash
correlate with the elements Al, Cs, M g and Si. Low-temperature ash was associated with
Rb and illite was correlated with all the above-mentioned elements except M g , Cr, G a , K ,
Ni, and Pb. Kaolinite was associated with Al, Cs, Ni and R b plus the rare earth elements
Yb, Lu, H f and Sc. Thus their study supports the clay-Rb-K-Cs hypothesis although they
The high concentrations of the elements Nb, Zr, Y, Th and U in intervals immediately
above and below the tonsteins indicates that the tonsteins initially contained high levels of
these elements. Ruppert and M o o r e (1993) showed that the composition of the volcanic
ash in tonstein from East Kalimantan contains a high proportion of zircon and blue
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luminescence quartz. The claystone also contained groupen or pelletic textures which are
characteristics of the tonsteins in the Bukit A s a m coals. Probably, the composition of the
ash-fall detritus in Bukit A s a m was not very different from ash that formed the East
Kalimantan tonsteins.
Sr, Ba, Zn, Le, Ca and Na form soluble cations but the ionic potentials of these elemen
are somewhat higher than that of the alkali metal groups. These elements are also probably
mobilised and deposited in the coal. Alternatively these elements m a y have been inherently
bound by humic acid when the peatification process was taking place although in eh case
of Ba. Finkelman (1995) stated that the abundance of B a minerals indicates this element
is dominantly associated with the inorganic components of most high rank coals but the
leachibility of Ba in low rank coals indicates that substantial amounts of B a are organically
bound.
Goodarzi (1995b) studies the relationship between the trace element distribution and th
affect of heat on coal due to an intrusion (a dyke). H e found that three groups of
elements:
i. elements that appear to undergo progressive depletion towards the dyke from the
ii. elements that show a sudden increase in concentration near the outer edge of altered
coal zone and then decrease somewhat erratically towards the contact; and
iii. elements that seem little affected distant from the contact but rapidly increase near
The first group of elements were thought to be organically bound elements and hence wit
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loss of organic matter due to the heating process, the elemental concentration decreases.
The explanation for the second group of elements is that the elements are mobilised and
migrate in fluids as a result of the heating process, and accumulate in the porous coke
which acts as a trap for these elements. The third group or elements are associated with
sulphides such as pyrite. A s these sulphides decompose as a result of the heating, the trace
The trends found by Goodarzi were not found in the suite of samples studied here. The
heated samples of Bukit A s a m coal were taken from localities some distance from the
intrusion and had not been heated to the same degree as some of those studied by
Goodarzi. The main reason for variations in the major oxide and trace element
concentrations in the heated samples from Bukit Asam, compared to the unheated samples,
is due to the introduction of minerals to the heated coals such as quartz, calcite. Given the
close association of C a and Ba, as shown by the substitution of C a by Ba, the increased
6.7 SUMMARY
In Bukit A s a m coal, the major oxide and trace element composition is closely linked to the
mineral content of the samples with some variation associated with the effects of the
intrusions. In unheated samples the major oxides are dominated by Si0 2 , A 1 2 0 3 and F e 2 0 3
and this is a function of the quartz and clay mineral, principally kaolinite, content. The
Si0 2 and A 1 2 0 3 contents are m u c h higher in slightly-heated coal than in unheated coal and
the resultant precipitation of secondary quartz and possibly secondary clay minerals. In the
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strongly-heated coals, the Si0 2 , A 1 2 0 3 and Fe20 3 contents are less than those in the
slightly-heated coals but significantly more than in the unheated samples. T h e overall trend
petrographic observations which calcite and quartz in the heated samples are higher than
in the
unheated samples. R-mode cluster analysis confirms the petrographic observations that
Si0 2 content is related to the quartz content and other silicates minerals.
The CaO content is highest in coals that have been heated reflecting the presence of
The present study indicates that the trace element content, given by MCS Consultants
(1978) in their preliminary study of only one sample, is commonly m u c h lower than the
results of this study. Vertical distribution graphs of the various trace elements also indicate
that the trace element content is mainly determined the abundance of mineral matter in the
seams.
Vertical trace element distribution graphs also show that Rb, Cs and K are most likely
derived from detrital clay (K-rich clay or mixed clay) but have been leached from the
mineral-rich claystone (tonstein) layers and redeposited in the coal. Y , Zr, N b , T h and to
a lesser extent Sb, H f and U have also been mobilised from the tonsteins during
coalification stage and were redeposited in the coal plies immediately above and below the
claystone layers.
Ti, and sometimes Ga, are immobile elements and were resistant to peat-water leaching
207
after the deposition of volcanic ash. The elements Ba, Sr and to a lesser extent Z n and Pb,
Cluster analysis does not show any significant relationships between element concentrat
CHAPTER SEVEN
COAL QUALITY AND UTILISATION
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In Indonesia, coal is mostly used as a raw material for direct combustion, either for s
generation in power plants or direct firing of furnaces for the cement industry. Sulist
(1990) reported that the highest proportion of domestic coal consumption is mainly for
electricity generation (67.1 %) and the cement industry (31 %); other uses only constit
In the early part of the next century, as cheap coal utilisation technologies are devel
in Indonesia, the proportion of "other uses" is expected to be higher, for example, the
petrochemical industry, liquefaction and domestic residential uses of coal are likely t
relating to liquefaction has been carried out in recent times (Daulay, pers. com., 1996)
However, a pilot factory for coal briquetting, mostly for residential use, has been
Bukit Asam mines contribute 4,203,000 tonnes annually or 32.9% of the total coal
production of Indonesia (Mangunwijaya, 1992) and this compares favourably with other
Sumatran coals. The Bukit Asam coal is mostly used for steam generation and as fuel for
the cement industry. The main consumer of Bukit Asam coal is Perusahaan Umum Listrik
Negara or the State Electricity Company (PLN) which use the coal in the Suralaya power
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station, West Java (4 x 400 M W and with an extension of 3 x 600 M W capacity) and the
production) is projected to be exported in future years but this will only be 6.5% of the
total Indonesian coal exports. This is despite the present coal exports from South Sumatra
being quite small with the export destination mainly Malaysia with small amounts to Japan
(Syafrizal and Esmara, 1992). The small share that Bukit A s a m coal contributes to total
Indonesian coal exports could be increased markedly. Additional markets could be obtained
and possible utilisation of Bukit A s a m coals is essential if these marketing proposals are
to be realised.
The performance of coal can be predicted from the chemical and physical properties wi
combustion. In recent times, coal combustion technologies have been biased towards
pulverised coal andfluidisedbed combustion. Use of coal either for pulverised coal or
fluidised bed firing requires assessment of the coal before firing so that combustion
performance, furnace heat transfer, pollutant formation and fly ash collection can be
predicted. The chemical and physical properties are the important criteria for this
assessment. However, laboratory tests only indicate the potential performance of the coal
and obviously large scale tests are necessary if the coals are not to cause problems during
scaled up combustion.
Tests for combustion performance are commonly the proximate and ultimate analyses and
major oxides. These tests are required to predict the slagging or fouling potential in the
Coal petrology is also an important test which can be used to predict the performance of
coal during combustion. Coal with a high inertinite content has a lower degree of
efficiency in combustion; the inert macerals persist in the flame in a semi-reacted form
(Nandi et al, 1977; Sanyal, 1983). This is not the case for high vitrinite-low inertinite
For carbonisation studies, beside the dilatation (swelling properties) and volatile con
tests (rank), organic petrography is an important tool for analysing the composition of the
liquefaction studies. Davis et al. (1976) and Cudmore (1977) showed the importance of
organic petrology in coal conversion studies. They indicated that the highest conversion
rates of coal to liquids and gases are obtained from coal where the vitrinite reflectance is
less than 0.8% and where the coal contains mostly reactive macerals. Important parameters
Daulay (1994) stated that, based on coal liquefaction experiments, liptinite content is
The mineral matter in coal also strongly influences the performance of coal during
surfaces (fouling). T h e deposition of mineral matter on the wall of the boiler results in a
212
decrease in the heating efficiencies and to that end, increases the mainten
plants, especially in Java, the most density populated island. In some Thir
countries, coal has been regarded as a dusty, dirty fuel with emissions imp
control. However, the recent development of clean coal technology with rega
desulphurisation (FGD) and fluidised bed combustion, combined with the use
and low sulphur coals, offers a solution for relatively clean, pollutant-fr
combustion.
For combustion purposes, the Bukit Asam coal has a low ash content and a lo
content and is therefore a good candidate for a clean coal combustion feeds
content can be improved with selected mining if needed as the highest contr
in Bukit Asam coal is the claystone of volcanic origin (tonsteins). The low
sulphur also makes this coal a potential raw material for a petrochemical i
In this chapter, the discussion will focus on the utilisation of Bukit Asam
used.
of light organic compounds (volatile matter) versus the non-volatile organic material (fixed
carbon). The moisture content of the coal and the inorganic components remaining after
the coal is burned (the ash) are also measured. In low rank coal, volatile matter is a very
important measure because it reflects the hydrogen and carbon contents of the coal and is
an indicator of rank.
A summary of the proximate analysis data for unheated Bukit Asam coal, provided by PT.
Bukit A s a m (1994), is given in Table 7.1 and detailed analyses are given in Appendix 5.6.
Table 7.1 shows that the overall average volatile matter for all seams at Bukit A s a m coal
is 47.1 % (adb),fixedcarbon is 49.45% (adb) and ash is 5.6% (adb). The striking feature
of the data is the similar mean values and range of values for the above parameters for all
seams, indicating that the coals in all seams can be used without significant changes to
seam properties means that more than one seam can be mined at once and the coal can be
The average gross calorific value for unheated coal is 7096 kcal/kg and there is no
substantial difference in values between seams (Table 7.1). M C S Consultants (1980) gave
slightly higher values for the calorific value (Table 7.2) because their report included the
data for heated coals. Based on these chemical data, Bukit A s a m coal is included in the
(1982) and this is consistent with the rank as assessed by vitrinite reflectance. T h e thermal
quality. The unheated coal ( R ^ a x less than 0.5%) has a volatile content of more than
214
4 5 % (adb), the slightly-heated coal ( R ^ a x of 0.6% to 1.1%) has an volatile content of
has a volatile content as low as 1 2 % (adb). Compared to Victorian brown coal, Australia
(which has moisture = 60.1%, ash = 1.3%, volatile matter = 4 9 . 4 % (all daf), C =
69.4%, H = 4.9%, O = 24.8%, N = 0.6% and S = 0.3%), the Bukit A s a m coals have
a higher rank. The ash and sulphur contents of the Bukit A s a m are slightly higher than
The sulphur content is very low with an average of 0.52% (range of 0.12 to 1.92%). MCS
Consultants (1980) also gave similar results stating that the sulphur content was 0.6%. The
Geological Survey Indonesia gave a similar result, 0.51 %. Kinhill-Ottogold Joint Venture
(1986) reported that the sulphur is dominantly organic sulphur with minor sulphide and
framboidal pyrite that is concentrated in the top or the bottom of the seam, especially in
the A l seam.
The ultimate analysis gives the percentages of the elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
sulphur and oxygen, regardless of the origin. Oxygen is usually estimated by difference.
The sulphur content given is the total sulphur present in the coal, regardless of the form
The carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen contents are very important parameters as they are
very useful for assessing the coking, gasification and liquefaction properties of a coal
whereas the nitrogen and sulphur contents indicate possible sources of pollution when the
215
coal is burned. Typical ultimate analyses for Bukit A s a m coal can be seen in Table 7.3
which is taken from the report by M C S Consultants, (1980). The table shows:
Vitrinite reflectance is a measure of the percentage of incident light that is reflected from
a polished surface of the vitrinite macerals. Vitrinite reflectance is a measure of the degree
The vitrinite reflectance of Bukit Asam coals ranges from 0.35 to 2.7%. This range
values for the coals from non-heated areas and a reflectance range from 0.6 to 2 . 7 % which
represents values from coals that have been heated by igneous intrusions.
The petrographic composition of coals has long been used as a performance indicator of
coals during combustion. In low rank coal, liptinite has a higher hydrogen content
compared to vitrinite and inertinite. Below the rank of medium volatile bituminous coal
(volatile matter > 3 0 % ) liptinite is relatively stable, but at ranks above medium volatile
216
bituminous coal the liptinite changes rapidly. This stage is known as the coalification
gas. Liptinite is the most reactive of the macerals in response to temperature changes.
Vitrinite also contains relatively high hydrogen and is also highly reactive. In contra
inertinite has low hydrogen contents but a higher oxygen content than the other two
macerals group. It behaves differently during combustion; it is less reactive and takes
Bukit Asam coal contains on average of 88.6% vitrinite and 4.7% liptinite with minor
inertinite (4.3%) and mineral matter (2.1 %); the latter is mostly clay minerals and qu
Steaming coal (or thermal coal) has different specifications to coking coals. For steam
coal the higher the proportion of reactive macerals and the lower inertinite content, t
greater the ease of ignition and combustion efficiency. For coking coal it is desirable
the rank be that of medium volatile bituminous, that is, an Ryinax no higher than 1.35%
and not less than 0.8%. Optimal coke strength depends on the proportion of inert
macerals.
Some of the heated Bukit Asam coal has reflectance values within this range but the tot
reserves of coal with these specifications is probably not large and as yet are not wel
defined. Thus it is unlikely, on these grounds alone, that Bukit Asam coal will not be
targeted as a coking coal. In addition, Bukit Asam coal has a low inertinite content,
medium calorific value and a high proportion of reactive macerals (vitrinite and liptin
suggesting that use as coking coals is minimal. The slightly-heated coal with 20 to 30%
volatile matter and an ^max of 1.1 to 1.5% may be suitable as a feedstock for blending
purposes with other high inertinite coals to produce strong cokes. The heated coal of
217
semi-anthracite rank (Rymax > 2 % ) has very low volatile matter, poor swelling indices
and can probably only be used for combustion. Coal with a low reflectance (Ryinax <
0.5%) also has a similar problem if considered as a coking coal as it does not swell during
Mineral matter occurs as inherent mineral matter (that is, mineral matter that is inherently
part of the plant matter), as syngenetic mineral matter (mineral matter that enters the coal
system during the sedimentary processes in the peat stage) and epigenetic mineral matter
(mineral matter that enters the coal system during the coalification process). In most coals
mineral matter is commonly clay minerals, pyrite, quartz, calcite and siderite minerals.
In the combustion process, the different minerals interact with each other and form new
materials with various properties. Most mineral matter is transformed into ash and gas
emissions (SOx, N O x , and trace elements emission). The ash includes bottom ash that is
deposited in the burner and fly ash that is discharged with other flue gases. Fly ash
The fate of mineral matter in the combustion process, to a certain degree, can be predic
from the composition of the coal and other tests. T h e major elemental composition,
together with the ash fusion temperature data of ash, are valuable indices for predicting
the slagging and fouling properties. The ultimate analysis can be used to calculate the air
required to burn the coal and to predict the emission gas composition and concentration.
218
The elemental content of ash represents the elemental composition of the residue after
burning. The average concentrations in a seam depends on the ash content of each ply.
The ash content and the major element content of each of the Bukit A s a m seams (thickness
The ash content in ply samples from Bukit Asam is not generally evenly distribute
claystone (tonsteins) and the shaly coals at the top and the bottom of the seams would
contribute a considerable fraction of the average ash content for the whole seam if mined.
For example, at location A L A 12, the claystone and shaly coals contribute 52.6% of the
average ash content in A l seam where the average for the seam is 7.3% (Fig. 7.1).
example Cd, Cu, Pb, M n , As, Ni, Se, U , Th and Zn. The average value of these elements
Cu content ranges from 42.2 to 52.3 p p m with an average between seam is 45.8
ppm,
concentration in sample ALB1210 (443 ppm) in the lower part of the seam. The reason
for this very high value is not known and may be due experimental error. There is no
pyrite in this sample and the mineral matter content also low (1.2%), suggesting
7.3.1 Combustion
Combustion is a series of exothermic reactions, between the fuel and oxygen in the air at
air supply to the fuel bed, adequate turbulence and an optimum temperature (Ward, 1982).
The efficiency of combustion depends on the rate and the concurrent burning of volatile
matter and carbonaceous residues (char) during heating. The rate of air inflow and other
conditions can be adjusted to ensure that the volatile matter and the char are burned both
rapidly and simultaneously. The burning efficiency can be checked by analysing the flue
Two forms of combustion techniques are generally used, solid coal combustion and
pulverised fuel combustion. Solid coal combustion is combustion of coal using a bed of
granular or grated coal. Air is passed through the bed of crushed and grated coal. The
thickness of the bed and the permeability of the bed are the most important factors
determining combustion efficiency. A thick bed does not allow the oxygen to freely react
with the fuel, resulting in a low burning efficiency. If the bed is too thin, the air passes
too rapidly through the bed and some of the fuel may not react effectively with the
oxygen. The swelling or caking properties of the coal influence the permeability of the
bed. A strong caking coal forms a massive bed that lacks fissures or porosity for the air
220
to pass through. A low caking coal allows more air to pass through therefore resulting in
more efficient burning. In some stoker combustion techniques, a low ash coal should be
into a furnace with special burners that produce turbulent flow. T h e turbulent flow ensures
efficient and rapid combustion. The pulverised coal combustion is more commonly used
for electricity generation. The Suralaya power station uses this method of combustion in
its furnaces. For this reason the discussion on predictions of the use of Bukit A s a m coals
The performance of coals as a pulverised fuel should be assessed from several aspects
order to make the production costs as low as possible. After the mining phase and prior
to burning, coal passes through several stages: stockpiling, transportation, pulverising and
transportation to the burner. M a n y problems arise regarding the quality and handling of
A. Handling
In the stockpiling and transportation phases there are some aspects that should be
considered. The moisture content of the coal should be known as it strongly influences the
total weight of the coal. This information is needed in the transportation planning stage.
In a stockpile, coal reacts with oxygen in the free air and this may bring about a
deterioration in the quality of the coal. The finer the grain size of the coal, the more
221
( < 2 m m ) should not exceed 3 0 % (Queensland Coal Board, 1990). If the temperature in
the stockpile reaches the ignition temperature of the coal and the oxygen has free access,
occurs when the temperature reaches 120 to 170°C and after a certain threshold time that
the coal has been exposed to the free oxygen. Spontaneous combustion m a y be prevented
by controlling the surface temperature and, as far as possible, minimising the contact of
the coal with the free oxygen. Pyrite in the coal also promotes the spontaneous combustion
in that when the pyrite oxidises, not only is it an exothermic reaction, it forms an F e
hydrate and this fractures the coal grains. Cracking the coal grains means the surface area
is increased and therefore the grain is more prone to react with oxygen. The temperature
Another problem commonly arises if clay minerals are present in claystone or the roof an
floor. A n y rocks that are rich in montmorillonite are subject to shrinkage and swelling if
the humidity changes (Ward, 1982). This may lead the undesirable breakage of the coal
In the presence of water, montmorillonite tends to cover clean coal grains with a film
is very difficult to clean, and to this the end, it influences the performance of the boiler.
Combined with a high moisture content, clay minerals m a y become sticky and then the
coal does not flow readily during transportation. This "sticky" material tends to block
screens and hoppers and also adheres to the conveyor belt. This problem had been
reported by the Indonesian Cement Association (1993) when trialing coals from Bukit
Asam. The coals were probably from the A l seam as it contains several distinct tuffaceous
222
claystones or "dirtbands". However, X R D analysis of the claystones in the A 1 seam at
Bukit A s a m show they contains quartz and kaolinite; kaolinite is not as detrimental as
needed.
abrasive, either in the pulveriser or in the flue gas passages of the boiler.
Despite the abundance of quartz in several plies in the Bukit Asam seams, selective
can effectively remove most of the quartz and this will result in m u c h less severe problems
with handling as the total mineral content in other plies is mostly less than 5 % .
B. Milling
Coal from the mining site has to be pulverised until 75 to 8 0 % of it passes through a 75
urn (micrometre) screen prior to being conveyed to the burner. There are two major
aspects that should be considered in the pulveriser - the moisture content and the hardness
The hardness of the coal should be tested as the long term efficiency of the pulveri
depends on the hardness of the coal. A hard coal generally requires more individual
pulveriser units to produce the same tonnage of pulverised fuel than a soft coal. The
hardness test of a coal is commonly the Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI) which uses
a scale from 13 to > 100. A high H G I value indicates that the coal is easy to grind (soft)
The hardness of coal is known to be influenced by the liptinite content and mineral content
(Nandi et al., 1977; Daulay, 1994). Liptinite commonly concentrates in the coarse fraction
of the pulverised coal whereas vitrinite and inertinite are in thefinerparticles fraction. A
coal with a high liptinite content commonly has lower H G I values (hard) whereas coal with
a higher mineral matter content, depending on the mineral species, m a y have a higher H G I
(soft).
The moisture content should not vary to any great extent and should be low. The
Coal Board, 1990). In the pulveriser, the coal can be dried by mixing it with a primary
air stream.
The HGI of Bukit Asam coals is 60 to 65 (adb) - (MCS Consultant, 1980). The moisture
content (total moisture content) ranges from 3.5 to 2 6 . 5 % with an average 19.5% for A l
18.4% for Bl seam and 2 to 2 8 . 3 % with an average of 20.04% for B 2 seam (Geological
Survey Indonesia, 1978). Thus as far as grindability, Bukit A s a m coal is not likely to have
The liptinite content of Bukit Asam coal is not excessively high and rarely exceeds
therefore should not influence the H G I greatly. The high liptinite content in some ply
commonly present in cleats or infills bedding plane fractures. Therefore, it probably does
not influence the H G I values as much as if the exsudatinite was discrete particles because
the difference in properties between the exsudatinite and enclosing macerals would
224
probably create a plane of weakness along the fracture surface and this would facilitate
crushing. Given the moisture and maceral contents, Bukit A s a m coals are not likely to
have any significant problems in a pulveriser and on this basis should be a good feedstock
C. Boiler Considerations
Moisture content of coal influences the combustion efficiency. A coal with a high moisture
content produces more water vapour and inert flue gas when combusted (Allardice and
Newell, 1991). Moisture and rank influence the flame temperature in the boiler. This
needs to be accommodated by modifying the boiler design. St Baker and Juniper (1982)
suggested that for sub-bituminous coal, the boiler should be 1.1 times higher than a boiler
used for bituminous coal in order to produce similar amounts of energy. The taller boiler
is intended to provide an adequate surface area for radiant heat transfer in the furnace
average run-of-mine total moisture for all seams is likely to be approximately 2 0 % , and
Calorific value is the energy or heat liberated during the combustion of coal. Calorif
value is one property of a coal that determines the m a x i m u m temperature that can be
reached in the furnace. The effective energy decreases as ash increases and as moisture
content increases. Commonly, the calorific value is presented as the gross calorific value
which is determined from laboratory tests. In the laboratory test, the combusted gas and
moisture are allowed to condense after combustion. A s a result, the calorific value given
is a higher value than the actual value in the burner. In the actual combustion process, all
material is burnt freely to the atmosphere. This lower value is called the net calorific value
225
M l is inherent moisture.
W is total moisture, taking into account the effect of ash content, that is,
For Bukit Asam coal the average net specific energy is 5350 kcal/kg whereas the gross
calorific is 7000 kcal/kg where the coal has 2 0 % total moisture ( M C S Consultants, 1980);
the net calorific values range from 4700 to 5,500 kcal/kg (Geological Survey Indonesia,
1978).
The fuel ratio is the proportion of heavy hydrocarbon fractions (fixed carbon) to the
fractions (volatile matter) and is a measure of the ease of ignition and burn out. In low
rank coal, the volatile matter is more useful for predicting the ease of ignition. The fuel
ratio also influences the N O x formation (Edgar, 1982). Higher volatile coal produces a
indicating that this coal is likely to be less reactive during combustion compared to the
unheated coal.
Organic petrology provides valuable information on coal and can be used as a combustion
226
performance predictor (Ramsden and Shibaoka, 1979). Ramsden and Shibaoka found that:
iii. vitrinite-rich particles have higher burn off rates than fusinite-rich particles;
This finding was confirmed by Sanyal (1983) who suggested that the high inertinite co
was responsible for a slower rate of combustion, thus contributing to less efficient h
transfer in the lower portion of the furnace and with the upper regions of the furnac
experiencing correspondingly higher temperatures as the particle bum out was complete
in that region of the furnace. Nandi et al (1977) also confirmed that inert macerals w
found to persist through the flame in a partially-reacted form. He also suggested tha
Ultimate analysis data provide the percentages of the elements in a coal regardless o
origin of the elements. The elemental analysis is required to calculate of the theoret
(stoichiometric) air requirements and the volume and composition of the products of
combustion.
The calculation of the theoretical air requirement for the Bukit Asam coal and the vo
The theoretical volume of air needed to burn 100 kg of the Bukit Asam coal (
6.4% ash and 8.3% inherent moisture is calculated, taking average values for
using the ultimate analysis data as given by MCS Consultants (1980). Given t
small differences in the values on a seam by seam basis, the calculated valu
For a coal of 6.4% ash and 8.3% inherent moisture, the mass of air required is
10
- 24 ** air x 85
- 3 ** ** coal = 8.73 kg airlkg coal
kg daf coal 100 kg coal
When 100 kg (daf) of Bukit Asam coal is fired with 20% excess air the flue gas
kmole %vol
C 0 2 (+S0 2 ) 6.47 15.70
o2 1.47 3.57
N2 33.27 80.73
Total 41.21 100
The Orset analysis can be used to back-calculate the excess air as given below
H20 and dew point of the flue gas can be estimated on the basis of 100 kmoles
Total 19.27
21 kmol Oo
80.73 kmol N2 x — ?- = 21.46
2
79 kmol N2
^^ x 100% = 19.95%
21.46 - 3.57*
* Note that an Orset analysis producing CO would reduce this value by the amou
The kmoles of 02 associated as H20 must be balanced between the 02 used and that
2.19 x 2 = 4.38 kmole H20/kmole dry flue gas (moles H20 are formed for each mol
O,).
230
4. Fuel Composition
From an Orset analysis of the flue gas, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen in the fuel can be
estimated. For coal, this calculation is in error due to sulphur and nitrogen in
From the previous calculation, the mass of carbon and hydrogen in the fuel can be
estimated as:
Source kg
c From C 0 2 , which includes S 0 2 and will 15.70 x 12 = 188.4
therefore be an overestimate
(95.55%)
H From H 2 0 4.38 x 2 = 8.76
(4.45%)
5. Pollutants Emission
Potential pollutant emissions include the dust burden or fly ash and SOx and NO
a. Dust Burden
For a coal with 6.4% ash and 8.3% inherent moisture, the dust burden at any T
be estimated as:
This uncontrolled dust burden will be reduced by 20% in most furnaces due to r
b. Sulphur Oxides
or as a volume fraction = 318 ppm = 318 ug/g, on the assumption that in low ra
70% of the total sulphur is given off from a large scale boiler as SOx (Kiss, 1
This value can be converted to 909.5 mg/Nm3 (using a conversion factor of 1 ppm
(volume fraction) = 2.86 mg/Nm3; IEA Coal Research, 1991). The value represents
uncontrolled SOx emissions. The emission from the stack can be reduced by prov
c. Nitrogen Oxides
The NOx is estimated on the assumption that 25% of fuel N is converted to NOx:
(using a conversion factor of 1 ppm = 2.05 mg/Nm3, IEA Coal Research, 1991).
However, the NOx emission is not only dependent on the N content of the coal, it is
temperature and oxygen availability in the boiler. The NOx emission can be reduced
modifying the combustion system such as decreasing the combustion temperature, red
the oxygen supply and delaying the time of combustion (Ward, 1982; Sullivan, 1993).
b. Boiler Deposits
Two types of deposits are produced from mineral matter in the coal during boiler
This causes problems such as closure of burners and de-rating of the boiler capaci
to inefficiencies.
233
2. Fouling is the uncontrolled build up of ash deposits in the convection passages of the
boiler. This causes reduced boiler efficiency due to a fall in steam temperature and a rise
Traditionally, slagging and fouling can be estimated from several parameters that use a
composition data. C o m m o n predictors are the Base/Acid Ratio, Slagging Index and
Fouling Index. These indices are used by many manufacturers and operators but they do
not always give satisfactory predictions for some applications. The ash fusion temperature,
for example, commonly gives higher deformation temperatures due to the different
The ash fusion temperature or ash fusibility is intended to assess the behaviour of a
mixture of mineral compounds, that is, a multicomponent system in which each mineral
has a different melting point (Borio and Lavasseur, 1986). The test is carried out by
temperature, each ash cone starts to deform indicating the lower melting points of some
of the components in the ash. A s the temperature increases, more ash components melt and
mix with the unmelted components. The ash fusion temperature is given as a three stage
temperature: the temperatures when the ash first deforms, the temperature when the ash
forms a hemisphere and the temperature when the ash has completely melted.
Significant sintering in boilers can occur far below the first deformation temperature
and Narcisco, 1978). This is a result of the difference between the time/temperature
history in the laboratory test and the actual time/temperature relationships in the boiler.
234
The composition of laboratory-analysed sinter m a y be different to the actual sinter that
adheres to the boiler or adheres to the boiler wall. The melting point of the sinter on the
boiler wall m a y be lower than the melting point of ash in a laboratory vessel.
Ash viscosity also suffers similar problems as the ash fusion test. Sintering occurs f
before the fluid state temperature and happens when particle to particle bonding occurs at
The Base/Acid Ratio is used as an indicator of the ash behaviour. It is related to the
softening temperature. Normally low melting ash has an Base/Acid Ratio between 0.4 to
However, with regard to slagging and fouling behaviour, it has a similar predictability
The Fe/Ca ratio assesses the contribution of the two components of ash regardless of t
other components in the ash. This ratio gives less accurate predictions for fouling and
slagging because the ratio m a y conceal the actual content of each component. For example
if a Fe/Ca ratio is 0.66 this can be derived from an iron content of 0.66 or 66, if the
corresponding C a is 0.99 or 99. The two ashes will perform differently in the boiler,
despite the same Fe/Ca ratio because of the different in the absolute quantity of Fe and Ca.
Slagging and fouling indices commonly are based on specified ash constituent ratios an
are corrected for sulphur content or alkaline metal content. This improves the predictor
potential as the special deleterious effects of Fe and sulphur are recognised and are
therefore taken into account in the Slagging Index calculation. Schneider (1980) proposed
235
that forms of Si02 that have higher melting points, should be also recognised because they
The Queensland Coal Board (1990) gave a summary of various parameters and the scales
used (Table 7.5). These parameters are calculated for the Bukit A s a m coals and the values
given in Table 7.6. The viscosity of the molten slag during combustion is also an
Each oxide behaves differently during combustion. There are some key oxides that
strongly influence the slagging behaviour due to their relatively lower melting point than
i. Altmann (1986) stated that coal with high A 1 2 0 3 and low S 0 3 or coal with high
ii. Borio and Lavasseur (1986) stated that Fe and N a are the components that are
low.
iv. Schneider (1980) showed that sand particles (mainly S i O ^ maintain their shape in
the combustion chamber; the shape only changes a minor amount and then only
along the edges of the particles, whereas other ash particle fuse to form glassy
spheres.
Based on the work of Schneider (1980) and others, Altmann (1986) proposed a method
for predicting slagging and fouling behaviour by normalising the relatively inert Si0 2
content. The Si0 2 is corrected by multiplying with the F e ^ content as this component
236
melts at a lower temperature, and therefore earlier in the combustion process, to form
molten slag. This initiates the impingement of other components of ash including Si02.
Based on the average oxide content of the ashes, a calculation of the slagging and fo
indices for coals from the Bukit A s a m seams have been made (Table 7.6). Calculations for
the method proposed by Altmann (1986) were also done and are summarised in Table 7.7.
The calculations show that the Bukit A s a m coals are prone to slagging and fouling in
combustion chambers. However, the propensity for slagging and fouling is not constant
1. The ash fusion temperature data for A2 seam, are below the medium to low slagging
The ashes from A l , Bl and B 2 seams have higher ash fusion temperatures indicating low
2. The Base/Acid Ratios for Al, A2 and Bl seams are < 0.4 whereas that for B2 seam
is only slightly higher at 0.43. Coals with a potential for slagging have base/acid ratios
between 0.4 and 0.7 and therefore Bukit A s a m coal must be considered to have minimal
3. The T250 temperature index was designed to predict the temperature when the molten
slag reach 250 poise (Ward, 1982) with an upper threshold value of 1275°C; coals with
temperature above this tend to deposit molten ash on boiler walls. Coals from all Bukit
Asam seams have high T ^ Q temperature (above 1275°C) indicating low slagging
237
propensity.
4. Using the iron-calcium ratio, coals with values between 0.3 and 3.0 are indicative
high slagging tendencies. Bukit A s a m coal has an iron/calcium ratio within this range and
5. The Slagging Index is calculated from the ash fusion temperature data and is desig
for lignite where the ash contains Fe^Oj < [CaO + M g O ] . The slagging indices of the
Bukit Asam coals indicates that most have a low to medium tendency to produce slag
(indices of > 1150) in the boiler except A 2 seam which has a lower Slagging Index ( <
1150) and therefore a greater tendency to slagging. Using the slagging factor, which is
used preferentially for bituminous coal in which the ash contains higher F e ^ than the
sum of C a O and M g O , the coal from the Bukit Asam seams has a low slagging propensity.
6. The Fouling Factor is the product of the Basic/Acid ratio and the NajO content of
ash. The Bukit A s a m coals mostly have a relatively high propensity for fouling with values
above 0.63, except the coal from Bl seam which has a Fouling Factor of 0.18, which are
7. The chlorine data from Geological Survey Indonesia (1978) for all seams are below
8. Calculation of the slagging and fouling propensity using Altmann's method suggests
the Bukit A s a m coals would tend to form deposits in the boiler either in the radiant heat
238
area (slagging) or convection transfer area (fouling).
The inconsistency in results between the methods indicates the problems associated with
predictive indices, an area that is still not fully understood in ash behaviour during
combustion. M o r e recent predictive methods for slagging and fouling properties were
reported by Borio and Lavasseur (1986). They included a correlations for pulverised coal
particles separated by gravity separation, slagging behaviour and discussed the application
of Scanning Electron Microscopy to analyse boiler slag. Borio and Lavasseur also pointed
out the areas of uncertainty in slagging and fouling behaviour. These included:
Unfortunately for Bukit Asam coals, there is no data on gravity separation of pulverised
coal particles and thus the slagging behaviour can only be predicted in this study using the
7.3.3 Carbonisation
is a solid residue that is formed when coal is heated in the absence of air until a substantial
part of the volatile constituents have been driven off. Metallurgical coke is commonly used
for the conversion of iron ore to iron and then steel; a small amount of coke is used in
direct combustion. There are two kinds of carbonisation process: low temperature
thefinalproduct commonly contains ultrafine pores, a reactive char and tar. The coke is
used as a smokeless solid fuel for residential and industrial combustion. The feedstock
commonly is a low rank coal (sub-bituminous to high volatile bituminous coal). The final
coking temperature in the high temperature carbonisation process is greater than 900°C.
The product is a high strength coke for metallurgical use, that is, metal manufacture.
To produce a strong coke there are several requirements of the coking coal. The most
important criteria for a coking coal are rank and type (which relate to swelling properties).
The ability of coal to fuse and form a "cake" is essential. A coal that has a rank that too
low (for example, brown coal) or is too high (very low volatile bituminous coals) does not
cake well and therefore it is not capable of forming a good coke. The optimal rank for
coking coal is medium volatile bituminous coal with a volatile content range from 20 to
between 30 to 4 0 % the coal will produce a soft coke. Where volatile content is below 1 2 %
Coal properties are important when blending coals of different rank for coke making. T
blends of coals m a y have similarfinalvolatile matter values but m a y shows different coke
strengths. A coking coal that is blended from brown coal and anthracite coal will form a
weak coke. Prime coking coal is derived from blending coals that are high to medium
volatile bituminous coal. Stach et al. (1982) stated that the coke formed from 1 0 0 %
The composition of coal (type) also is an important parameter. Vitrinite and liptinite
240
macerals and a proportion of semifusinite macerals are reactive when heated. Most types
of inertinite and semifusinite are inert components during heating. T h e fused components
of the coking coals bind inert components such as inertinite, mineral matter and non-
fusible coal matter together. Coke quality is determined by the rank of the coal as well as
the proportion of inerts and fused (or reactive) components in the coking coals.
Bukit Asam coal has a wide range of ranks. The unheated coal has a vitrinite reflectanc
of 0.35 to 0.5% and a volatile content of greater than 4 5 % ; this coal is definitely a
noncoking coal. Coal that has been slightly heated by an igneous intrusion with a rank
produce soft to hard coke and is therefore suitable as a coking coal if the inert content of
the coal is adequate. However, the strongly-heated coal, with Ryinax 1.9 to 2.7% and a
volatile content of less than 1 2 % is not a good coking coal because of both the rank and
the composition.
The maceral composition of the Bukit Asam coals is dominated by reactive macerals
(vitrinite + liptinite) that comprise up to 9 5 % of the total organic matter. Coal with this
241
proportion of reactives is not a suitable coking coal. Most of the inertinite in Bukit A s a m
coal is semifusinite and it is hard to differentiate from the vitrinite in some samples; it
commonly has only a slightly higher reflectance than that of vitrinite suggesting that is
probably reactive w h e n heated. This results in a very low or negligible amount of truly
inert macerals in the heated coals. T h e slightly-heated coals are commonly located in the
western part of Airlaya mines and in a narrow ring surrounding the Bukit A s a m intrusion
(Fig. 7.4). This coal has a potential as a blend component with a high inertinite coal of
7.3.4 Liquefaction
The conversion of coal into liquid fuels or gas, coal liquefaction, is carried out by adding
hydrogen to the coal. T h e process is basically cracking the complex aromatic compounds
in the coal and collecting the resultant aliphatic compounds which have various
hydrocarbon chain lengths. T h e process is generally carried out under high pressure and
Coal liquefaction can be carried out in two ways (Whitehurst et al, 1980).
and synthesis.
Hydroliquefaction. In this method, the coal is fed into a reactor in the form of a slurry
with a substance such as anthracene oil. T h e mixture is reacted with hydrogen under high
242
pressure and in the presence of catalysts. The hydrogen can either be added as a gas or
donated by a hydrogen-rich solvent which can be recovered after the process. T h e crude
Synthesis (Fischer-Tropsch synthesis). The coal is burned in oxygen and steam, genera
a gas composed mainly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. T h e gas is then purified and
passed over a catalyst to convert the mixture into liquid products ranging from methanol
Pyrolysis (carbonisation). The coal is heated in the absence of air to produce a carb
coke and/or char together with hydrogen-rich oils and gases which are suitable for
upgrading into liquid fuels. This process produces a m a x i m u m of 3 5 % liquid fuel using
pilot-scale plants.
Comparing the three methods, hydroliquefaction is the more preferable over pyrolysis
synthesis. This method can produce greater quantities of liquid products per tonne of coal
with higher thermal efficiency than the other methods. Hydroliquefaction can produce 0.3
Liquefaction reactions are influenced by the rank and maceral composition of the fuel
High volatile A bituminous coal, with a high reactive macerals content, gives a higher
volume of conversion product. Bustin et al (1983) gave the rank range as 0.67 to 1.1*
vitrinite reflectance with as high as possible content of reactive macerals (vitrinite, liptinite
The high percentage of vitrinite and substantial liptinite content of the Bukit Asam
make Bukit A s a m coals a strong candidate for liquefaction purposes. Recent research on
the liquefaction of Bukit A s a m coal indicates a conversion value of 88.4% of original coal
Coal may contain chemically bound sulphur, nitrogen, inherent mineral matter derived
from the original plants tissue, syngenetic mineral matter that is precipitated during the
accumulation of plant material and epigenetic mineral matter that forms during and after
coalification.
In combustion, the sulphur and nitrogen are converted to sulphur oxides (SOx) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx). Once in the atmosphere, these gases dissolve in water vapour to
form acidic water vapour that becomes acid rain. S o m e of the mineral matter is converted
to veryfine,light-weight ash (fly ash) and heavier ash (bottom ash). The fly ash mostly
passes out of the chimneys and into the air unless collected by electrostatic precipitators
problems because the ash m a y contain concentrated trace elements that are easily taken in
To reduce the harmful effects of gases and particulate emissions from coal combustors,
emission limits are set by the authorities (usually under government regulation). The
emission limits m a y vary from country to country, or even from region to region
depending on the geographic location, population density, size of the combustor plant and
the degree of industrialisation in the area. These limits are usually based on the absolute
point source emissions which are quoted as the mass of contaminant in a normalised
The environmental emission standards in the major industrial countries are shown in T
7.8.
emission of gases and particulates to as low a level as possible to prevent health and
environmental problems in the densely populated island of Java where most of the large
The allowable ambient emission given by the Ministry of the Environment are:
S O x - 200 to 300 m g / N m 3 ;
The extremely low limit for SOx is considered by the power generation plant managemen
to be too low (PLN, 1992) as this requires additional costs for fitting emission control
The theoretical calculated SOx levels given above is 909.5 mg/Nm3. This value is far
above the limit given by the Ministry of the Environment and this will require a reduction
to below 200 m g / N m 3 (a drop of more than 8 0 % ) if Bukit A s a m coal is used. The fitting
of a flue gas desulphurisation device to the plant will obviously solve much of the problem
since this apparatus can reduce the S O x emission by 8 0 % from the total SOx.
The calculated, uncontrolled quantity of NOx produced from Bukit Asam coal is 1066
mg/Nm 3 . This is lower than the limit given by the Indonesian Government and hence the
N O x emissions do not pose any problems for the use of Bukit A s a m coal.
The particulate ash value is 2.08/T kg ash/m3, at T°K. At 0° C the particulate ash
to 7619.05 m g / N m 3 . Most of modern power generating plants have been fitted with
electrostatic precipitators that remove 9 9 % of the ash. With electrostatic precipitators with
For combustion studies trace elements can be grouped into three categories based on their
equally partitioned between the coarse residues and the finer particles. Included in this
- Group 2. This group contains elements that are volatilised in a combustor or gasifi
then condense down-stream of the combustor. These elements are concentrated in the finer
particles which m a y escape particulate control systems. Included in this group are B, Se,
I, As, Cd, Ga, Ge, Pb, Sb, Sn, Te, Ti and Zn.
- Group 3. This group contains the most volatile elements and only low concentrations
found in the solid product phase. Included are H g , Br, CI, Fe and Rn.
in the coarse residue and therefore are easy to treat and remove from the system.
In Group 2, Se, As, Pb and Zn may be environmentally hazardous. They are mostly
trapped by electrostatic precipitators and thus only low quantities of these elements are
released to the atmosphere unless there are equipment breakdowns or accidents. However
some elements, such as Se and A s are more volatile and are released with group 2 to the
atmosphere in higher quantities (Clarke, 1993). A s an example, Edgar (1982) stated that
Of the group 3 elements, most are very volatile and are released to the atmosphere. E
(1982) stated that 9 0 % of the H g content is released with the flue gases, and metal halides,
247
such as CI, F and Br are totally released to the air. Because of instrument limitations,
elements in this group were not analysed for this study and hence their environmental
The trace elements in the Bukit Asam coal mostly are deposited in the bottom ash or s
(Th and M n ) or m a y be collected in the electrostatic precipitators (Pb, Cu, Z n and part of
As and Se). S o m e of the A s would probably be released together with the flue gases to the
atmosphere. Unfortunately there is no data for Se concentrations in the stack gas of the
Suralaya power plant, the plant that mostly uses Bukit A s a m coal as its fuel.
resources (Mangkusubroto, 1995). The Bukit A s a m mine is the only part of the prospect
area in the basin that has been mined. Most of the coal resources is still unexploited.
Although the quality of Bukit A s a m coal is higher than most other South Sumatra coals,
the presence of igneous intrusions in the coal measures limits the reserves. However, the
coal reserves not influenced by intrusions are essentially equal to those from the rest of
Coals from similar stratigraphic units in the Musi Rawas area (approximately 300 km
northeast of Tanjung Enim) are lignitic coals with calorific values of 5400 kcal/kg - adb
(PT. Triaryani, 1990). The Bangko coals have calorific values 6600 (db) (Kinhill-Ottogold
Joint Venture, 1986) which generally are equal to the rank of Bukit A s a m coals and higher
than those from Musi Rawas. Therefore, the unheated coal of Bukit A s a m is still
representative of the South Sumatra coals. The comparison of the quality of Bukit A s a m
248
coals to that from other coal companies prospects is given in Table 7.9. T h e table shows
the heating value of the Bukit A s a m coals is equal to the other coals, however the H G I is
The east Asia region is the fastest growing region economically in the world. Lead by
Japan and followed by N e w Industrial Countries such as South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore
and the other A S E A N countries, industry is growing rapidly. W h e n this happens, the
energy supply then becomes a vital commodity for their growing industries. Commonly
these countries have relied on the cheap, relatively clean oil fuel to supply their energy
need. However, the high oil prices in the mid seventies forced some of them to reduce
their dependency on oil and diversify their energy source. C o m m o n l y the alternative
energy chosen was coal, as it is abundant in the Pacific Region. According to NEDO-IEE
(1987), 4 8 . 5 % of recoverable coal reserves are on the Pacific rim countries. This is one
of the reasons w h y the change to coal was precipitated in the east Asia countries.
The coal resources in the Pacific Region are mainly concentrated in the territory of t
People Republic of China, United States of America and Australia. Relatively small
resources have also been discovered in Canada, Indonesia, Colombia and N e w Zealand.
China, U S A and Australia are traditionally the main coal suppliers to the rapidly-growing
industrial countries of east Asia. The huge recoverable coal reserves in these countries
ensures a stable supply and the suitable composition and rank are the main reasons for
NEDO-IEE (1987) proposed a concept of coal trade flow in the Pacific. In this concept
Indonesia was considered to be coal exporter but since the energy needs of Indonesia are
249
also high, the capability to export coal has been limited up to now.
The Philippines has a 1.6 billion tonnes reserve and a 241 million tonnes mineable r
Coal production was expected to be 7 million tonnes in 1995. However, with further
capacity by 2000, the Philippines need additional sub-bituminous coal, as much as 9.35
million tonnes annually. The Philippines imports coal from Australia (36%), China (47%)
and Indonesia (16.4%) (Bomasang, 1990). In the case of imports from Indonesia, the coal
comes from East Kalimantan because that is the closest mining area to the Philippines.
Malaysia has 764.48 million tonnes of coal resources with 145.62 million tonnes in th
measured reserves category. The rank range of these coals range from lignite to anthracite.
The coal demand of Malaysia is 2.6 million tonnes annually and of this Malaysia has to
import 0.3888 million tonnes to fuel three x 300 M W generators at Port Klang.
Other ASEAN countries also tried to diversified their energy. Singapore undertook a
to determine the possibility of building generating plants using coal as fuel. Thus,
Japan proposed that the coal imports should be restricted to coal with a rank range f
0.5 to 0.7% Rymax and with a moisture content of less than 9 % ( N E D O - I E E , 1987).
Some of heated coals from Bukit A s a m meet these requirements, but they are very limited
as regards reserves. The unheated coals do not meet this requirement. However the
250
possibility of using lower rank coals m a y also be considered in the future. A study on the
possibility of combusting lower rank coal, with higher efficiency than is available at
present, has already been carried out ( N E D O - I E E , 1987). Future requirements for
Japanese coal m a y change in the future and if lower rank coals are needed, Bukit Asam
From a marketing perspective, the huge coal reserves of the South Sumatra Basin, of
similar quality and type to other export coals from Indonesia, is a good insurance for a
stable supply of coal for any power generating needs of Indonesia in the future and also
7.6 DISCUSSION
Slagging properties
The slagging properties calculation indicate that the coal from three seams, A l , Bl and
B2, have a low to medium tendency to form slag deposits in boilers. Only coal from A2
seam has a high to severe slagging propensity as indicated by the Slagging Index and ash
fusion temperature. However, Sudadijo and A k m a l (1988) stated that the actual ash fusion
temperature of the Bukit A s a m coal is commonly lower than the ash fusion temperature
shown by the ash analysis test. Thus the propensity for slagging by Bukit A s a m coals may
According to Borio and Lavasseur (1986) one of the reasons for a high propensity for
slagging is the presence of flux minerals such as pyrite and calcite; these reduce the
melting temperature of the ash and increase slagging propensity. O n e method for reducing
the slagging and fouling potential of a coal is to reduce the quantity of high slagging and
251
fouling minerals that give Fe20 3 , N a O , C a O , A1 2 0 3 and M g O , for example, pyrite and
siderite. However, sometimes separating the mineral matter from the organic part of a coal
is difficult because the nature of the mineral matter. For Bukit A s a m coal, pyrite is
commonly associated with shaly coals at the top and the bottom of the seam and in very
small percentages only. The top of the A l seam has a higher than average percentage of
pyrite, up to 4 % in the shaly coal layer at the top of the seam. Selective mining which
avoids mining in the areas having abundant pyrite and calcite plies should be applied.
Some interseam sediments, such as those between B 2 and C seam and between A 2 and Bl,
have abundant in pyrite and siderite but as these will not be mined, they are of no
consequence. A prudent attitude in mining may improve the boiler performance of Bukit
Asam coal.
Liquefaction
The rank, type and other parameters of the Bukit A s a m coal indicate they are suitable for
conversion to liquid fuel in liquefaction reactions. The coal has a suitable rank, reactive-
dominated maceral composition with suitable H/C ratios making it a good feedstock for
investment is needed to place plants on stream. Thus the price of liquid fuel from
liquefaction of coals is up to 10 times the price of oil (Cook, pers. com. 1996). A
Potential Pollutants
Ministry of Environment. This level can be reduced by the application of a flue gas
desulphurisation ( F G D ) process. However the S O x emissions are lower than those in many
252
other countries. These limits are highly desirable if the coal is used in power plants located
in Java.
Deleterious trace elements in Bukit Asam coal would be mostly caught in the electrost
precipitators or in the slag. However the high percentage of arsenic in the ash of Bl seam
should be studied in more detail as it is a volatile element (Clarke, 1993; Edgar, 1982) and
ions are easily discharged to the atmosphere and thus enter the respiration system of
animals causing health problems and, in long term, death. Similar problems also apply for
selenium and mercury but these elements are not a major problem as they are present in
Export possibility
The geographic position of South Sumatra, combined with the quality of Bukit Asam coal,
makes this coal quite attractive as an export product. Export to other less-developed
A S E A N countries isfirstpriority when they become more industry oriented. The newer
industrial countries and Japan are already supplied by the large-coal producing countries
such as Australia, U S A and China and it would be more difficult to break into this market.
7.7 SUMMARY
Bukit A s a m coal is a sub-bituminous coal with low ash and sulphur contents. The coal has
some propensity for fouling boilers but this problem is likely to be drastically reduced if
modern technology is used and selective mining is practised. S o m e of the heated Bukit
A s a m coal has potential as a blend coal for coking coals but the reserves are very limited.
253
Apart from use as a thermal coal, a use for which the coal is well suited,
Bukit A s a m coals is a good feedstock for liquefaction. However, the economics of this
Any export of Bukit Asam coals should be directed towards other ASEAN countries.
precipitator residues and the fly ash. Emissions of elements such as H g , A s and Se from
the Suralaya power station is not well known and a study comparing the trace element
emissions from the power station with the trace elements in Bukit A s a m coal ash should
be undertaken to better understand the behaviour and dispersal patterns of trace elements
CHAPTER EIGHT
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This study is based on a petrographic analysis of the coal in the Bukit Asam Coalfie
which is a complex of working coal mines located near the small town of Tanjung Enim
South Sumatra, Indonesia. The study area is part of the concession area of PT. Tamban
Studies show that total Indonesian coal production is predicted to increase from 36.
million tonnes in 1995 to 50 million tonnes in the year 2000. Of this amount, Sumatra
coal comprised 11.4 million tonnes in 1995 and was estimated to increase to 13.8 mil
tonnes by 2000. Much of this increased production in Sumatra will come form the Bukit
Asam Coalfield.
The formation and properties of the Bukit Asam coal is influenced by the geology of
Asam area and this requires an understanding of the evolution of the South Sumatra B
because the coal measures unit at Bukit Asam is part of the sedimentary sequence in
basin. Deposition of the sequence was controlled by the climate, topography, structur
dynamic change within the basin once the peat had been deposited.
The South Sumatra Basin formed as a result of plate collision and interaction betwee
Sunda cratonic mass, commonly called the Sunda Shelf and the Indo-Australian Plate in
the Early Tertiary. Locally the Bukit Asam Coalfield experienced the same regional
256
influences as the rest of the South Sumatra Basin except the marine influence during the
The Bukit Asam coal seams are part of the Muara Enim Formation which is composed of
shale, siltstone, claystone, sandstone and intercalated coal layers. Within the immediate
Bukit A s a m area, the Muara Enim Formation can be divided into two units - a lower unit
which consists mostly of coal, dark grey to black shale, brownish-grey claystone, sandy
claystone and a few coarse-grained sandstone beds, and the upper unit which is composed
The most economic coal in the Bukit Asam area is in the A (Mangus), B (Suban) and C
(Petai) seams. The coal seams were deposited almost rhythmical in the lower part of the
Preliminaries studies showed that the Bukit Asam coal is a vitrinite-rich coal of r
vary from sub-bituminous to low volatile bituminous. However, the data was obtained
from a limited number of samples and those samples were full seam samples. In order to
fulfil the aims of this thesis, a larger study was needed and samples were collected from
individual plies from drill hole core and from outcrop samples. In addition, samples were
The Muara Enim Formation was deposited during a regressive phase in a transgressive-
regressive cycle that controlled sedimentation in the South Sumatra Basin. During the
Middle Miocene, the basin was a shallow marine basin with deposition of the middle/outer
neritic sediments of the Baturaja and laterally equivalent Gumai Formation, followed by
257
the inner neritic Air Benakat Formation which contains abundant marine foraminifers.
Conditions became much less marine; the Muara Enim Formation was deposited and then
the terrestrial deposits of the Kasai Formation. Thus the Muara Enim Formation is a
transitional unit between the inner neritic Air Benakat Formation and the terrestrial Kasai
Formation at the top of the sequence. The most important feature of the basin was that
Tectonically, the basin was in a depression zone of a back-arc basin in the Early Tertia
Sumatra subduction system. The basement of the basin comprises dissected preTertiary
rocks that were vertically displaced to form a horst and graben structure that was easily
rejuvenated. This depression zone was also vulnerable to subsidence as the young sediment
filled the basin. Higher subsidence rates were experienced in the depocentre which was
located in the Bukit A s a m area as shown by the isopach m a p of coal thickness for the
Muara Enim Formation. The source of the clastic detritus was probably more from the
west or south rather than from the Malayan Shield to the northeast because of the distance
to that provenance.
During the early stages of deposition, the basin was probably still connected to an open
sea but the connection was restricted and eventually closed with the emergence of Bukit
Sea level fluctuations were significant and this was the main factor influencing the
deposition of the coals in the Muara Enim Formation. The dominance of fine-grained
sediment in the Muara Enim Formation and the widespread extent of this fine-grained
sediments suggest that the basin was dominated by a low energy regime environment
258
during most of its Tertiary history. The basin was very vulnerable to sea level flu
and because of the depth of the basin and the low-lying surrounding topography and r
or fall of the sea level would have affected a vast area of the basin with those pre
conditions.
8.1 CONCLUSIONS
This study confirmed the generalisations given in earlier work by the preliminary
Canadian Pacific Railways and Swan Wooster Canada Consultants group (MCS
Consultants) and the Kinhill-Ottogold Joint Venture group, prior to the mining oper
at Bukit Asam by PT. Tambang Batubara Bukit Asam. However, this study provided much
greater detail and provided answers to some of the questions that arose after the f
studies.
The general objective of this thesis was to undertake a petrographic study to deter
environments of deposition of the Bukit Asam coal and to relate petrographic propert
of the coal to the elemental compositions thus providing a framework on which to pre
1. The primary aim of this study was to undertake a detailed petrographic study of
coals from Bukit Asam to determine lateral and vertical variations in maceral
quartz and clay minerals (mostly kaolinite) with minor pyrite and calcite. Vitrinite is
The detrovitrinite contents range from 7.8 to 7 6 . 1 % (an average of 56.6%) whereas
Liptinite in Bukit Asam coal is generally sparse, with an average of 5.3%, but ranging
from 0.2 to 2 5 . 4 % . Resinite, sporinite, suberinite, cutinite, liptodetrinite are the dominant
liptinite macerals but minor fluorinite and exsudatinite are also present. It is likely that
Inertinite is not abundant in Bukit Asam coal and constitutes from trace to 11.2% (average
sclerotinite, fusinite and sparse macrinite. Samples from A 2 seam, locality A L A 2 1 , have
There is no significant interseam difference in maceral composition with all seams having
high vitrinite contents (88.0 to 90.5%), and low liptinite (4.2 to 5.0%) and inertinite
contents (4.1 to 5.5%). The proportions of each maceral group in the respective seams is
almost the same although Bl seam has the highest vitrinite content and the lowest liptinite
and inertinite contents. B 2 seam has highest liptinite and inertinite contents and the lowest
mineral content. Mineral matter (discounting the claystone partings) progressively increases
The intrusions caused a significant increase in rank of the coals adjacent to the intr
but the proportion of coal affected is not great when taken in context with the size of the
as expected, so that any maceral analysis gives virtually all telovitrinite and this is related
to the loss of volatile matter, and increased compaction and more pronounced layering as
a result of heating.
The rank of the Bukit Asam coal, as indicated by vitrinite reflectance, the volatile co
and fixed carbon content is sub-bituminous except where the coal has been heated by one
or more of three intrusions. Heating of the coal has resulted in accelerated coalification
Vitrinite reflectance for unheated samples ranges from 0.35 to 0.5% with most values
2. The second aim of the project was to reinterpret the environments of deposition of
the interseam sediments and to determine any influence on the coal by these units.
The Merapi seam to C seam unit was deposited in a freshwater lagoon with probably
several marine incursions in the lower part and shallowing as indicated by the deposition
of a prograding delta sequence preceding quieter water conditions, probably a tidal flat,
a marsh on a tidal flat environment in which clastic detritus was deposited with the organic
matter. The grain size of the sandstone indicates a low energy regime and this reflects a
distal position from the source. The basin became deeper as indicated by the deposition
followed by deposition of sands by flood tidal channels at the top of the sequence
Flaser and lenticular bedding in the sandstone in the Airlaya pit section, indicates it wa
deposited in an intertidal flat area where the current was relatively strong or, alternatively,
close to a tidal channel and that the Airlaya area was more proximal to the source of
The B seam to A2 seam interval was deposited as a prograding delta, distal to the source,
in a freshwater lagoon. Progradation of the delta continued until deposition of the A 2 mire
on atidalflat. Compared to that in the Perimeter Ditch area, the basin in the Airlaya area
with abundant organic matter; sediment of this size is indicative of a low energy regime.
Deposition in this low energy environment was interrupted by the poor development of a
marsh and low moor representing the lower part of the Suban Marker. However, this was
262
laminated dull coal layer at the top of the Suban Marker. The mire was later drowned
later shallowing of the water as indicated by the deposition of sandstone at the top
sequence. A tuff layer was deposited above the Suban Marker and represents an ash fal
deposit.
packages and represents a large increase in the volume of volcanic detritus entering
basin. The first and second layers represent products of volcanic eruptions and are
widespread with some evidence of reworking by water as indicated by the graded beddin
and crossbedding. Based on the field evidence gained for this study, the A2 seam to A
seam interval is derived from volcanic ash and should be called Mangus Tuff.
The lower part of the Al seam to First Hanging seam interval represents lagoonal depo
with some parts of this unit deposited in slightly brackish water. The coarsening-upw
The major influence on the development of peat mires and the subsequent coal formatio
was volcanic activity. This influence lasted for almost the entire period that the Mu
Enim Formation was being deposited. Many small volcanic eruptions produced ash which
accumulated as claystone layers or tonsteins in the coal seams. The biggest eruption,
may have been a series of closely spaced eruptions, produced a vast volume of ash tha
accumulated as the interval between Al seam and A2 seam. Most claystone layers have
sedimentary structures such as ripples, cross-bedding and graded bedding and these
and environments ofdeposition of the clastic units in the Bukit Asam Coalfield, and
The environments of deposition of the coal seams was interpreted using both petrographic
and interseam sedimentary rock data. Bukit A s a m coal is characterised by a low mineral
liptinite and inertinite. A tropical climate during the Tertiary, when the Muara Enim
Formation was deposited, produced a restricted the amount of suspended load in the
streams and lateral avulsion was probably rare. The tropical climate, with high humidity
and high rainfall, assured a freshwater supply to the basin. The dense tropical rain forest
restricted erosion and as a result, the suspended sediment in the water was low.
A review of published organic facies models showed that most were unworkable when
petrographic data for the Bukit A s a m coals were used. Thus, it was necessary to use an
alternative model for facies determination and four petrographic components or attributes
- Detrovitrinite content,
- Mineral content.
The model for the formation of Bukit Asam coal is the coal was largely deposited in a
264
raised peat bog, with gradual development from topogenous peat at the base to a raise
mire for the middle of the seam. Above that, the peat was gradually drowned as can be
seen by the higher detrovitrinite content and the decrease in structured vitrinite to
the top of the seam. The petrographic composition of Bukit Asam coal indicates that t
mires in which the peat was deposited were mostly of a raised high moor type but thes
did not reach the mature stage of peat development because of a lack of fibric peat a
top each peat episode except for Al seam. The mires of Bukit Asam were subjected to
basement subsidence with the rate of subsidence similar to the rate of plant accumula
4. The fourth aim of the project was to undertake a study of the major oxides and
trace elements in the coal and claystone layers in the coal, by analysing the
In Bukit Asam coal, the major oxide and trace element composition is closely linked to
mineral content of the samples with some variation associated with the effects of the
intrusions. In unheated samples the major oxides are dominated by Si02 and A1203 and thi
is a function of the quartz and clay mineral, principally kaolinite, content. The Si02
A1203 contents are much higher in slightly-heated coal than in unheated coal and again
is a function of movement of hydrothermal fluids through the heated coals and the res
precipitation of secondary quartz and possibly secondary clay minerals. In the strongl
heated coals, the Si02, A1203 and Fe^ contents are less than those in the slightly-heate
coals but significantly more than in the unheated samples. The CaO content is highest
coals that have been heated reflecting the presence of secondary calcite in these samp
265
The significant findings of this project are that Rb, Cs and K are most likely derived from
detrital clay (K-rich clay or mixed clay) but have been leached from the mineral-rich
claystone (tonstein) layers and redeposited in the coal. Y , Zr, N b , T h and to a lesser
extent Sb, H f and U have also been mobilised from the tonsteins during coalification stage
and were redeposited in the coal plies immediately above and below the claystone layers.
Ti, and sometimes Ga, are immobile elements and were resistant to peat-water leaching
after the deposition of volcanic ash. The elements Ba, Sr and to a lesser extent Z n and Pb,
Cluster analysis does not show any significant relationships between element concentrati
5. The final aim of the project was to assess coal quality data to determine the best
Bukit Asam coal is a sub-bituminous coal with low ash and sulphur contents. The coal has
some propensity for fouling boilers but this problem is likely to be drastically reduced if
modern technology is used and selective mining is practised. S o m e of the heated Bukit
Asam coal has potential as a blend coal for coking coals but the reserves are very limited.
Apart from use as a thermal coal, a use for which the coal is well suited, Bukit Asam
coals is a good feedstock for liquefaction. However, the economics of this process in an
precipitator residues and the fly ash. Emissions of elements such as H g , A s and Se from
the Suralaya power station is not well known and a study comparing the trace element
emissions from the power station with the trace elements in Bukit A s a m coal ash should
be undertaken to better understand the behaviour and dispersal patterns of trace elements
Much of the data produced for this study showed that the generalisations put forward by
the Shell Minjbouw N.V. program are applicable in the Bukit A s a m area but the local
variations in coal composition and trace element distribution are m u c h better known as a
this has been documented. This study will be of value for future researchers, mining
operations in the Bukit A s a m area and electricity generation authorities as it will have an
impact on mine planning, coal utilisation, environmental studies and models relating to the
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282
283
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KASAI FM.
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Upper Mangus(Al)
Lower Mangus(A2)
Upper Suban(B1)
Lower Suban(B2) Scale
'Upper PetaKCD
Lower Petai(C2) TO
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AB AIR BENAKAT FM
102° 00'
103° 00' 104° 00' iaj°oo'
Figure 1.4. The coal exploration prospect areas of the South Sumatra Basin
(after Stalder, 1976)
FIGURES, TABLES AND PLATES
CHAPTER 2
287
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AGE FORMA-
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Pleisto
>200 Tuff, tuffaceous sandstone and clay
cene KASAI
't v v v v v
Pliocene
TALANG
AKAR 400 to
850 Coarse to very coarse sandstone
intercalations with shale and coal
+<m ' • ^ N * W »
Tuffaceous, shale and siltstone
Oligocene <S- • • V
LAHAT .y.v.V.V.V.y
• • • y •• • v • v • v
200 to
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i 4» 4 J 1 » 4
breccia.
v vvy r A a
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IOS*C
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ANTICLINE
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Plate 2.1
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FIGURES
CHAPTER 3
297
MOO 363000 364000 365000 366000
i r
+ /
/ ALA18—•" .-ALA15 \
i
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WEST BENAKAT MUARA LAKITAN
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0 I V NIRU SEAM BENAKAT SEAM
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MANGUS SEAM (A]
MUARA ENIM FORMATION
MARINE
r
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MARLS) ~"""~"-^.
y
MARINE CONTINENTAL
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L O W E R RHINE C O A L BASIN
1000m
Figure 4.2. Comparison between the South Sumatra Basin and the Lower Rhine Basin,
Germany (after Stalder, 1976).
301
o°-
4" 00' S
SINGAPORE £
- 4° 00' S
SUMATRA
250 KM
Figure 4.4. Global cycles on relative sea level change during cainozoic. The shaded area is
the time range when the Muara Enim Formation ( M E F ) was deposited
(modified from Vail and Mitchum, 1979).
303
GRAIN SIZE DEPOSITIONAL
DESCRIPTIONS
ENVIRONMENT
BSSosc
• 11111111
LAGOON
Grey- brown claystone, friable.
Tf 2
liu -
LAGOON
30 -
M>v
Figure 4.5. Measured section, Perimeter Ditch, Muara Tiga Besar Utara
304.
rr -z.-Lr.
Dark grey claystone, laminated, abundant
organic matter, interlaminated with
- 70 sideiilic sandstone, reddish brown, line,
Suban hard, laminated, with abundant organic MIRE AND TIDAL FLAT
Marker matter. Thin coal layer (Suban maiker)
irr^S occurs in the middle of the sequence.
Thinly bedded tuff occurs above the
Suban Marker coal.
5U
Grey claystone, with yellow sideritic
sandstone lenses.
-0
14(1
LAGOON
Brown claystone, laminated, with
ironstone nodule
J20 -
40 -
30 •
1U
© fg^s
M Seam
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.9
FIGURE 4.9
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311
Figure 4.11
b. Middle claystone layer (T2) from Al seam. The organic-rich zone has
cross lamination. Sample ALA129, Airlaya. White bar is 1 cm.
Table 4.1 Main lithologies of the Muara Enim Formation and adjacent units
(Shell Minjbouw, 1978)
U
Forma- n Coals T P G M M F
tion • Lithology u R 1 M F W
I f a F F
t
s
f u
Alluvium AL Varioustypesof terrestrial deposits
commonly reworked Kasai Formation
Light coloured gravels and tuffaceous
sandstone, some glauconitic, some with
crystalline quartz. Light coloured, blue
Kasai KA green, azure blue tuffaceous kaolinitic
claystone. Acid pumice, volcanic
•
concretions and tuffaceous sandstone. Few
coal lenses.
•Niru
Blue green tuffaceous claystone and sandy —Lematang/ •
claystone. Some dark-brown coaly Jelawatan m
M4 claystone. Some white and grey fine to
coarse-grained sandstone, glauconitic. Benakat
Babat
Upper Single pumice stone layer in central •» Enim
Palembang area. Coal seams.
Muara _ Kebon 1
1
Sandstone and claystone complex underlain
• Benuang 1
Enim by predominantly blue green, grey green
(Mpb) M3
grey brown clay complex. Few thin
calcareous and dolomitic bands. Sandstone
Burung/
Pinang H
horizon of 3 to 6m, approximately 4 0 m •
above Mangus with some gas pockets. Coal
seams. 1
S Mangus m
II 1
tt-Jk
(A)
Brown to brown-grey claystone and sandy
claystone. Brown, grey, fine to medium- • Suban
Lower M2 grained sandstone. Some green-grey fine- " (B)
grained sandstone in the lower part. Coal . Petai
Muara seams. Ml
.' <C>
I
• r
Enim Brown and grey sandstone, siltstone and Merapi
claystone with minor glauconitic sandstone.
(Mpa) Ml Coal seams • •|
Kladi m Ml
•
Grey brown to blue grey claystone and
sandy shales, often marly. Green-grey to
Air green glauconitic fine sandstone. Few •
Benakat AB limestones in North Palembang area and
few tuffaceous horizons in the South
Palembang area.
PR-Plant remains, Glau-Glauconite, MMF-Micro Marine Fossil, MF-Marine Fossil, FWF-Fresh water
Fossil
314
"" l • • i mi i 1 ,• i •• 1
316
Plate 4.1
H
<
0H
FIGURES, TABLES AND PLATES
CHAPTER 5
319
(a) A2 S E A M
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10 \
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15-
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3
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Figure 5.8. Structure contours for the top of the Suban Sill.
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Figure 5.11. Isopach map of A 2 seam showing thinner seam thicknesses in a heated
zone.
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IR INERT
Figure 5.22. Maceral composition of the Bukit Asam coal, show
the abundances of maceral groups.
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Figure 5.28. Generalised cross section of (A) the Baram peat, Sarawak and (B) Jambi peat, Indonesia
showing the distribution of peat types, ash (a) and sulphur (s) contents. (Esterle and Ferm,
1994)
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POINT SEAM SAMPLE ELEV. EL. Int. D Rvmax CV REMARKS
(m) (m) (m) (%) (kcal/kg)
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Origin: Origin:
In forested peat lands (telmatic swamps). 1. In forested peat lands from strongly decomposed
High GI w h e n relatively high in coal ash and/or wood under conditions of slow subsidence in
interbedded with epiclastic stone bands. In telmatic setting (high ash and epiclastic band).
forested continuously wet raised bogs. 2. From herbaceous plants in tree-less marshes
when low in ash. Mild humification and (high ash and epiclastic bands)
strong gelification of plants tissues due to 3. From herbaceous plants in continuously wet
high rate of subsidence raised bogs (low ash no bands). Telmatic or
limnotelmatic. Advance humification and strong
gelification of plant tissues.
Plate 5.1
a. Telinite derived from angiosperm wood showing cell walls and multiseriate
rays (R)filledwith corpocollinite derived from gelified material (tannin).
Sample 25409. R v m a x = 0.42%. Reflected white light. Field width
0.41mm.
b. Telocollinite from heated coal, showing three cutinite layers (Cu) were
recognised. Sample 25108. Rvmax = 0.68%. Reflected white light. Field
width 0.35mm.
h. S a m efieldbut in thefluorescencemode.
357
PLATE 5.1
?__**&
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358
Plate 5.2
b. Cutinite derived from leaf tissue, with well preserved palisade cells.
Sample 25496. R v m a x = 0.45%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.41
mm.
c. Fluorinite (Fl) filling the cell lumen in a leaf tissue and associated with
cutinite (Cu). Sample 25417. R v m a x = 0.69%. Reflected white light. Field
width 0.41mm.
d. Same field but in fluorescence mode. The fluorinite is orange and cutinite
is weakly fluorescing.
f. Same field but under fluorescence excitation. Spotted bright yellow colour
in the resinite indicates a lighter hydrocarbon fraction. Oil cut can be
recognised at the edge of the grain.
PLATE 5.2
_$W-/?r_r
360
Plate 5.3
f. Same field but with fluorescence mode, showing very weak fluorescence
of exsudatinite.
Plate 5.4
f. Sclerotites sp. with an individual spore separates from it. Sample 252
R v m a x = 0.58%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.35mm.
Srrv
364
Plate 5.5
d. Boundary between brown claystone (C) and white tuff band (T) below A
seam. Sample 25519. Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.
Plate 5.6
f. Calcite replacing the cell wall in leaf tissue. Sample 25491. Rvmax =
0.74%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.
h. Calcite in heated coal. Some calcite degraded the host fusinite. Samp
25105. R v m a x = 0.40%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.
367
PLATE 5.6
368
Plate 5.7
f. Silica replacing the cell walls. Sample of the heated coal. Sample 25
R v m a x = 2.3%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.45mm.
&G+M •:-.;. V-
FIGURES AND TABLES
CHAPTER 6
370
JKW MflO
DM
SA2
BB1
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Fe203 MgO
Figure 6.1 Histogram of major elements in the Bukit A s a m coalfields, compiled from Geological
Survey Indonesia (1978), M C S Consultant (1980), compared to those from Banko
area as reported by Kinhill-Ottogold (1986)
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SBA121 0.9939
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AIA1111 0.9960
ALA1112 0.9976
HSA1114 0.9975
SBA1117 0.9756
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ALA149 0.9961 ,
AIA129 0.9977
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MSA119 0.9990
SBA115 0.9938 ,
ALA125 0.9949
KSA11S 0.9960
SBA125 0.9934
ALA117 0.9987 ,
ALA1313 0.9962
SBA1213 0.9953
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ALA1413 0.9914
ALA1213 0.9738
ALA1317 0.9918 1
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SBA1113 0.9272
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MSA1113 0.2174
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ALA146 0.3261
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ALA118 0.7470
ALA116 0.5952
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SBA127 0.3154
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SBA12B 0.7453
SBA1211 0.2740-
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SBA1210 0.5138 21. lOcn coal below the DB
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SBA119 0.3703-
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Gv 0.5863
Res 0.7783
Lipt. 0.4511
Sub 0.3891
F 0.5513
SF 0.8455
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Ld 0.4487
ID 0.2875
Scl 0.2593
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Rmax 0.7971
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Ga 0.4303
Ti02 0.6760
A1203 0.2714
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Zr 0.8450
Nb 0.6964
Th 0.0628
Zn 0.3775
Pb 0.2417
Fe203 0.6193
Py 0.0425
Sr 0.5907
P205 0.4870
CaO 0.8757
S03 0.7245
MgO 0.6229
Na20 0.3188
Cut 0.1308
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CHAPTER 7
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INITIAL ASH-OXIDE-ANALYSIS
5yi = tysi02+yAl203*i'Fe203+yCaO+i'MgO","i,'s03",-yAlk + y
R«st " '
SULPHUR-CONTENTS (ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS)
CORRECTED ASH-OXIDE-ANALYSIS
° SiO? corr ,,». _
Si0 2 -"|-(iC s i 0 2 -y s i 0 2 ; 3 r r ) "' 1^>'si0:,"i'si02cofr)
5X = WWW^O^^sV^V £„. -1
SLAGGING AND FOULING INDICES
(F-exp - [5 ^lk/(fs*0.3)]
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1 4- HEAVY SLAGGING/FOULING FUEL VALUATION
1 NOT SLAGGING/FOULING FUEL
Note: y = Weight Fraction Ash
Volatile Swelling
Matter Index
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APPENDIX 5.2 REFLECTANCE DATA
Rvmax data from Bukit Asam
Base on 30 measurement each sample
Gm. No. F.No. Depth (cm) Rvmax (%) R v m a x Min. R v m a x Max. Sd.
24863 ALA113 40-100 1.21 1 1.32 0.088
24864 ALA115 110-120 1.3 1.18 1.39 0.045
24865 ALA116 120-220 1.3 1.2 1.38 0.039
24866 ALA118 230-240 1.3 1.23 1.38 0.037
24867 ALA119 240-440 1.31 1.24 1.4 0.043
24868 ALA1110 440-540 1.29 1.24 1.39 0.036
24869 ALA122 0-10 0.41 0.39 [ 0.5 0.023
24870 ALA123 00-70 0.41 0.37 0.46 0.026
24871 ALA124 70-80 0.43 0.39 0.46 0.023
24872 ALA126 90-100 0.41 0.34 0.47 0.037
24873 ALA127 100-260 0.41 0.39 0.45 0.023
24874 ALA128 260-270 0.4 0.36 0.46 0.032
24875 ALA1210 280-290 0.42 0.38 0.47 0.024
24876 ALA1211 290-530 0.42 0.39 0.44 0.016
24877 ALA1212 530-540 0.42 0.37 0.53 0.039
24878 ALA1214 550560 0.43 0.4 0.48 0.024
24879 LA1215A 560-790 0.42 0.37 0.48 0.028
24880 LA1215B 790-960 0.42 0.39 0.48 0.022
24881 ALA1216 960-980 0.41 0.37 0.48 0.030
24883 ALA132 0-40 0.41 0.38 0.43 0.019
24884 ALA133 40-80 0.4 0.37 0.42 0.020
24885 ALA134 80-90 0.37 0.31 0.41 0.022
24886 ALA136 100-110 0.37 0.3 0.4 0.024
24887 ALA137 110-270 0.4 0.35 0.47 0.024
24888 ALA138 270-280 0.4 0.36 0.49 0.028
24889 ALA1310 290-300 0.4 0.38 0.48 0.023
24890 ALA1311 300-590 0.4 0.37 0.43 0.019
24891 ALA1312 590-600 0.41 0.36 0.47 0.026
24892 ALA1314 610-620 0.42 0.33 0.53 0.039
24893 LA1315A 620-850 0.4 0.36 0.43 0.019
24894 LA1315B 580-1090 0.43 0.4 0.52 0.029
24895 ALA1316 1090-1120 0.42 0.38 0.47 0.022
25082 ALA142 0-30 0.39 0.35 0.42 0.026
25083 ALA147 90-230 0.41 0.38 0.47 0.020
25084 ALA148 230-240 0.41 0.39 0.45 0.021
25085 ALA1410 250-260 0.41 0.38 0.43 0.016
25086 ALA1411 260-500 0.41 0.4 0.44 0.016
25087 ALA1412 500-510 0.43 0.4 0.5 0.033
25088 ALA1414 520-530 0.46 0.41 0.53 0.030
25089 ALA1415 530-900 0.44 0.4 0.49 0.022
25090 ALA1416 900-920 0.44 0.4 0.47 0.023
25091 MSA112 0-30 0.4 0.36 0.43 0.018
25092 MSA113 30-60 0.4 0.37 0.47 0.025
25093 MSA114 60-70 0.38 0.32 0.44 0.030
25094 MSA116 80-90 0.41 0.35 0.46 0.025
25095 MSA117 90-240 0.41 0.37 0.43 0.018
25096 MSA118 240-250 0.41 0.37 0.45 0.020
25097 MSA1110 260-270 0.4 0.38 0.44 i 0.018
25093 MSA1111 270-520 0.41 0.37 ! 0.45 0.018
25099 MSA1112 5204310 0.45 0.41 0.48 0.020
Page 1
25101 SBA113 20-60 1.28 1.25 1.36 0.030
25102 SBA114 60-70 1.35 1.27 1.37 0.029
25103 SBA116 80-90 1.26 1.22 1.33 0.023
25104 SBA117 90-280 1.45 1.4 1.56 0.042
25105 SBA118 280-290 1.42 1.39 1.48 0.025
25106 SBA1110 300-310 1.51 1.48 1.57 0.022
25107 SBA1111 310-430 1.51 1.43 1.62 0.047
25108 SBA1112 430-440 1.68 1.64 1.74 0.030
25109 SBA1114 450-450 1.73 1.67 1.8 0.032
25110 SBA1115 j460-480 1.84 1.75 1.95 0.064
25111 SBA1116 480-490 1.94 1.87 2.01 0.033
25112 SBA122 0-10 0.62 0.58 0.66 0.018
1
25113 SBA123 0-40 0.63 0.6 0.67 0.021
25114 SBA124 4050 0.65 0.62 0.68 0.018
25115 SBA126 60-70 0.66 0.64 0.7 0.019
25116 SBA127 70-110 0.63 0.57 0.68 0.028
25117 SBA128 110-120 0.67 0.63 0.71 0.024
25118 SBA1210 130-140 0.64 0.6 0.68 0.021
25119 SBA1211 140-250 0.64 0.6 0.68 0.024
25120 SBA1212 250-260 0.66 0.6 0.7 0.030
25121 SBA1214 270-280 0.64 0.6 0.67 0.020
25122 SBA1215 280-530 0.65 0.63 0.7 0.018
25123 SBA1216 530-540 1.95 1.85 2.02 0.052
25229 ALA232 0-30 0.47 0.45 0.52 0.015
25230 ALA233 30-150 0.48 0.45 0.51 0.017
25231 ALA234 150-250 0.46 0.41 0.48 0.021
25232 ALA235 250-680 0.45 0.41 0.48 0.016
25233 ALA236 680-780 0.45 0.41 0.49 0.020
25234 ALA237 780-990 0.47 0.45 0.52 0.020
25235 ALA238 990-1010 0.47 0.42 0.52 0.030
25171 ALA211 0-70 0.47 0.45 0.5 0.013
25172 ALA212 70-170 0.47 0.44 0.5 0.016
25173 ALA213 170-270 0.49 0.47 0.5 0.013
25174 ALA214 270-370 0.48 0.44 0.51 0.018
25175 ALA215 370-470 0.47 0.44 0.5 0.016
25176 ALA216 470-570 0.48 0.45 0.5 0.015
25177 ALA217 570-580 0.44 0.5 0.016
25178 ALA217B 580-680 0.49 0.46 0.54 0.019
25179 ALA218 680-980 0.49 0.46 0.54 0.017
25180 ALA219 980-990 1.74 1.69 1.81 0.030
25222 ALA222 0-40 0.49 0.48 0.51 0.012
25223 ALA223 40-60 0.49 0.47 0.54 0.018
25224 ALA224 60-300 0.49 0.47 0.51 0.011
25225 ALA225 300500 0.49 j 0.48 0.52 0.013
25226 ALA226 500-870 0.48 0.46 0.51 0.014
25227 ALA227 870-980 0.48 0.45 0.52 0.017
25228 ALA228 980-1000 0.49 0.46 0.52 0.015
25236 ALB122 0-10 0.47 0.45 0.51 0.017
25237 ALB123 0-30 0.48 0.46 0.51 0.013
25238 ALB124 30-35 0.47 0.46 0.5 0.018
25239 ALB125 35-115 0.45 | 0.42 0.48 0.017
25240 ALB126 115-125 0.44 0.4 0.53 0.040
25241 ALB127 125-425 0.45 0.42 0.48 0.016
25242 ALB128 425-435 0.46 0.42 0.49 0.021
25243 ALB129 435-535 0.47 0.43 0.5 0.016
Page 2
25245 ALB1210 535-700 0.46 0.43 0.49 0.018
25244 ALB1211 700-1000 0.46 0.43 0.49 0.025
25365 KTA113 30-40 0.45 0.43 0.5 0.018
25366 KTA115 50-60 0.44 0.42 0.48 0.016
25367 KTA116 60-170 0.44 0.41 0.46 0.012
25368 KTA117 170-180 0.44 0.41 0.47 0.016
25369 KTA119 190-200 0.44 0.38 0.48 0.026
25370 KTA1110 200-410 0.45 0.42 0.48 0.014
25371 KTA1111 41O420 0.46 0.44 0.5 0.018
25372 KTA1113 430-440 0.48 0.44 0.5 0.018
25373 KTA1114 440-850 0.48 0.44 0.5 0.020
25206 KTA212 050 0.48 0.45 0.52 0.018
25207 KTA213 50-300 0.452 0.42 0.47 0.012
25208 KTA214 300-750 0.463 0.44 0.49 0.015
25209 KTA215 750-1000 0.47 0.45 0.51 0.025
25210 KTA216 1000-1510 0.49 0.46 0.54 0.020
25211 KTA217 1510-1530 0.486 0.46 0.53 0.017
25358 KTB112 O40 0.45 0.41 0.5 0.019
25359 KTB113 40-240 0.467 0.46 0.49 0.012
25360 KTB114 240-250 0.47 0.41 0.5 0.027
j 25361 KTB115 250-420 0.47 0.41 0.51 0.025
25362 KTB117 430-750 0.48 0.44 0.51 0.022
25363 KTB119 790-1050 0.47 0.42 0.53 0.024
25364 KTB1111 1060-1160 0.48 0.45 0.5 0.017
25212 KBA115 45-65 0.44 0.42 0.47 0.013
25213 KBA116 65-185 0.42 0.39 0.47 0.018
i 25214 KBA117 185-195 0.44 0.42 0.49 0.016
25215 KBA119 205-215 0.46 0.44 0.49 0.017
; 25216 KBA1110 215-445 0.46 0.45 0.49 0.013 |
25217 KBA1111 445-455 0.46 0.44 0.5 0.017
25218 KBA1113 465-475 0.45 0.43 0.48 0.014
25219 KBA1114 475-655 0.48 0.46 0.52 0.017
25220 KBA1115 655-995 0.48 0.45 0.5 0.017
j 25221 KBA1116 995-1010 0.43 0.41 0.46 0.014
25256 KBA212 0-50 0.46 0.44 0.48 0.014
25257 KBA213 50-360 0.45 0.43 0.49 0.019
25258 KBA214 360-710 0.45 0.43 0.5 0.017
25259 KBA215 710-930 0.48 0.46 0.52 0.017
25260 KBA216 930-1230 0.49 0.46 0.55 0.023
25261 KBA217 120-1260 0.49 0.47 0.55 0.024
25195 KTB212 0-20 0.46 0.45 0.5 0.012
25196 KTB213 20-180 0.47 0.45 0.47 0.014
25197 KTB214 180-190 0.47 0.45 0.49 0.012
25198 KTB216 200-210 0.47 0.46 0.52 0.014
25199 KTB217 210-360 0.48 0.46 0.5 0.014
25200 KTB218 360-370 0.47 0.45 0.49 0.010
25201 MTA212 0-40 0.44 0.41 0.47 0.018
25202 MTA213 40-390 0.45 0.41 0.48 0.021
25203 MTA214 390-750 0.44 0.41 0.48 0.028
25204 MTA215 750-1040 0.45 0.42 0.52 0.026
25205 MTA216 1040-1080 0.45 0.41 0.5 0.220 |
25181 ALB212 0-15 0.46 0.43 0.5 0.026
25182 ALB213 15-215 0.46 0.44 0.51 0.025
25183 ALB215 225-625 0.47 0.44 | 0.51 0.020
25184 ALB216 625565 0.44 0.41 0.48 0.018
Page 3
25246 ALB111A 0-200 0.71 0.69 0.75 0.018
25247 ALB111B 200-440 0.69 0.61 0.77 0.042
25248 ALB112 440-450 0.66 0.62 0.69 0.015
25249 ALB114 460-470 0.61 0.55 0.67 0.031
25250 ALB115 I 470-710 0.58 0.56 0.6 0.013
25251 ALB116 710-720 0.55 0.53 0.6 0.020
25253 ALB118 730-740 0.55 0.51 0.59 0.024
25254 ALB119 740-900 0.56 0.51 0.59 0.022
25255 ALB1110 90OS10 0.57 0.51 0.6 0.022
25153 ALA1-10-1 0-20 0.44 0.4 0.46 0.019
25154 ALA1-10-2 20-70 0.42 0.4 0.43 0.009
25155 ALA1-10-3 7050 0.45 I 0.42 0.51 0.021
25156 ALA1-14-1 0-10 0.43 0.41 0.45 0.012
i 25157 ALA1-14-2 0-30 0.45 0.43 0.48 0.012
25158 ALA1-14-3 3055 0.43 0.4 0.48 0.019
25159 ALA1-14-4 65-75 0.44 0.42 0.48 0.018
25160 ALA1-13-1 0-20 0.37 0.34 0.43 0.026
25161 ALA1-13-2 20-40 0.44 0.42 0.48 0.016
25162 ALA1-13-3 40-70 0.46 0.43 0.54 0.025
25163 ALA1-13-4 7050 0.44 0.41 0.47 0.016
25164 ALA1-12-1 0-10 0.44 0.41 0.5 0.026
25165 ALA1-12-2 0-40 0.46 0.43 0.48 0.017
25166 ALA1-125 40-70 0.45 0.42 0.49 0.019
25167 ALA1-12-4 7050 0.44 0.4 0.47 0.018
25168 ALA1-11-1 0-10 0.46 ! 0.43 0.48 0.023
25169 ALA1-11-2 050 0.47 0.45 0.49 0.013
25390 ALA1-115 3050 0.47 0.44 0.53 0.033
25391 ALA1-11-4 60-70 0.44 0.41 0.47 0.016
25384 ALA1-15-1 0-10 0.46 0.43 0.51 0.018
25385 ALA1-15-2 050 0.46 0.43 0.49 0.019
25386 ALA1-15-3 30-70 0.45 0.42 0.5 0.029
25387 ALA1-15-4 7050 0.44 0.42 0.48 0.017
25388 KBA1-2-1 0-10 0.39 0.38 0.41 0.014
25389 KBA1-2-2 0-40 0.39 0.36 0.43 0.015
25392 ALA15-1 0-40 0.35 0.3 0.39 0.030
25393 ALA15-2 4050 0.45 0.43 0.49 0.017
25394 ALA1-5-3 60-110 0.46 0.44 0.49 0.017
25395 ALA1-5-4 110-120 0.43 0.4 0.46 0.014
25396 ALA1-9-1 0-10 0.58 0.51 0.67 0.038
25397 ALA1-9-2 050 0.67 0.6 0.75 0.034
25398 ALA1-9-3 30-70 0.8 0.78 0.8 0.012
25399 ALA1-9-4 7050 0.74 0.7 0.8 0.071
25400 ALA1-8-1 050 0.63 0.6 0.67 0.020
25401 ALA1-8-2 3050 0.64 0.6 0.69 0.027
25402 ALA1-85 50-110 0.62 0.59 0.67 0.023
25403 ALA1-8-4 110-120 0.63 0.6 0.67 0.020
25404 ALA1-7-1 0-40 0.41 ! 0.36 0.48 0.031
25405 ALA1-7-2 050 0.46 0.45 0.51 0.013
25406 ALA1-7-3 60-120 0.52 0.5 0.56 0.018
25407 ALA1-7-4 120-130 0.56 0.55 0.6 0.014
25408 ALA1-6-1 050 0.42 0.4 0.47 0.018
25409 ALA1-6-2 3050 0.42 0.4 0.44 0.011
25410 ALA1-65 60-130 0.42 0.4 0.45 0.015
25411 ALA1-6-4 130-140 0.43 0.4 0.46 0.015
25412 MSA1-2-1 0-10 0.43 0.4 0.48 0.020
Page 4
25413 MSA1-2-2 0-30 042 0.4 0.44 0.013
25414 M S A 1 - 2 5 30-70 0.41 0.4 0.45 0.013
25415 MSA1-2-4 7050 0.43 0.4 0.45 0.015
25416 BHA1-1 top of A1 0.48 0.46 0.55 0.011
25417 BHA1-2 top of A1 0.69 0.66 0.72 0.022
25418 BHA1-3 top of A1 1.97 1.94 2.01 0.019
25419 BHA1-4 top of A1 2.36 2.3 2.4 0.029
25185 SBA212 0-40 2.31 2.28 2.37 0.025
25186 SBA213 40-240 2.29 2.2 2.43 0.044
25187 SBA214 240590 2.33 2.26 2.44 0.037
25188 SBA215 390-420 2.4 2.26 2.49 0.062
25189 SBB112 0-120 2.67 2.53 2.72 0.075
25190 SBB113 120-125 3.08 2.79 3.76 0.270
25191 SBB114 125-270 2.76 2.66 2.84 0.040
25192 SBB115 270-275 2.68 2.61 2.75 0.052
25193 SBB116 275590 2.68 2.61 2.75 0.050
25194 SBB117 390-400 2.75 2.67 2.85 0.048
25378 SBA1-4 composite 1.18 1.08 1.24 0.047
25379 SBA1-5 composite 1.21 1.18 1.27 0.025
25380 CP-1 top of A1 2.13 2.08 2.21 0.032
25381 CP-2 top of A1 2.24 2.21 2.29 0.021
25382 CP-3 top of A1 2.33 2.3 2.39 0.024
25383 CP-4 top of A1 2.62 2.6 2.7 0.034
25374 SBA1-3-1 0-20 2.37 2.27 2.49 0.052
25375 SBA15-2 2050 2.44 2.41 2.55 0.036
25376 SBA1-35 30-40 2.37 2.32 2.43 0.026
25377 SBA15-4 40-45 2.37 2.27 2.55 0.060
25490 ALB44A1 47.7 0.8 0.68 0.94 0.068
25491 ALB44A2 60.6 0.74 0.66 0.87 0.052
25492 ALB44B1 86.1 0.77 0.66 0.85 0.044 |
25493 ALB44B2 95.1 0.84 0.76 0.96 0.048
25981 ALB47A1 24.3 1.29 1.2 1.35 0.045
25482 ALB47A2 30 1.3 1.24 1.36 0.025
25483 ALB47B1 53.2 1.77 1.69 1.81 0.038
25484 ALB47B2 61.7 1.83 1.77 1.97 0.045
25485 ALB47C 104.4 2.16 2.11 2.24 0.035
25486 ALB48A1 45.3 0.88 0.83 1 0.042
25487 ALB48A2 57.2 1.02 0.86 1.18 0.010 I
25488 ALB48B1 82.6 0.86 0.77 1.17 0.080
25489 ALB48B2 na 0.79 0.72 0.86 0.028
25494 ALP12A1 na 0.45 0.4 0.51 0.028
25495 ALP12A2 na 0.43 0.38 0.48 0.026
25496 ALP12B1 na 0.45 0.4 0.5 0.024
25497 ALP12B2 na 0.44 0.4 0.5 0.031
25498 ALP13A1 na 0.45 0.4 0.5 0.027
25499 ALP13A2 na 0.46 0.4 0.53 0.032
25500 ALP13B1 na 0.46 0.41 0.54 0.033
25501 ALP13B2 na 0.48 0.44 0.54 0.030
Page 5
APPENDIX 5.3 REFLECTANCE DATA FROM
DAULAY (1988)
AND
KINHILL-OTTOGOLD JOINT VENTURE (1986)
. Rvmax data of the Bukit Asam Coals from Daulay (1988)
and Kinhill - Ottogold (1986)
Page 1
Location Rvmax. Min. Max. SD Source
GM. No.
19306 Muara Tiga 0.4 0.37 0.44 0.019
19307 0.4 0.36 ! 0.45 0.022
19308 0.4 0.36 0.47 0.026
19316 HD 37 Air Laway 0.42 0.37 0.47 0.025
19320 HD 40 Air Laway 0.38 0.35 0.41 0.018
19324 H D 17 Air Laway 0.44 0.39 0.48 0.023
19329 HD 55 Tapuan 0.46 0.39 0.51 0.031
19332 H D 61 Air Laway 0.43 0.38 0.48 0.026
19337 HD 62 Air Laway 0.41 0.38 0.45 0.021
19341 HD 63 Air Laway 0.45 0.4 0.48 0.022
19345 H D 54 Tapuan 0.42 0.38 0.47 0.024 .
19347 Ha 57 Air Laway _j 0.39 0.36 0.42 0.018
19353 HD 43 Air Laway 0.39 0.36 0.42 0.014
19356 H D 51 Air Laway 0.41 0.35 0.44 0.022
19360 H D 12 Air Laway 0.4 0.36 0.44 0.021
19366 Suban o/c 2.32 2.24 2.45 0.048
19367 2.18 2.1 2.23 0.036
19372 R C 63 Air Laya 0.44 0.37 0.5 0.031
19377 R C 60 Air Laya 1.26 1.12 1.32 0.043
19382 R C 39 Air Laya 0.43 0.38 0.49 0.028
19387 R C 14 Suban 0.89 0.8 0.95 0.04
19395 R C 27A Air Laya 0.48 0.43 0.55 0.031
19400 R C 10 Tapuan 0.69 0.61 0.75 0.035
19404 R C 50 Air Laya 0.44 0.4 0.49 0.024
19309 Muara Tiga o/c 0.43 0.38 0.47 0.027
19310 Muara Tiga o/c 0.44 0.39 0.49 0.026
19311 0.4 0.36 0.45 0.022
19317 HD 37 Air Laway 0.39 0.36 0.42 0.016
19321 HD 40 Air Laway 0.43 0.38 0.47 0.024
19325 HD 17 Air Laway 0.42 0.38 0.49 0.027
19330 H D 55 Tapuan 0.44 0.39 0.51 0.033
19338 HD 62 Air Laway 0.41 0.38 0.46 0.023
19348 HD 51 Air Laway 0.4 0.37 0.44 0.018
19350 HD 44 Air Laway 0.4 0.37 0.45 0.019
19354 HD 43 Air Laway 0.39 0.31 0.4 0.023
19357 HD 01 Air Laway 0.41 0.37 0.45 0.025
19361 HD 12 Air Laway 0.41 0.37 0.47 0.028
19333 H D 61 Air Laway 0.43 0.39 0.48 0.027
19363 Suban o/c 2.6 2.5 2.7 0.051
19364 2.41 2.3 2.53 0.053
19365 2.55 2.47 2.63 0.042
19373 R C 63 Air Laya 0.43 0.39 0.49 0.025
19378 RC 60 Air Laya 1.7 1.64 1.75 0.028
19383 R C 39 Air Laya 0.43 0.39 0.49 0.024
19388 R C 14 Suban 1.07 1.01 1.13 0.034
19391 RC 12BUkitAsam 2.19 2.09 2.29 0.054
19396 R C 27A Air Laya 0.48 0.41 0.59 0.039
19401 R C 10 Tapuan 1.4 1.34 1.52 0.041
19405 RC 50 Air Laya 0.44 0.4 0.49 0.028
19415 Banko 0.42 0.38 0.49 0.028
_19416 0.53 0.43 0.64 0.059
19334 HD61 AirLawav 0.43 0.39 0.49 0.025
19374 R C 63 Air Laya 0.49 0.42 0.56 0.036
19379 R C 60 Air Laya 1.72 1.66 1.78 0.029
Page 2
~GM. No. Location Rvmax. Min. Max. SD Source
19384 RC 39 Air Laya 0.44 0.39 0.51 0.031
19389 RC 14 Suban 1.25 1.2 1.33 0.031
19392 RC 12 Bukit Asam 2.25 2.17 2.35 0.044
19397 RC 27A Air Laya 0.51 0.44 0.57 0.032
19402 RC 10 Tapuan 2.05 1.97 2.12 0.039
19406 RC 50 Air Laya 0.45 0.4 0.52 0.033
19409 RC 62A Air Laya 0.42 0.38 0.47 0.024
19312 Muara Tiga o/c 1.46 1.4 1.54 0.049
19313 Muara Tiga 1.55 1.46 1.62 0.053
19314 1.53 1.48 1.58 0.025
19318 HD 37 Air Laway 0.42 0.37 0.48 0.026
19322 HD 40 Air Laway 0.43 0.38 0.47 0.026
19326 HD 17 Air Laway 0.44 0.39 0.48 0.023
19335 HD 61 Air Laway 0.47 0.41 0.54 0.033
19339 HD 62 Air Laway 0.45 0.4 0.5 0.028
19342 HD 63 Air Laway 0.89 0.81 0.97 0.04
19349 HD 51 Air Laway 0.42 0.38 0.47 0.024
19351 HD 44 Air Laway 0.41 0.35 0.48 0.029
19358 HD 01 Air Laway 0.45 0.39 0.5 0.024
19362 HD 12 Air Laway 0.42 0.39 0.47 0.021
19375 RC 63 Air Laway 0.45 0.4 0.51 0.032
19380 RC 60 Air Laya 1.78 1.66 1.85 0.04
19385 RC 39 Air Laya 0.45 0.39 0.5 0.03
19393 RC 12 Bukit Asam 2.28 2.19 2.36 0.044
19398 RC 27A Air Laya 0.51 0.46 0.58 0.031
19407 RC 50 Air Laya 0.47 0.4 0.54 0.039
19410 RC 62A Air Laya 0.43 0.38 0.5 0.033
19419 Banko 0.41 0.36 0.5 0.034
19420 0.41 0.37 0.47 0.026
19421 0.41 0.37 0.45 0.02
Page 3
APPENDIX 5.4 VERTICAL VARIATION DIAGRAMS
OF MACERAL GROUPS
AND MINERAL MATTER
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OF MACERALS
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A1SEAM
VERTICAL VARIATION DIAGRAM
OF MACERALS AND MINERAL MATTER
Legend
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APPENDIX 5.6 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS DATA
Appendix 5.5 Proxiiate Analysis Data
tUSE&fl
133 364556.3 587718.7 64.7 72 0 3.3 37.9 53.8 9.4 7311 0.32
WB36 365037.1 586862.6 83.4 92 0 13.6 43.8 46.2 10 6643 0.25
WB43 363039.9 586619.6 47.7 58 0 18.9 44.9 48.5 6.6 6936 0.6
ALB08 364856 586695 22.9 , 32 23.45 16.6 29.68 32.87 1.35 4598 0.15
ALB11 364868.6 586765.6 12.45 21.95 22.75 13.19 42.92 42.13 1.76 6617 0.10
ALB14 364752.6 586621 5.3 14.1 21.4 11.08 41.62 40.96 6.34 6183 0.86
ALB22 364298.3 586224.5 13.03 22 21.8 11.91 31.43 34.35 3.10 4998 0.44
SSB01 364225.7 585225 70.5 76.3 8.2 2.7 38.23 53.90 18.87 7184 0.83
NSB03 364566.2 585216.7 16.3 18.2 3.8 0.8 20.24 25.93 56.41 3812 0.15
NSBQ4 364182.3 585135.4 59.9 66.7 7.9 1.5 38.21 59.16 9.41 8267 0.94
NSB06 364391 585316.5 62.5 67.7 8.8 3.5 42.86 49.12 13.33 7483 0.78
RC02 364138.5 586642.6 35.4 41.6 5.83 2.31 34.20 58.82 10.49 7090 na
RC10 364461.1 585208.3 41.95 48.4 6.2 3.2 42.00 51.96 9.25 7592 0.66
RC21 363596.9 585797.6 9.5 13.75 9.23 3.65 14.53 43.61 48.00 3665 1.92
RC34 364494.5 586238.5 8.3 9.4 20.87 15.22 43.00 46.57 17.57 6677 0.75
RC46A 364207.1 586740.5 7.7 11.7 7.36 1.48 26.87 55.80 13.68 7737 0.64
RC51A 364136.2 586902.9 44.15 47.85 8.03 1.99 21.29 71.28 13.99 7508 0.67
RC60 364179.4 587273.7 47.6 53.85 8.54 2.21 23.01 59.04 14.87 7564 0.78
RC61 364501.1 587413.8 18.9 24.65 6.67 1.6 29.58 62.86 12.99 7612 0.96
SB02 363988.4 585333.9 88.4 94 3.5 1.4 33.92 60.79 7.46 7903 0.45
BB13 364900.4 587511.5 44.6 54.3 3.9 12.7 40.06 44.42 6.45 6209 0.58
A2 SEAM
ALC4 363970.5 586684 9.5 60.13 69.63 7285 nd 5.1 42.4 50.8 2.1
AL05 364362.4 586340.4 10.5 41.6 52.1 6068 nd 16 41.2 40.7 2.1
AL06 364190.2 586743.8 8.3 43.6 51.9 7519 nd 0.5 22.9 66 10.6
AL07 364262.1 586732.4 9.00 42.3 51.3 8037 nd 0.7 26.1 66.6 6.6
AL08 364002.5 587010.4 7.6 71.6 79.2 7706 nd 0.5 33.1 58 8.4
AL09 364196 587013.7 8.9 53.05 61.95 7940 nd 0.3 19.8 73.7 6.2
ALII 363760 586691.9 9.00 71.95 80.95 5787 nd 18.7 42 37.5 1.8
AL12 363920.4 586371 8.95 35.4 44.35 6083 nd 12.4 42.9 41.4 3.3
AL13 364200.9 586257.7 9.30 39.25 48,55 6041 nd 15.1 39.8 42.6 2.5
AL15 363965.1 586857.1 7.8 67.9 75.7 7940 nd 0.6 31.5 64.3 3.6
AL24 364371.4 587286.5 8.95 53.66 62.61 8174 nd 0.6 24.1 70.2 4.1
ALB13 364714.2 586555.2 8.68 16.2 24.88 5534 nd 11.52 35.88 36.69 5.43
ALB20 364413.5 586313.5 10.55 19.8 30.35 7045 nd 12.11 44.26 50.05 5.69
ALB26 364262.4 587101.5 6.8 19.7 26.5 8110 nd 0.72 20.93 75.58 3.49
ALB27 364222.7 586912.2 8.7 15.3 22 8194 nd 1.21 14.71 81.08 4.21
ALB32 364978.4 587104.5 11.75 6.2 17.95 6795 nd 12.14 44.78 48.69 6.53
ALB41 364234.8 587298.8 7.12 41.1 48.22 8420 nd 1.25 21.98 76.14 1.88
ALB42 364328.9 587694.4 11.6 80.1 91.7 7310 nd 8 23.9 66.1 10
ALB43 364307.7 587251.2 6.3 30.3 36.6 8030 nd 1.4 19.4 75.5 6.1
ALB44 364182.5 587415.2 9.6 55.75 65.35 7525 nd 3.2 38.3 54.8 6.9
ALB45 364499.4 587523.9 7.3 33.5 41.8 7825 nd 2.3 38.4 56.5 5.1
ALB47 364172.7 587164 5.5 27.25 32.75 8250 nd 1.1 25.3 71.2 3.5
ALB48 363961.3 586872.8 8.1 53.25 61.35 6765 nd 1.7 30.72 58 10.68
ALB56 363671.2 585924.5 7.3 49.2 56.5 7888 nd 2 39.7 55.3 5
ALB57 363655 585642.6 5.8 27 32.8 8355 nd 0.8 26.4 70.2 3.4
ALB58 363791.7 585646.4 4.3 76 80.3 8095 nd 1.9 38.3 60.1 1.6
ALB62 363800.5 585888.4 8.5 68 76.5 7465 nd 5.6 41.5 52.1 6.4
ALP15 364105.3 586554.6 9.5 3.3 12.8 7872 nd 3.7 35.8 58.5 2
AP22 364259.3 585561.3 8.3 64.7 73 7214 nd 8.4 39.1 49.3 3.2
BD02 364993.1 587344.6 10.4 55 65.4 6068 nd 13.8 41 41.3 3.9
DAL21 364350.1 586824.2 8.10 11.95 20.05 8175 nd 1.8 20.3 76.5 3.2
DAL30 364005.6 586981.6 8.3 33.7 42 7823 nd 1.7 29.4 65.2 5.4
DG27 363264 586581.2 10.97 33.13 44.01 7156 nd 19.7 44.5 52.4 3.1
GPC1 364136.7 586993.7 5.31 39 44.31 7599 nd 15.29 43.82 54.88 1.3
GP02 364014.5 587156.8 9.55 83.1 92.65 7241 nd 16.59 43.71 50.02 6.27
GP03 364261.6 587444.6 8.59 73.01 81.6 8083 nd 4.85 36.92 61.62 1.46
GP05 364310 586044.9 9.6 56.2 65.8 7468 nd 16.23 43.65 53.68 2.63
GP06 363977.1 585940.8 6.95 77.9 84.85 7442 nd 10.48 43.16 53.63 3.21
GP07 363732.2 585811.5 7.51 52.14 59.65 8092 nd 5.18 37.36 61.17 1.47
GPC8 363750.7 585575.8 6.02 66.48 72.5 8067 nd 1.47 31.59 64.72 3.69
GP10 364135.2 585677.9 7.3 69.4 76.7 7318 nd 9.44 40.77 53.52 5.71
GPU 364395,6 585901.1 9.26 55.34 64.6 7322 nd 12.33 43.22 54.25 2.53
KP08 364691.4 587215.6 ND 8.8 11.7 6572 nd 5.1 38.9 46.7 14.4
LBG06 364551.2 587741.9 10.85 39.5 50.35 7575 nd 4.3 40.6 54.7 4.7
LBG07 364564.9 587924.4 11.38 66.25 77.63 7540 nd 5.5 43.4 53.4 3.2
LBG15 364321.1 587427 5.9 29.9 35.8 8198 nd 1.5 20.4 77 2.6
LBG18 364118.9 586737.7 7.55 1.31 8.86 8099 nd 1.1 26.6 70.4 3
LBG19 364019.4 587034.7 8.58 36.87 45.45 8037 nd 1.7 34.6 61.5 3.9
LBG20 363936 587426.3 8 96.25 104.25 7193 nd 15.2 44.7 51.5 3.8
LBG21 364464.1 586228.1 9.6 25.5 35.1 6690 nd 10.8 43.2 45.6 11.2
ffiOl 363449.8 586786.5 8.35 105.35 113.7 6430 nd 11.64 41.09 41.09 3
NK02 363026 586712 12.05 108.6 120.65 5659 nd 21.5 36.32 36.32 2.74
HH03 363276.7 586629.9 11.01 52.12 63.13 5901 nd 20.67 38.08 38.95 2.3
HM05 362947.9 586628.3 11.45 71 82.45 6130 nd 16.69 38.43 42.94 1.94
BHID Easting Northing Thick FROM TO CV ffl H VM FC ASH S
AL06 364190.2 586743.8 56.1 61.1 0.5 24.4 52.9 22.2 6396 nd
ALIO 363813.6 587023.6 103.8 108.44 9.3 48.6 38.8 3.3 6466 nd
AL14 364013.2 586955.5 88.9 100.1 1 17.4 77.5 4.1 7963 nd
AL18 364457.5 587017.2 18.05 27.05 1 15.1 81.9 2 8314 nd
ALB27 364222.7 586912.2 39.8 47 1.08 17.93 75.73 6.34 8000 0.69
ALB35 364396.1 587076 11 18 1.46 14.99 75.01 10 7575 0.3
ALB39 364577.9 587169.6 14.61 21.6 2.1 34.29 60.85 4.86 8070 0.26
ALB4C 364638.4 587317.5 14.8 22.9 2.49 38.41 53.8 7.79 7505 0.23
AEB41 364234.8 587298.8 65.82 72.62 1.04 17.42 79.32 3.26 8230 1.46
ALB44 364182.5 587415.2 82.35 89.75 2.7 39.4 52.4 7.1 7685 0.16
ALB45 364499.4 587523.9 59.4 68.7 1.7 39 56.8 4.2 7935 0.3
ALB47 364172.7 587164 49.35 56.35 0.59 18.2 78 3.8 8370 0.53
ALB48 363961.3 586872.8 78.1 87.1 2.1 35.75 57.5 6.74 7622 1.45
ALB55 363565.3 586108.6 29.95 37.6 1 28.5 66.1 5.4 8131 0.4
ALB56 363671.2 585924.5 72.5 80.9 1.8 37.4 57.4 5.2 7680 0.28
ALB59 363498.8 585560 5.7 8.7 1 10.1 82.8 7.2 7930 0.87
ALB60 364333 585570.7 93.3 102.75 1 42.9 49.4 7.7 7285 0.32
ALB61 364221.4 585510.3 96.4 105.4 4.1 41.6 53.8 4.6 7650 0.16
ALB62 363800.5 585888.4 90.5 94.4 4.8 41.6 51.5 6.9 7460 0.28
ALB68 363537 585993 38 40.3 2 12.4 62 19.3 6602 nd
ALB69 363450.6 586171.4 5.6 11.6 0.9 30.47 64.88 4.64 7885 0.22
ALB71 363383.3 586024.5 36.8 39.2 2.5 8.5 57.2 31.8 4915 0.78
ALP10 364396.2 587076.1 14.6 21.6 1.46 14.99 75.01 10 7575 0.3
AP21 364254.6 585337.1 117.4 125.4 1.4 34 56.1 8.5 7684 nd
AP22 364259.3 585561.3 87.6 96.7 6.7 39.1 50 4.2 7238 nd
DAL06 364409.5 586896.1 6.15 13.65 1.59 13.94 78.67 7.39 7876 0.83
DAL07 364418.1 586786.1 12.9 18 1.16 27.3 65.17 7.53 7905 0.46
DAL08 364371.5 586685.1 17.1 24.5 1.75 25.79 59.86 14.35 7293 0.46
DAL09 364309.8 586843.8 19.85 27.25 1.12 14.24 77.26 8.5 7800 0.27
DAL10 364511.1 586844.8 1.4 8.55 3.44 40.65 53.61 5.74 7650 0.52
DAL11 364491.4 586792.2 1.3 10.8 3.01 43.04 51.28 5.68 7305 0.35
DAL16 364711.4 586978.8 1.4 13.6 12.1 43.7 48.1 8.2 6975 0.33
DAL17 364788.5 587271.9 7.9 20 9.4 43.8 47.5 8.7 6885 0.47
DAL21 364350.1 586824.2 34.55 41.2 1.3 17 76.6 6.4 7870 0.59
DAL30 364005.6 586981.6 60.2 66.5 2.4 40.6 57.9 1.5 8074 0.55
DAL31 364296.6 587043.7 6.3 13.3 1.3 14 77.9 8.1 7893 0.67
DAL32 364237.5 586748.3 4.3 11.2 1.5 15.7 77.5 6.8 7873 0.65
DG27 363264 586581.2 63.48 74.8 18.3 43.8 51.3 4.9 7110 nd
GP01 364136.7 586993.7 57.35 63.65 2.04 16.64 80.9 4.46 8143 0.66
GP02 364014.5 587156.8 109.65 116.68 12.37 43.07 54.25 2.68 7672 0.31
GP03 364261.6 587444.6 99.83 106.3 2.11 27.78 68.79 3.48 8237 0.36
GP04 364079.5 586132.5 64.15 74.1 15.66 44.52 52.49 2.99 7543 0.28
GP05 364310 586044.9 84.4 93.7 14.4 43.34 51.82 4.84 7304 0.6
GP06 363977.1 585940.8 93.21 94.4 9.93 42.22 55.87 1.91 7593 0.37
GP07 363732.2 585811.5 77.95 85.89 3.58 37.18 59.51 3.31 8069 0.34
GP08 363750.7 585575.8 81.54 87.92 1.02 25.07 66.32 8.61 7756 0.51
GP10 364135.2 585677.9 94.6 104.1 7.54 41.94 52.89 5.17 7473 0.29
GP11 364395.6 585901.1 80.87 90.8 11.47 42.74 53.57 3.69 7277 0.26
GP13 364935.5 586129.4 49.25 58.63 14.06 44.37 52.07 3.56 7104 0.31
KP08 364691.4 587215.6 31.4 40.6 4.1 42.2 50.7 7.1 7379 0.25
LBG06 364551.2 587741.9 66.5 77.45 4.8 43.1 50.4 6.5 7410 0.25
LK15 364321.1 587427 51.75 59.4 1.3 23.4 67.9 8.7 7796 0.43
LBG16 364213.3 586524.5 7.35 17.35 6.5 44.4 50.4 5.2 7257 0.6
LBG18 364118.9 586737.7 26.26 32.91 1.6 17.4 76.1 6.5 7292 0.61
BHID EASTING NORTHING FROM TO W VM FC ASH CV S
LBG19 364019.4 587034.7 61.84 69.77 1.3 32.2 64.1 3.7 8075 0.43
586786.5 133.3 145.8 10.74 40.87 40.87 4.35 6449 0.24
ffiOl 363449.8
586712 141.7 154.6 12.61 40.6 40.6 6.05 6030 0.18
ffl02 363026
363276.7 586629.9 82.5 94.65 11.82 41.09 43.11 3.98 6268 0.26
MMC3
362947.9 586628.3 104.3 116.65 14.68 38.66 42.23 4.43 5996 0.24
HM05
HSBOl 364225.7 585225 102.5 108.15 1.4 35.19 57.7 7 7991 0.38
NSB02 364554.3 585322.4 68.45 77.5 2.5 41.83 51.84 6.7 7620 0.38
NSB03 364566.2 585216.7 41.6 42.1 1.2 19.73 71.86 8.3 7930 0.4
NSB04 364182.3 585135.4 93.55 100.3 0.9 25.22 65.59 9.1 7911 0.44
NSB06 364391 585315.5 92.2 101.15 1.9 39.57 51.68 8.4 7573 0.41
R02 363123.7 586420 26.8 38.25 11.7 39.39 42.77 6.14 6331 0.35
RC02 364138.5 585642.6 68.6 76,4 0.86 20.23 62.21 0.86 7633 nd
RC07 364435.5 587767.9 112.8 122.4 2.32 40.61 44.28 13.79 6712 0.36
RC10 364461.1 585208.3 69.8 75.6 0.7 27.28 66.79 5.94 7930 0.5
RC11 364133 585331.4 116.6 123.4 13 87 nd 7740 nd
RC12 363730.4 585405.8 94.65 101.2 1.41 14 86 nd 8629 nd
RC12A 363729.1 585444.7 83.85 90.55 0.91 16 84 nd 8318 nd
RC13 363941.4 585421.2 112.25 120.35 32 68 nd 8300 nd
RC14 364725.2 585399 49.7 53.7 34 66 nd 8420 nd
RC17 364007.7 585694.5 101.9 110.7 3.54 47 53 nd 7470 nd
RC18 364847.1 585701.5 31.4 32.95 6.99 48 52 nd 7579 nd
RC21 363596.9 585797.6 31.8 38.85 1.15 25.27 61.86 12.87 6985 0.52
RC22 364014.3 585864.3 88.25 97.15 7.58 46 54 nd 7812 nd
RC23 363908.8 585923.2 100.3 109.15 7.53 47 53 nd 7891 nd
RC26 363790.3 586035.6 72 81.5 8.05 4? 53 nd 7491 nd
RC27 363959.8 586078 75.7 84.75 8.73 48 52 nd 7331 nd
RC27A 363939.3 586054.9 77.6 84.35 9.71 48 52 nd 7375 nd
RC28 364129.1 586020.2 80.65 90.8 7.7 51 49 nd 5964 nd
RC32 363506.9 586087.9 42.4 45.1 0.9 15.51 75.71 8.78 7750 0.66
RC35 364808.7 586151.7 110.3 121.4 9.65 52 48 nd 5672 nd
RC36 365083.6 596104.6 27.2 39.59 12.03 52 48 nd 7303 nd
RC37 363616.9 586433.5 42.5 53.6 15.04 51 49 nd 7517 nd
RC39 364844.3 586210.9 120.8 132.3 13.41 49 51 nd 7554 nd
RC40 365083.2 586334.9 91.5 103.7 16.5 44.49 46.3 9.21 6737 0.23
RC41 365289.3 586310.6 96.35 107.75 17.79 50 50 nd nd nd
RC42 364759.1 586479.5 91.6 102 16.62 51 49 nd 7320 nd
RC45 364142.8 586723.4 65.25 72.1 1.96 19 81 nd 8285 nd
RC46A 364207.1 586740.5 39 45.55 1.23 16.41 74.76 8.83 7411 0.49
RC47 365010.1 586604.7 139.65 153.5 17.42 50 50 nd nd nd
RC48 364177.7 586805.8 51.6 58.1 2.12 16 84 nd 8542 nd
RC51A 364136.2 586902.9 77.7 84.25 2.21 14.52 76.21 9.27 7739 0.85
RC53 364167.7 586994.5 70.5 77.4 1.37 14 86 nd nd nd
RC55 365144.4 586923.2 155.25 168.6 12.57 51 . 49 nd nd nd
RC57 364116.1 587117.6 83.1 89.1 1.4 21 79 nd 8387 nd
RC58 364184.6 587089.1 67.95 73.85 1.22 23 77 nd 8144 nd
RC60 364179.4 587273.7 82.75 89.8 2.04 17.46 69.85 12.69 7354 0.62
RC61 364501.1 587413.8 57.8 65.8 4.09 36.84 60.11 3.05 7790 1.49
TA29 364329 585648 90.48 100.7 8.32 43.32 50.28 6.4 7346 0.37
TA30 363958 585988 102.7 105.95 8.26 44.37 50.43 5.2 7192 0.39
1A31 363783 586179 54.06 64,38 9.58 44.84 46.66 8.5 7018 0.26
TA32 364119 586154 71.2 74.1 13.86 44.7 49 6.3 6970 0.3
TA35 364042 586531 84.75 94.1 9.1 44.7 51.9 3.4 7428 0.46
TA38 364282 586731 29.2 36,92 1 17.8 77.1 5.1 8142 0.7
TA39 363889 586712 97.6 108.45 10.36 44.65 49.15 6.2 6999 0.35
TA41 364101 586898 79.2 85.95 2.44 13.77 78.83 7.4 7960 0.69
TA43 364628 587068 26.6 35.16 4.22 42.33 51.17 6.5 7171 0.25
BHID EASTING NORTHING FROM TO H VM FC ASH CV
TA45 364410 587253 40.06 45.26 2.1 20.58 72.22 7.2 7835
TA59 363912 585729 108.2 116.16 2.67 41.9 52.2 5.9 7596
TA64 364394.2 584942.7 54.3 60 1.4 7.6 87.4 5 7990
TA65 364254.6 584877.6 58 .64.8 1.7 10.1 85 4.9 8059
TA66 364224.3 587031.2 58.4 65.2 1.6 14.2 79.3 6.5 7953
HOI 364617.4 586240.8 93.75 102.81 8.12 42.89 40.77 8.22 6200
W02 364437.3 586437.4 32.5 43.05 13.26 40.75 39.4 6.58 6035
H03 364477 586639.3 29.4 39.2 7.04 32.79 33.02 27.15 4725
WB01 363994 585804.6 97.2 105.5 6.09 41.21 54.45 4.34 7612
HB02 363988.4 585333.9 122.2 129.4 1.2 20.4 72.1 7.5 7974
103 364652.4 585618.4 59.95 70 6.62 40.71 54.17 5.12 7387
HB04 364426.7 585127.9 64.35 70.33 1.4 15.7 72.3 12 7440
HB05 364729.1 585260.7 56.65 62.55 0.9 23.6 60.7 15.7 7035
WB07 364599.3 585935.8 77.8 88.3 6 44.1 46.1 9.8 6940
111 364395.5 587454.1 92.2 99.4 2 28.5 63.5 8 7730
WB16 364231.5 587243.9 58.9 65.3 2 15.2 77.7 7.1 7945
HB20 364369.2 586870.1 21.8 28 2.3 15.6 77.6 6.8 7915
WB25 364923.1 586640.7 119.3 131 13.4 44.5 49.6 5.9 7081
HB27 363888.4 586027 76.3 83 7.57 42.9 48.8 8.3 7044
HB28 364556.9 585739.8 68.9 78 8.4 43.3 49.4 7.13 6998
130 364046.5 585592.2 93.7 102 3.4 42 51.2 6.8 7525
HB31 364301.4 585005.7 61.4 67 1.4 12 83.4 4.6 8220
131 364556.3 587718.7 102.5 113 5.3 41.5 51 7.5 7231
134 364357.5 588180.4 169.7 181 13.2 44.3 49.1 6.6 6930
137 364346 587666.2 109 115 4.7 39.5 53 7.5 7290
HB38 363951.8 586980.5 96.1 105 4.8 41 53.8 5.2 7535
WB39 364678.9 586357 89 99 11.4 44.3 46.6 9.1 6733
HB40 365218.7 587018.5 160.9 174 15.4 38.5 49.5 5.4 7284
141 363642.3 586972.1 146.3 158 15.4 44.7 48.7 6.6 6910
S7a 364296 585097 63.4 70.82 16.79
B2 SEAM
BHID EASTING NORTHING FROM TO IM VM FC ASH CV S
AL06 364190.2 586743.8 68.4 77.8 0.4 22.5 53.7 23.4 6165 nd
ALIO 363813.6 587023.6 109.7 112.5 12 47 38.6 2.4 6373 nd
AL14 364013.2 586955.5 102.1 104.9 0.4 22.5 73.7 3.4 8080 nd
AL18 364457.5 587017.2 32.55 37.55 0.7 16.9 80.2 2.2 8221 nd
ALB27 364222.7 586912.2 48.8 51.1 1 17.63 78.59 3.78 8232 0.52
ALB35 364396.1 587076 19.35 22.6 1.36 13.4 79.75 6.35 7960 1.07
ALB38 364805.8 587020.6 25.8 29.5 10.8 44.84 44.11 11.05 6625 0.73
ALB39 364577.9 587169.6 24.95 26.65 1.3 26.22 72.19 1.59 8348 1.13
ALB40 364638,4 587317.5 26.4 28.25 1.2 32.78 59.54 7.68 7630 1.51
ALB41 364234.8 587298.8 76.42 77.82 1.59 15.06 74.18 10.06 7575 1.39
ALB44 364182.5 587415.2 93.35 96.85 1.6 36.2 60.6 3.2 7960 nd
ALB45 364499.4 587523.9 71.3 71.8 1.6 16.6 76.3 7.1 7955 1.67
ALB47 364172.7 587164 60.3 63.1 1.6 16.6 76.3 7.1 7955 1.67
ALB50 363886 586305.4 64.65 68.95 9 44.1 45.6 10.3 6800 1.12
ALB55 363565.3 586108.6 39.4 41.6 0.9 24.8 68.3 6.9 7931 1.09
ALB56 363671.2 585924.5 82.1 85.5 1.8 37.4 60.2 2.4 8106 0.38
ALB60 364333 585570.7 105.75 109.3 6.2 41 52.4 6.6 7255 1.1
AIM 364221.4 585510.3 108.6 112 4.1 40.9 55.1 3.6 7613 0.67
ALB62 363800.5 585888.4 95.6 99.3 4.6 42.6 55.2 2.2 7760 1.03
AM63 363722.5 586254 45.4 48.9 44.55 51.4 2.75 7365 1.3
ALB69 363450.6 586171.4 13 16 0.9 39.25 56 4.74 7199 0.5
ALB71 363383.3 586024.5 39.2 41 1.4 9.6 83.3 5.7 4790 0.53
ALP10 364396.2 587076.1 24.95 26.65 1.36 13.9 79.75 6.35 7960 1.07
AP22 364259.3 585561.3 100.2 104.2 3.5 36.4 47.5 10.6 6885 nd
DAL06 364409.5 586896.1 16.8 18.9 1.89 13.76 79.23 7.01 7926 1.34
DAL07 364418.1 586786.1 21 24 1.11 25.28 68.13 6.59 7939 0.63
DAL08 364371.5 586685.1 28 30.8 1.5 32.11 62.61 5.28 7935 0.58
DAL09 364309.8 586843.8 30.25 31.5 1.43 14.62 78.1 7.28 7889 0.27
DAL10 364511.1 586844.8 11.65 15.45 3.21 38.25 59.23 2.52 7936 1.14
DAL11 364491.4 586792.2 13.9 17.7 2.35 44.11 52.26 3.63 7455 0.51
DAL16 364711.4 586978.8 17.8 22.2 11.9 44.7 50.9 4.4 7235 0.82
DAL17 364788.5 587271.9 21.9 25.6 6.1 44.1 52.5 3.4 7500 0.96
DAL22 364350.6 586874.9 1.6 4.6 1.3 14.6 75 10.4 7345 1.78
QAL30 364005.6 586981.6 69.05 72.65 1.8 30.9 64.8 4.3 8238 1.34
DAL32 364237.5 586748.3 13.8 16.3 1.1 16.3 80.5 3.2 8325 1.51
DAL31 364296.6 587043.7 15.6 19.1 1.2 14 78.8 7.2 7880 1.07
DG27 363264 586581.2 77 81 17.7 44.2 52.2 3.6 7359 nd
GPOl 364136.7 586993.7 79.32 83.5 2.16 14.29 76.79 8.92 7740 1.81
GPC2 364014.5 587156.8 118.3 120.45 6.04 40.32 57.35 2.33 7995 2.11
GP04 364079.5 586132.5 75.45 79.25 14.03 43.99 52.89 3.12 7577 1.39
GP05 364310 586044.9 94.75 99.3 14.83 41.88 55.58 2.54 7346 1.68
GP07 363732.2 585811.5 86.99 90.72 3.11 35.29 61.57 3.14 8040 1.09
GP08 363750.7 585575.8 89.67 92.6 2.03 26.29 62.92 10.79 7770 1.02
GP10 364135.2 585677.9 105.3 109.05 7.4 40.14 57.83 2.03 7738 0.91
GPU 364395.6 585901.1 93.79 97.83 10.75 40.72 54.48 4.8 7211 0.99
GP13 364935.5 586129.4 61.6 66.1 14.62 42 54.04 3.96 7102 1.09
GTDOl 364548.5 586828,7 3.65 7.61 5.9 44.3 52.5 3.2 7910 1.28
GTD02 364392 586874.7 1.8 3 1.6 14.8 74.5 10.6 7300 2.12
GTDC3 364390 587005 0.45 2.35 1.6 14.4 79.5 6.1 7965 1.09
GTD05 364785.7 587004.3 8.3 12.7 8.5 44.5 51.8 3.7 7155 0.26
KP07 364189.1 588007.3 177.4 181.6 9.1 44.3 47.6 8.1 6998 1.28
KPQ8 364691.4 587215.6 43.6 47.1 1.8 39.8 53.9 6.3 7971 1.29
KP09 364493.6 587387.1 66.6 71 5.8 42 49.4 8.6 6700 1.07
LBG06 364551.2 587741.9 80.95 84.6 2.5 37.5 54.4 8.1 7385 0.68
BHID EASTING NORTHING FROM TO IM VM PC ASH CV S
LBG18 364118.9 586737.7 35.11 38.11 1.6 29.6 63.8 6.6 7866 1
LBG19 364019.4 587034.7 73.6 75.2 1.1 26.9 70.5 2.6 8306 1.62
fflOl 363449.8 586786.5 147.25 152 10.51 40.91 40.91 3.06 6416 0.26
102 363026 586712 154.75 159.6 13.81 39.12 39.12 3.95 6184 0.91
HM03 363276.7 586629.9 96.08 100.5 11.47 41.85 44.69 2.04 6390 0.85
HHC5 362947.9 586628.3 117.43 122.15 13.45 40.28 43.22 3.05 6357 0.69
NSB01 364225.7 585225 110.6 114.5 1.1 27.4 69.4 8.1 7785 1.26
NSB02 364554.3 585322.4 79.7 84.05 1.9 41.23 54.63 7 7645 0.74
NSB03 364566.2 585216.7 47.2 54.5 2 10.81 78.36 10.6 7668 0.98
NSBQ4 364182.3 585135.4 102.15 104.75 0.9 16.64 74.97 8.3 7916 1.2
NSB06 364391 585316.5 103.5 107 1.6 38.1 53.15 8.6 7581 1.63
PGT10 364416.5 586767.7 0.3 2.5 1.6 26 65.9 8.1 7891 1.23
R02 363123.7 586420 42.6 46.25 10.44 41.46 45.22 2.88 6411 0.83
RC01 364208.8 585781 99.8 103.6 3.17 42.79 51.13 5.07 7251 0.8
RC02 364138.5 586642.6 78.4 81.2 0.9 32.42 64.8 0.9 8225 nd
RC07 364435.5 587767.9 127.4 130.7 1.7 40 55.1 4.93 7692 2.39
RC10 364461.1 585208.3 77.55 80.05 0.8 12.55 77.12 10.33 7707 0.88
RC11 364133 585331.4 125.25 128.05 13 87 7890
RC12 363730.4 585405.8 103.15 105.36 1.63 13 87 8629
RC12A 363729.1 585444.7 91.95 94.45 1.18 15 85 8424
RC13 363941.4 585421.2 122.95 125.85 35 65 8385
RC14 364725.2 585399 56.1 58 29 71 8140
RC18 364847.1 585701.5 34.25 38.8 6.9 47 53 7371
RC22 364014.3 585864.3 99.35 103 8.83 48 52 7822
RC23 363908.8 585923.2 110.8 114.2 6.66 46 54 7892
RC26 363790.3 586035.6 83.5 B7 8.06 45 55 7773
RC27 363959.8 586078 86.05 90 8.68 48 52 7337
RC27A 363939.3 586054.9 85.5 87.95 8.15 49 51 7233
RC28 364129.1 586020.2 92.35 96.25 8.38 49 51 7259
RC30 364888.1 586000.9 41.15 46.4 15.47 43.88 47.54 8.58 6858 0.83
RC32 363506.9 586087.9 46.95 49.6 0.86 15.72 76.76 7.52 7942 1.09
RC35 364808.7 586151.7 125.55 129.6 9.6 49 51 7231
RC36 365083.6 596104.6 42.05 46.6 12.41 49 51 7368
RC37 363616.9 586433.5 55.25 59.45 14.4 51 49 7746
RC39 364844.3 586210.9 136.7 142 13.43 49 51 7392
RC41 365289.3 586310.6 112.3 116.75 17.29 50 50
RC42 364759.1 586479.5 105 108.7 15.57 50 50 7594
RC46A 364207.1 586740.5 47.6 50.1 0.92 17.13 57.33 25.54 5041 0.92
RC48 364177.7 586805.8 59.3 61.6 1.63 17 83 8552
RC49 364568.1 586790.8 43.05 47.3 13.66 44.35 48.04 7.61 7019 1.09
RC51A 364136.2 586902.9 85.95 88.3 1.84 13.89 78.69 7.42 7847 0.9
RC53 364167.7 586994.5 79.45 81.95 1.39 16 84
RC57 364116.1 587117.6 93 95.7 1.51 21 79 8493
RC60 364179.4 587273.7 94.4 97 2.67 18.46 73.84 7.7 7260 2.17
S7a 364296 585097 72.62 76.42 5.76
IA23 363305 586706 125.56 130.32 19.68 43.68 49.82 6.5 7046
TA24 363636 586684 118.82 123.5 17.24 44.9 46.7 8.4 6749 1.02
TA25 364646 586144 105.5 109.62 13.24 43.69 47.01 9.3 7101 1.42
TA29 364329 585648 103.32 107.08 7.93 42.85 51.85 5.3 7372 0.99
TA32 364119 586154 76 80.26 14.3 44.63 48.37 7 6836 1.03
TA35 364042 586531 96.05 98.9 8.5 43.6 52.1 4.3 6850 0.34
TA38 364282 586731 39.61 42.12 1.1 20.5 75.5 4 8286 1.58
TA39 363889 586712 109.6 113.35 11.74 44.52 50.69 4.8 7205 0.83
TA41 364101 586898 87.65 90.41 2.25 14.4 80.2 5.4 8172 1.26
IA42 364810 586877 57.54 62.09 13.69 44.69 47.81 7.5 6913 0.98
TA43 364628 587068 38.92 42.48 1.99 40.87 56.63 2.5 7762 1.54
BHID EASTING NORTHING
WB17 365050.9 587328.3 113.6 118.4 10.9 43.5 49.3 7.2 6990
HB19 363768.9 586913.9 140.4 145 12.8 43.4 47.5 9.1 6716
2.6 14.7 73.6 11.7 7490
WB20 364369.2 586870.1 32 34
SB21 365055.2 587126.8 106.5 111 12.9 44 50.6 5.4 7150
WB23 363770.3 586521.1 78 82 11.9 43.8 49.1 7.1 6960
84.6 86 8.5 44 51.4 4.6 7315
mn 363888.4 586027
7.3 6992
WB28 364556.9 585739.8 80.8 84 8.2 41.9 50.8
BB33 364556.3 587718.7 116.6 120 4.3 41.7 52.1 6.2 7408
KB34 364357.5 588180.4 185.9 190 13 44.3 49.4 6.3 6960
HB36 365037.1 586862.6 133.9 136 13.5 42.4 50.2 7.4 6885
KB37 364346 587666.2 118.6 121 3.3 37.3 58.6 4.1 7885
HB39 364678.9 586357 102 106 11.5 44.7 48.7 6.6 6990
CSffl
AL18 364457.5 587017.2 68.5 74.8 8361 nd 0.4 24,5 72.2 2.9 nd
ALB36 364505.7 586706.3 59.65 62.5 6959 nd 4.64 50,11 44.3 5.59 0.98
ALB37 364665.2 586891.8 64.9 65.6 7384 nd 12.03 46.52 52.12 1.36 0.8
AIM) 364638.4 587317.5 70.5 78.55 7450 nd 4.14 40.45 52.33 7.22 1.5
ALB47 364172.7 587164 101.55 107.2 8235 nd 1.3 13 82.8 4.2 1.34
ALB54 364876.3 585969.5 78.8 86.35 7285 nd 10.1 47,3 48.3 4.4 1.3
AP21 364254.6 585337.1 167.5 174.2 8084 nd 1.4 23.2 70.5 4.9 nd
AP22 364259.3 585561.3 143.3 150.5 7708 nd 4.1 36.1 56.1 3.4 nd
DAL11 364491.4 586792.2 55.5 61.7 7021 nd 2.45 45.34 49 6 1.01
DAL21 364350.1 586824.2 85.75 89.25 8110 nd 1.5 13.7 81.6 4.7 0.96
DAL22 364350.6 586874.9 43.1 48.5 7285 nd 0.6 20.2 75.6 4.2 1.7
DAL25 364215 586955 61 71 7270 nd 9.5 47.5 47.1 5.4 1.44
DAL30 364005.6 586981.6 108.1 111.9 7319 nd 2.1 36 55.4 8.7 0.79
DAL31 364296.6 587043.7 46 52.1 7837 nd 1.3 11.7 81.2 7.1 1.32
DAL32 364237.5 586748.3 54.2 60.8 7668 nd 0.8 20.6 71.7 7.7 2.62
DAL33 364042.1 586180 94 102.4 7524 nd 7.3 46.6 48.4 5 1.11
DG31 363080 586127.1 37.02 45.95 6571 nd 17 44 47.8 8.2 0.63
GID01 364548.5 586828.7 45.75 54.75 7295 nd 6.4 44.5 51 4.5 1.36
GTD02 364392 586874.7 41.2 47.8 6955 nd 1.7 25.1 57.7 17.2 2.32
GI003 364390 587005 38.8 44.8 8055 nd 0.9 23.1 72.7 4.2 0.79
GTD04 364536.4 587009.3 44.95 51.85 6950 nd 1.4 36.9 59 4.1 1.45
GTD05 364785.7 587004.3 52.3 62.8 7015 nd 7.2 43.9 48.9 7.2 0.28
KP02 364881.2 587943.2 191.5 201.55 6809 nd 1 46.4 45.4 8.2 0.74
KP03 365131.5 587675 185.4 195.1 7041 nd 7.8 47 43.8 9.2 1.36
KP04 364010.6 587760.7 199.6 210.2 7206 nd 9.2 49.7 45.8 6.3 0.61
KP05 363792.8 587615.4 225 235.2 7257 nd 8.4 46.4 47.3 6.3 0.42
KP08 364691.4 587215.6 86.9 95.2 7375 nd 4.5 43.6 46.2 10.2 1.28
KP09 364493.6 587387.1 110 120.2 6679 nd 4.3 42.9 48.9 8.2 0.77
LBG01 364918.6 587544.7 104 114 7195 nd 10.7 46.2 48 5.5 0.91
LBG04 364803.8 587655.3 118.31 120.8 7072 nd 9.7 47.2 45.5 7.3 1.84
LBG06 364551.2 587741.9 121 124 7320 nd 2 39.5 51.8 8.7 2.58
LBG08 364723.9 587514.3 89.1 99.1 7183 nd 8.6 45.7 49 5.3 0.69
LBG16 364213.3 586524.5 59.5 67.6 7359 nd 6.3 44.7 50.8 4.5 0.69
LBG18 364118.9 586737.7 75.76 82.51 7919 nd 1 25.7 67.7 6.6 1.8
101 363449.8 586786.5 191 200.3 6967 nd 9.58 41.13 41.13 5.5 0.72
102 363026 586712 201.75 210.6 6234 nd 12.16 39.83 39.83 5.35 0.64
103 363276.7 586629.9 139 148.8 6530 nd 11.66 41.12 43.69 4.13 0.7
105 362947.9 586628.3 163.95 176.8 6386 nd 13.29 39.97 43.12 3.62 0.48
HSBQ2 364554.3 585322.4 118.7 127.9 7686 9.8 2.1 40.76 52.2 6.9 1.6
PGI06 364520.1 587150.8 38.75 45.8 8004 nd 1.3 33.5 61.4 5.1 1.36
PGTC7 364521.4 587069 35.2 41.2 8399 3.3 1.3 33.7 62.8 3.5 2.01
PGI08 364469.2 586985.9 32.5 32.85 7183 nd 3.6 45.7 49 5.3 0.69
PGT09 364468.7 586907.7 35.5 42.5 7936 2 1.4 34 60.7 5 1.86
PGT10 364416.5 586767.7 39 46.6 7974 5.4 3 37.4 58.3 4.3 1.66
R02 363123.7 586420 85.4 95.1 6686 nd 8.61 43.09 44.3 4 0.69
HC02 364138.5 586642.6 116.6 124 7271 4.42 1.17 37.4 50.88 11.7 nd
EC07 364435.5 587767.9 167.2 175.2 7567 12.35 2.81 42.36 52.63 4.68 0.54
RC11 364133 585331.4 160.8 165.15 8220 nd nd 17 83 nd nd
RC12 363730.4 585405.8 139.25 143.8 8323 nd 1.65 15 85 nd nd
8C13 363941.4 585421.2 161.4 167.7 8394 nd nd 30 70 nd nd
RC17 364007.7 585694.5 152.7 160.3 8149 nd 3.26 47 53 nd nd
RC18 364847.1 585701.5 75.45 84.2 7828 nd 6.33 48 52 nd nd
RC21 363596.9 585797.6 59.4 64.95 7802 2.09 0.75 20.65 73.21 5.14 1.29
RC22 364014.3 585864.3 139.6 147.5 7941 nd 5.83 46 54 nd nd
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APPENDIX 6.2A
TRACE ELEMENT DATA
(XRF ANALYSES)
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