Balje Part A

Study on Design Criteria and Matching of
0. E. BALJE
Engineering Consultant,
Hollywood, Calif.
Fart A—Similarity Relations and Desk
Mem. A S M E
Only four parameters are needed to describe the characteristics of turbomachines com-
pletely. This concept is used to present maximum obtainable efficiencies and the
optimum design geometry of turbines as function of specific speed, specific diameter,
Mach number, and Reynolds number, based on the state-of-the-art knowledge. Addi-
tionally, other aspects such as unit weight and rotor stresses are discussed. Some of
the information is preliminary because of limited information on loss relations for tur-
bines, particularly at low Reynolds number and high Mach numbers.
Introduction the form of specific speed N , and its correlate, specific diameter
D, [2],
E V E R A L characteristic values are commonly used An interesting aspect of the specific diameter Ds is that this
for defining significant performance criteria of turbomachines, value represents a critical dimension of the turbomachine, the
such as turbine velocity ratio u/co, pressure coefficient qad, flow rotor diameter; i.e., introduces a geometry-value into the
factor ip, specific speed Ars, Reynolds number Re, Mach number similarity concept. This is a slight departure from the "classical"
M , and so on. Each of these parameters represents important concept which uses velocity ratios (such as M/C0 and if>*) as parame-
aspects and is used to express, in a dimensionless form, significant ters. The fact that now the geometry of the turbomachine is
criteria. Similarity considerations [l] 1 show that actually only directly represented in the similarity concept is a distinct ad-
four parameters are needed to describe completely the charac- vantage since it offers the opportunity to recognize relations for
teristics of turbomachines handling compressible medii; namely, the optimum channel geometry rather readily, by expressing op-
the Mach number, the Reynolds number, and two characteristic timum geometrical values in terms of Ds. This concept is used
velocity ratios. These velocity ratios can either be the flow factor to present the available information on turbine-performance data
and turbine-velocity ratio or equivalent values. Practical con- in convenient design diagrams which show the maximum ob-
siderations, dealing with the design aspect of turbomachines, tainable efficiency together with optimum design geometry.
would indicate that parameters which contain the rotative speed Such an undertaking is necessarily presumptuous since the
and rotor diameter would be desirable terms for the equivalent knowledge of the interrelation between geometry and losses is
values. Such values can be provided bj' the similarity concept in still incomplete and in many cases very little explored; e.g.,
Reynolds-number and Mach-numbcr influences. Thus many of
1 N u m b e r s in brackets designate References at end of paper. the presented diagrams have to be labeled preliminary. The
C o n t r i b u t e d b y the Gas T u r b i n e P o w e r Division and presented systematic study of the available information on losses, how-
at the Winter Annual M e e t i n g , N e w Y o r k , N . Y . , N o v e m b e r 2 7 - D e -
ever, did indicate some interesting trends and contributed con-
eember 2, 1960, of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL EN-
GINEERS. M a n u s c r i p t received at A S M E Headquarters, August 29, siderably to improve the state of the art in the low-specific-speed
1900. Paper N o . 6 0 — W A - 2 3 0 . regime. Hence this study may be considered a first attempt to
'Nomenclature
A = area, ft 2 II = head, f t T = temperature, deg R, torque, ft-lb
a = arc of admission, ft h = blade heights, ft t = blade pitch, ft; time, sec
a* — cutter diameter, ft HP = horsepower, hp u = peripheral speed, fps
B = length to diameter ratio of rotor ./ = mechanical equivalent of heat, V = volume flow, ft 3 /sec
Btu/ft-lb w = weight flow, lb/sec
C chord length, f t
K, k = coefficient w — relative velocity, ft/sec
r = absolute velocity, ft/sec
I = rotor length, ft X = ratio of free area to swept area
Co = spouting velocity M = Mach number X = Reynolds number exponent
cv = specific heat at constant pressure, N = rotative speed, rpm Y = pressure-ratio function
B t u / l b deg F n = number of stages y = percentage of total head ex-
D •
rotor diameter, ft V = pressure, l b / f t 2 panded in first stage
r radius z coefficient as defined in equation
D*
= =
= equivalent hydraulic diameter, ft
R gas constant, f t / d e g F (16)
F force, lb _
Re a absolute angle
=
Reynolds number =
G = weight, lb S = stress factor P = relative angle
(I = gravitational constant, ft/sec 2 s = tip clearance, ft (Continued on next page)
Journal of Engineering for Power JANUARY 1 96 2 / 8 3
Copyright © 1962 by ASME
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present a somewhat simplified but rigorous picture of the design Vz'/'N.'/'D, H^'W.D,
I) (TO
and performance aspect of the different turbine types.
=
AT'/."" N
It is to be noted that only the design-point operation is con-
sidered in this paper, since a treatise of the "off-design" per-
formance of the different turbine tj'pes would exceed the scope of
a technical paper. Due to space limitations, the analytical treat- NVi'"-
N. = (6)
ment is confined to the discussion of highlights and major design
trends.
By solving equations (3) and (4) for the rotative speed N, again
assuming the characteristic values of the standard turbine are
Similarity Relations for Turbine Designs unity, the relation
It is the purpose of the similarity parameters to define the
V,NSD,3 Hj/'DJi,
operating and design conditions for which turbines of similar de- N = (7)
sign geometry experience similar fluid dynamic conditions. For D3 D
the derivation of these parameters the interrelation between the
main criteria of turbine designs, namely, the relation between is obtained, which can be rewritten in the form
the turbine exhaust flow F 3 , the supply head Had, and the rotor DHj/<
dimensions, is investigated. The following sequence can be D, (8)
F , *
written: The flow Vs passing through the turbine exhaust is pro-
portional to a characteristic velocity c and the through-flow area The term Ns as defined in equation (6) usually is referred to as
A. The area A is proportional to the square of the rotor diameter specific speed so that the expression D , as defined in equation (S)
D, and the characteristic velocity c is proportional to the rotor tip can be termed as specific diameter [2]. These terms represent
speed u. Hence the volume flow passing through the turbine the rotative speed and rotor diameter, respectively, of a turbine
becomes proportional to the product of rotational speed N and the which handles a volume flow of unity and expands a head of
cube of the rotor diameter D unity. Since turbines of similar design geometry having the
same specific speed and specific diameter are similar in geometry
cA ~ cD2 uD2 ~ ND3 (1)
and flow mechanism, it follows that turbines of similar design
The head expanded in the turbine is proportional to the geometry which have the same specific speed and specific diameter
square of the characteristic velocity c or tip speed u2 and, conse- have the same efficiency as long as Reynolds-number and Mach-
quently, proportional to the product of the square of the rotative number effects are neglected.
speed and rotor diameter It also may be noted that the specific speed and specific diame-
ter are truly dimensionless. This becomes evident when equa-
H ad N2D 2
(2) tions (1) and (2) are written in the form Hadg ~ to 2 !) 2 and V ~
Comparing, now, the volume flow and the head of a turbine with coD3 with co denoting the angular velocity. Then it results for
the volume flow and head of a standard turbine (subscript „), it the specific speed
follows from equation (1)
Fa'/!a. FS'/WTT
NIP (6a)
Z L (gH, d) V< (!/ff„d) V ! 30
(3)
F3-, N.D-
and for the specific diameter
and from equation (2)
gad NW*
d. = (8a)
= Fa'/'
(4)
ifad-» ~ N*D*
For convenience, and in keeping with specific speed data com-
Solving equations (3) and (4) for the rotor diameter D, assuming monly found in the literature, the definitions given in equations
that the characteristic values of the standard turbine are unity (6) and (8) are used in this paper.
(Fa-, = fl„d-, = 1) it follows Further analysis makes it evident that the terms specific speed
— Nomenclature
fi* = coefficient <p* = gulp factor opt = optimum
7 = specific weight, lb/ft 3 — velocity coefficient P — partial admission
A/3 = deflection angle — nozzle flow coefficient R — rotor
5 = degree of admission co = angular velocity S = cavitation suppression
<5* = percentage of viscous losses s = specific, sound
Subscripts st = static
£ = loss coefficient
ad = adiabatic T = turbine
6 = diameter ratio
D = diffuser t = total
i/ — efficiency tk = tank
fr = friction
X = leakage rate u = in peripheral direction
h = hydraulic, hub
/u = dynamic viscosity, l b / f t sec w = wheel disk
id = ideal
a = stress, lb/ft 2 1 = inlet of machine
I = leakage 2 = before turbine rotor
k = ratio of specific heats M = material 3 = outlet of machine
p = degree of reaction m = meridional I = first stage
ip = flow factor N — nozzle II = second stage
84 / JANUARY 1962 Transactions of f fie A S IE

iiiid .specific diameter are interrelated with other frequently used incompressible media. Its application for units handling com-
turbine parameters, velocity ratio and flow factor. Their pressible media was somewhat inhibited, apparently due to the
numerical interrelations read when quoted in l.erms which also fact that the volume flow changes within the machines, thus
cover radial machines raising the question which volume flow, inlet or exhaust or an
average volume flow, to use for defining N, and Da. A closer
N, 387(e- 'A examination of the flow mechanism makes it apparent that for
=
(9)
Co impulse turbines the volume flow at the exhaust is the most
significant volume flow, as this value determines the rotor exit-
0.4 velocity triangle as well as the rotor inlet-velocitj' triangle, since
D. = (10)
no density change occurs between these two points in an ideal
Hzr (e- 6A- 2 )' / !
impulse turbine. Even for reaction-tj'pe turbines the exhaust-
volume flow is more significant than the inlet-volume flow, since
it controls the rotor exit-velocity triangle, whereas the inlet-
(11) volume flow does not even control the rotor-inlet triangle except
\/2g 60
for the unusual case of "100 per cent reaction" turbines (p = 1).
when eh denotes the hub ratio, e the rotor-diameter ratio as de- Thus it becomes evident that for turbines the exhaust-volume
fined in Fig. 1, Co the spouting velocity, and <p the flow factor, flow V3 should be taken for the definition of Ns and Da. Like-
defined as the ratio of axial leaving velocity and wheel speed: wise, it is apparent that for compressors the inlet-volume flow Vi
i.e. (see Fig. 1) is the more significant value, since it controls the inlet-velocity
triangle (whereas the exhaust-volume flow is only significant for
p = 1), so that Na and Ds for compressors and pumps should be de-
fined by Vi.
c
m-2
It is evident that the terms N , and D , are parameters which
represent significant fluid-dynamic aspects of turbomachines.
Of particular significance in this respect is equation (11) which
reveals that the turbine-velocity ratio is directly related to N a
and Da. Since the turbine efficiency is predominantly a function
of the turbine-velocity ratio, it follows that Ars and Da determine
also, to a large degree, the turbine efficiency.
AXIAL TURBINES RADIAL TURBINES Additional significant interrelations can be recognized bj' dis-
cussing the term "turbines of similar design geometry" in more
detail. This definition is used to mean that certain geometric
parameters, such as the ratio of blade heights h to rotor diameter,
the nozzle angle a 2 , the blade angles ft and /S3, the degree of ad-
mission 5, the ratio of rotor clearance s to blade heights, the ratio
of blade spacing t to rotor diameter, the ratio of chord length C
to blade heights, the ratio of trailing-edge thickness te to blade
spacing and the relative roughness are equal for the designs
under consideration.
Observing now that the losses in turbines are functions of these
geometric parameters, it becomes apparent that turbines with
equal N, and Devalues can have equal efficiencies only (still
neglecting Re and M influences) when also the quoted geometric
parameters are equal; i.e., for "geometric similarity." Further,
analysis indicates that certain geometries are optimum; i.e., yield
highest efficiencies for certain specific speeds and specific diame-
dc ters. This means that the optimum geometry, e.g., optimum
h/D, oil, and so on values, can be quoted as function of Na and D„
u
tth . dh in all cases where the interrelation between the losses and the
T
turbine geometry, particularly the blade geometry, is known.
Thus diagrams can be computed which show the maximum ob-
Fig. 1 Turbine-velocity triangles a n d geometries
tainable efficiency and the optimum design geometry as function
of N, and D, for constant Re and M values. The mathematical
Cm-3 concept for the computation of these diagrams reads: The
<P = (12)
Ui efficiency is a function of Na, Da, and several loss coefficients,
which, in turn, are a function of channel geometry, Reynolds
It is interesting to note that the frequently used term "gulp number Re and Mach number M. By partial differentiation of
factor" [3] is also interrelated with specific speed and specific the relation, which describes the efficienc}' in the foregoing terms,
V
,=
diameter. This relation reads for full-admission turbines
ND3
_y_
=
V
(6-2 -
240
eh 1
(1.3)
the optimum geometrj' and, consequently, the maximum ob-
tainable efficiency is found as function of Ars and Da for constant
values of Re and M. This information can then be presented in
a two-dimensional Af s D s -diagram, showing lines of constant ef-
These comments indicate that the terms Ns and Da are not ficiency and lines for the optimum geometry. Additionally, such
really " n e w " parameters, but merely a restatement of well- a diagram can show lines of constant turbine-velocity ratio
established characteristic values in terms of rotative speed and which, according to equation (11) have a slope of one-to-one in a
rotor diameter. Actually, the specific-speed criterion has been logarithmic A r s D s -diagram, and lines of constant gulp factor which
used widely in pumps and water turbines; i.e., machines handling have a slope of tliree-to-one, according to equation (13).

It is important to realize that the accuracy of the loss-coelHcicnt The factor Z is graphically represented in Fig. 3 as a function of
relations, which necessarily are based on the presently available pressure ratio for different ratios of specific heats and different
experimental evidence, determines the validity of the "dia- p-values. It is apparent that Z depends mainly on pressure
gram and that these relations make the diagram dependent on the ratio, and only to a very small degree on k and p. For incom-
present state of the art. New information on loss coefficients, pressible media the factor Z becomes a function of the degree
therefore, may change the location of the lines in the presently of reaction; i.e., independent of turbine pressure ratio
computed diagrams but it does not change the validity of the
concept; i.e., it does not invalidate the meaning of the A r s D s -dia- 2 = (2f/)-'/<(l - p)-'/J
grams, which is: T o present the maximum efficiency and the op- - It is also worth mentioning that the specific speed interrelates
timum geometry of turbomaehines in a rigorous, practical, and the net output HP and rotative speed of the turbine as indicated
theoretically correct form. by
One of the major advantages of this technique is that the maxi-
mum obtainable efficiency is shown as a function of parameters _ N 1550H P / r / V
N (10)
which are of immediate concern to the designer; namely, the H|5/< T Ws-St
rotative speed and the rotor diameter. Another interesting ad-
vantage is realized when it is considered that the unit weight G for Equation (10) makes it evident that the turbine back pressure
designs with rotor diameters between 3 and 10 in. is proportional pt-at is an important criterion for the specific speed, indicating
to the square of the rotor diameter; i.e., that for given power requirements and rotative speeds the specific
speed increases with decreasing turbine back pressures.
G = D'-K (14) The interrelations outlined in the foregoing indicate that NSD,-
with /,'„-values as shown in Fig. 2 for single-disk machines. Hence, diagrams can be devised which present the performance and de-
approximate values for the turbine weight are directly obtainable sign criteria in considerable detail. Since the -diagram also
from the specific diameter. shows lines of constant turbine-velocity ratio, the design limita-
It is also interesting to note that the specific diameter gives tion as dictated by the maximum allowable tip speed becomes
also immediately evident since for given gas temperatures and
disk materials certain turbine-velocity ratios (i(/ci)„„ s cannot be
Z>, = (15) exceeded. Hence, in these cases efficiencies, diameters, and
VAN/D2 rotative speeds occurring at turbine-velocity ratios smaller than
whereby the factor Z is a function of pressure ratio, efficiency, de- (w/co) max must be considered exclusively. A more detailed dis-
gree of reaction and ratio of specific heats cussion of these interrelations is presented in subsequent
sections.
-Vr* K - 1
(1 - -OYM*(VI/V*)
with YR representing the1turbine-expansion
1 - r ratio
(10)
Optimization Analysis for Axial Impulse Turbines
Full-Admission Designs. Fig. 1 shows a typical velocity triangle
where the following notations are used: c denotes absolute veloci-
ties, w denotes the relative velocities, u denotes wheel speed,
subscript 2 refers to the inlet of the rotor and subscript 3 to the
YT = 1 - (17) exit of the rotor. A typical approach to the performance analysis
is to consider the force F which is exerted by the velocity vectors
and ij/* denoting a nozzle flow coefficient which, for a choked on the rotor. This relation reads for axial turbines:
nozzle, becomes a constant (depending on k exclusively) and which
for subsonic-nozzle velocities follows the relation IF
F = - (cti-2 + c„- 3 ) (20)
(I
In equation (20) c„- 2 denotes the peripheral component of the inlet

i* =
v% ;2 f/
K - 1
(18)
velocity c2, and c u - 3 denotes the peripheral component of the
C%AOMISSION
3% ADMISSION
Fig. 2 A p p r o x i m a t e values of weight factor

for different machine types Fig. 3 Z-values as function of pressure ratio
86 / JANUARY 196 2 Transactions of the A S M E

for a nozzle angle of a 2 = 16 deg but the efficiency lines are equally low-specific-speed turbines than reported previously in the litera-
valid for a? = 15 to 22 deg. In contrast the lines for h/D, (C3/C0), ture [8].
«3, and degree of admission are valid only for = 16 deg.
A significant criterion for the validity of Fig. 5 is the ratio Comments on Reynolds-Number and Mach-Number Effects
a */D or its equivalent, the blade number
It will now be necessary to discuss the limitations imposed on
it sin jS2
the validity of ArsD5-diagrams by Mach-number and Reynolds-
number effects.
2 = T v F -
The main influence of the Mach number is felt in the rotor-
velocity coefficient \pR. It is customary to define the Mach num-
It is evident from equation (40) that the efficiency decreases with ber of impulse turbines in terms of rotor-blade approach velocity,
increasing a*/D-values, particularly at large specific diameters.
This means that low a*/D-values are essential in low-specific- vh
i.e., M, t - 2 = (41)
speed designs, but of little consequence in large specific-speed c.
units. Fig. 5 is calculated on the basis of a*/D = 0.01; i.e., by
assuming that about 100 blades can be incorporated in the rotor Expressing the Mach number M ^ ; in terms of turbine pressure
geometry. The importance of this parameter for low-specific- ratio, it results for impulse turbines (design point)
speed designs is demonstrated in Fig. 11 by showing the maximum
I 2 cos ao(t(/co) , / w / c o V
obtainable efficiencies (for D 5 - o p t) as function of specific speed
for different o*/D-values. This diagram indicates that the
Mr! =
' V 'I'n ) (42)
efficiency drops by about 9 per cent when a*/D is increased from
- 1
0.01 to 0.015 at N , = 3.
It is to be noted that the information presented in Figs. 4, 5,
and 10 is calculated on the basis of the available information and This interrelation is graphically represented in Fig. 7 for a? = 16
that simplifying approximations had to be made for the in- deg and several k and w/co-values. This diagram indicates that
terrelation between the blade losses and the blade geometry. the turbine pressure ratio increases rapidly with Mach number as
While these approximations do not invalidate the similarity con- well as turbine-velocity ratio, and indicates the operating regimes,
cept, it has to be kept in mind that the numerical values reflect where supersonic blade designs should be applied (M.,-2 > 1)
the presently available information 011 loss coefficients. Hence the in order to obtain maximum efficiencies. In cases where sub-
ArsDt-diagrams necessarily reflect the present state of the art. sonic blade designs are applied for M„,- 2 > 1, performance penal-
Good conformance of Figs. 4 and 5 with the available but limited ties are to be anticipated since then 1pR is smaller than indicated
test information has been found. by equation (27). Hence the turbine efficiency will be smaller
than quoted in Figs. 4, 5, and 11. By using the information pro-
It is appropriate to note at this point that the iY ^ - t e c h n i q u e
vided in [11] a correction coefficient 7)3Ub/i;o can be devised, when
and, in particular, its reference to the optimum geometry did
ijsuo denotes the efficiency obtainable with subsonic blade designs
contribute materially to improve the state of the art of designing
and % denotes the efficiency quoted in the ;Y s D s -diagram. Ap-
low-specific-speed turbines. This is demonstrated in Fig. 6
proximate values for this coefficient are shown in Fig. 8, indicating
where the shaded regime represents the efficiencies of low-specific-
a substantial decrease in efficiency at large relative Mach num-
speed designs, reported in the literature up to 1957, as function of
bers when subsonic blade designs are applied.
specific speed. According to this survey, Terry turbines ap-
peared to be better suited for low-specific-speed application than The Reynolds number in impulse turbines can be defined by
axial turbines. The solid lines represent the calculated maximum
W2D*y3
efficiency values (for Ds~opt) assuming that the optimum geometry Re = (43)
is incorporated in the design. The test data, shown in Fig. 6, M
represent the test information obtained at Sundstrand-Turbo for when n denotes the dynamic viscosity and D* the equivalent hy-
partial admission single-stage, axial-impulse turbines which did draulic diameter of the blade passage D* = 2hi sin /32/(£ sin /3?
exhibit the optimum geometry, i.e., the h/D, a*/D, and De- + h) with t denoting the blade distance, Fig. 1. By replacing D *
values which yield rim;iS, Fig. 5, and confirmed the calculated and vh with previously defined values, equation (43) can be re-
data, thus evidencing that higher efficiencies can be obtained with written in the form
^ man
..oi"1
f
/
.4 .6 I
4 4 6 10 20 40 60 IOO
NS
g. 6 C o m p a r i s o n of turbine efficiencies
90 / J A N U A R Y 1962 Transactions offfieA S IE

0.05 to 0.1 and that the exhaust energy increases for specific
A\D. diameters which are different from the optimum Devalues. The
cot 13? - cot a» — (33) significance of the (c3/c0)2-value is demonstrated when the dif-
sin otiipN 154
ferent definitions of the turbine efficiency arc discussed.
The term /3,„* in equation (32) denotes a wheel-disk friction co- It is evident from equation (26) that the supply head H„d =
efficient which for large Reynolds number has a numerical value cl>2/2(/ refers to the ratio of total inlet pressure pi_( to static ex-
of 3 X 10~3. haust pressure p3-at, i.e.,
Equation (32) is graphically presented in Fig. 4 in the form of
an iVjDj-diagram for full-admission, axial-impulse turbines. This P 3-st
H ad 1 (35)
diagram shows that maximum efficiencies are obtained at specific K~ 1 Pl-I
speeds of 40 to 80 and specific diameters of 1.8 to 1.1; i.e., at tur-
bine-velocity ratios of n/co = 0.45 to 0.55 as indicated by the Another frequently used definition of turbine efficiency (r;,) refers
lines of w/co = const. The optimum gulp factor varies from ip* = the supply head to the ratio of total inlet pressure and total exit
0.044 to 0.001. The lines of constant h/D and a« are also indi- pressure pt-i', i.e., assumes that the absolute leaving velocity cz
cated in Fig. 4 and reveal that optimum values are h/D = 0.05 can be recovered full}' in a diffuser. This definition is particularly
to 0.11 and a 2 = 14 to 21 deg. For specific-speed values which advantageous when multistage designs are considered, since in
are smaller than the optimum values, the specific diameter has to this case the leaving velocity, particularly in counterrotating-
increase and h/D and a> have to decrease when the maximum turbine arrangements, is utilized in the next stage and not en-
obtainable efficiencies are desired. tirely lost. For single-stage designs only a part of the leaving
Another interesting aspect is revealed when the ratio of exhaust velocity can usually be recovered, depending on the diffuser ef-
energy c32/2j7 to input energy (c02/2ry) is considered which is repre- ficiency i) D so that the "total" efficiency becomes
sented in Fig. 4 by lines of constant (C3/C0)2 values. This ratio
again is a function of N „ D, and turbine geometry since for axial V
Vt =
impulse turbines
VD (36)
(!)
— = sill 2 a « It is, therefore, possible to convert the efficiency ?j quoted in Fig. 4
to the efficiency ? b y considering the lines of cs/co = const. In
applying equation (36) it is found that considerably higher turbine
AJSDS - y i - 2 — + 2
D efficiencies rresult and that lines of r]t = const have a maximum
y sin cot ft at larger specific speeds and smaller specific diameters than lines of
154
i] = const (see Fig. 14). It is to be noted that the 17,-values re-
sulting from equation (36) and Fig. 4 are not necessarily maxi-
These lines show that in the optimum-efficiency regime (c'3/co)2 = mum possible values since the optimization was performed for
V DENOTES E F F I C I E N C Y R E L A T E D
TO STATIC E X H A U S T P R E S S U R E
ANO TOTAL INLET P R E S S U R E
3 .6 I 3 6 10
"S
Fig. 4 NsDs-diagrums for single-stage, full-admission, axial-impulse turbines
88 / JANUARY 1962 Transactions offfieA S IE

ijmax- This means also that equation (31) is not necessarilj' valid ing now equations (11), (23), (27), (37), and (38) into equation
for i ) i - » , so that the h/D-values quoted in Fig. -4 may not be (26), and observing that equation (30) is not applicable for
optimum values for 17(-max. partial-admission designs, its counterpart being a relation for the
Since the similarity parameters together with the optimum optimum degree of admission, a relation for the optimum h/D-
geometry relations describe the velocity diagram completely, it value results [8] which reads
is also possible to show lines of constant leaving angle in the
h_ 0.24 sin 2 ft
jV s D s -diagram. This angle is of importance for the diffuser de-
sign in single-stage turbines and for the consecutive stage in multi-
stage designs. Fig. 4 reveals that a 3 = 90, i.e., swirl-free ex-
D / opt-p V;yp N D 2 sin a 2 V / 2
(39)
haust, for the maximum efficiency conditions. For specific It is interesting to observe that the optimum h/D-value depends
diameters which are different from D„- o p t , a certain amount of mainly on the specific diameter, as it was the case for full-admis-
exhaust swirl exists (a 3 ± 90°). sion impulse turbines, equation (31). It is to be noted that
It is evident from Fig. 4 that extremely small blade heights are equation (39) is only rigorous for cases where the density ratio
required for obtaining maximum efficiencies at low specific 7 2 / 7 3 is unity. Actually, this ratio depends 011 the nozzle effi-
speeds. This also means that small rim clearances s are required. ciency, the bucket efficienc}', the turbine efficiency, and the y-fac-
For large clearances the efficiencies have to be corrected by tor, yielding 72/73-values which differ somewhat from unity.
For most cases, however, this difference is sufficiently small
1.5 s / 2 sin 2ft and can be neglected. Even in cases where the density ratio dif-
1 - fers by as much as 30 per cent from unity, a correction of equation
1 + h/s
(39) appears to be unwarranted, clue to the approximate nature
(references [8, 9]), i.e., can be considerably smaller than quoted of equation (37). With equation (39) the relation for the maxi-
in Fig. 4 (see also Fig. 11). In these cases partial-admission tur- mum hydraulic efficiency of partial-admission turbines reads
bines promise a better solution. This turbine type shows the
additional advantage that even higher efficiencies are obtainable
Vh-p = 1 + 1 - 0.228 1 A
at low specific speeds than quoted in Fig. 4. 77 90
Partial-Admission Designs. In order to optimize the design geome-
try of partial-admission turbines a procedure is applied which 1 — V sin
si a-2 si 1 1 2 f t V2g
sm p 3
is similar to the technique described before. The main difference
is that the rotor velocity coefficient 1pR~P for partial-admission NSDS
\pN cos a'-> (40)
turbines is smaller than for full-admission turbines [10] and can 154
be expressed by the approximate relation
i.e., i)h is again a unique function of the similarity parameters.
'Pit-p = in ( 1 - (37) Equation (40) can now be expanded to express the shaft efficiency
2a by accounting for the wheel-disk friction, pumping and scavenging
losses, so that A' S D,-diagrams can be calculated for optimized
when t denotes the blade pitch and a the extension of the nozzle
designs [8]. A typical diagram is shown in Fig. 5, which again
arc, Fig. 1. The ratio t/2a in equation (37) can again be ex-
shows lines of the optimum /i/D-values, constant (c 3 /c 0 ) 2 -values,
pressed by the similarity parameters yielding
constant a 3 -values, and additionally lines of constant degree of ad-
a• mission 5. The trends are similar as in full-admission designs;
J_
D, 2 sin a-2# , v V2| ~D
7-2 namely, increasing specific diameters and decreasing blade heights
(38) are required for obtaining maximum efficiencies with decreasing
2a 2 sin (3273
specific speeds. Additionally, decreasing degrees of admission
when 72/73 denotes the densitj' ratio across the rotor. Introduc- are desired with decreasing specific speeds. Fig. 5 is calculated
I 3 6 1 3
Re > 105
dj'ie*
Fig. 5 N.Di-diagram for single-stage, partial-admission, axial turbines with a * / D = 0.01

for a nozzle angle of a 2 = 16 deg but the efficiency lines are equally low-specific-speed turbines than reported previously in the litera-
valid for a? = 15 to 22 deg. In contrast the lines for h/D, (C3/C0), ture [8].
«3, and degree of admission are valid only for = 16 deg.
A significant criterion for the validity of Fig. 5 is the ratio Comments on Reynolds-Number and Mach-Number Effects
a */D or its equivalent, the blade number
It will now be necessary to discuss the limitations imposed on
it sin jS2
the validity of ArsD5-diagrams by Mach-number and Reynolds-
number effects.
2 = T v F -
The main influence of the Mach number is felt in the rotor-
velocity coefficient \pR. It is customary to define the Mach num-
It is evident from equation (40) that the efficiency decreases with ber of impulse turbines in terms of rotor-blade approach velocity,
increasing a*/D-values, particularly at large specific diameters.
This means that low a*/D-values are essential in low-specific- vh
i.e., M, t - 2 = (41)
speed designs, but of little consequence in large specific-speed c.
units. Fig. 5 is calculated on the basis of a*/D = 0.01; i.e., by
assuming that about 100 blades can be incorporated in the rotor Expressing the Mach number M ^ ; in terms of turbine pressure
geometry. The importance of this parameter for low-specific- ratio, it results for impulse turbines (design point)
speed designs is demonstrated in Fig. 11 by showing the maximum
I 2 cos ao(t(/co) , / w / c o V
obtainable efficiencies (for D 5 - o p t) as function of specific speed
for different o*/D-values. This diagram indicates that the
Mr! =
' V 'I'n ) (42)
efficiency drops by about 9 per cent when a*/D is increased from
- 1
0.01 to 0.015 at N , = 3.
It is to be noted that the information presented in Figs. 4, 5,
and 10 is calculated on the basis of the available information and This interrelation is graphically represented in Fig. 7 for a? = 16
that simplifying approximations had to be made for the in- deg and several k and w/co-values. This diagram indicates that
terrelation between the blade losses and the blade geometry. the turbine pressure ratio increases rapidly with Mach number as
While these approximations do not invalidate the similarity con- well as turbine-velocity ratio, and indicates the operating regimes,
cept, it has to be kept in mind that the numerical values reflect where supersonic blade designs should be applied (M.,-2 > 1)
the presently available information 011 loss coefficients. Hence the in order to obtain maximum efficiencies. In cases where sub-
ArsDt-diagrams necessarily reflect the present state of the art. sonic blade designs are applied for M„,- 2 > 1, performance penal-
Good conformance of Figs. 4 and 5 with the available but limited ties are to be anticipated since then 1pR is smaller than indicated
test information has been found. by equation (27). Hence the turbine efficiency will be smaller
than quoted in Figs. 4, 5, and 11. By using the information pro-
It is appropriate to note at this point that the iY ^ - t e c h n i q u e
vided in [11] a correction coefficient 7)3Ub/i;o can be devised, when
and, in particular, its reference to the optimum geometry did
ijsuo denotes the efficiency obtainable with subsonic blade designs
contribute materially to improve the state of the art of designing
and % denotes the efficiency quoted in the ;Y s D s -diagram. Ap-
low-specific-speed turbines. This is demonstrated in Fig. 6
proximate values for this coefficient are shown in Fig. 8, indicating
where the shaded regime represents the efficiencies of low-specific-
a substantial decrease in efficiency at large relative Mach num-
speed designs, reported in the literature up to 1957, as function of
bers when subsonic blade designs are applied.
specific speed. According to this survey, Terry turbines ap-
peared to be better suited for low-specific-speed application than The Reynolds number in impulse turbines can be defined by
axial turbines. The solid lines represent the calculated maximum
W2D*y3
efficiency values (for Ds~opt) assuming that the optimum geometry Re = (43)
is incorporated in the design. The test data, shown in Fig. 6, M
represent the test information obtained at Sundstrand-Turbo for when n denotes the dynamic viscosity and D* the equivalent hy-
partial admission single-stage, axial-impulse turbines which did draulic diameter of the blade passage D* = 2hi sin /32/(£ sin /3?
exhibit the optimum geometry, i.e., the h/D, a*/D, and De- + h) with t denoting the blade distance, Fig. 1. By replacing D *
values which yield rim;iS, Fig. 5, and confirmed the calculated and vh with previously defined values, equation (43) can be re-
data, thus evidencing that higher efficiencies can be obtained with written in the form
^ man
..oi"1
f
/
.4 .6 I
4 4 6 10 20 40 60 IOO
NS
g. 6 C o m p a r i s o n of turbine efficiencies
90 / J A N U A R Y 1962 Transactions offfieA S IE

Fig. 9 reveal that the Reynolds number increases with increas-
ing pressure ratios, increasing turbine back pressure p3, increasing
turbine-velocity ratios, and decreasing rotative speeds.
The efficiencies shown in Figs. 4, 5, and 11 are calculated for
Re > 2 X 106. Hence, for conditions where equation (44) indi-
cates smaller Reynolds number, an efficiency correction is re-
quired. This correction can be provided by the argument that
the Reynolds number only affects the viscous losses. For full-
admission turbines all losses (at design-point operation) with the
exception of the loss inherent in the absolute leaving velocity are
of viscous nature, whereas for partial-admission turbines a smaller
percentage is of the viscous type. This is shown in Fig. 10 where
the percentage d* of the viscous to over-all losses (for design-point
operation) is plotted against specific speed for the optimum
specific diameter. It is conventionally assumed that the viscous
losses are inversely proportional to the Reynolds number, al-
though the exact function is not too well established. With this
presumption the efficiency actually obtainable for turbine designs
operating at Reynolds numbers smaller than 2 X 105 can be ex-
pressed by the relation
Re 0 Re0
7) = r)0 (1 - 5*) + 5* - 5* 1
Re Re
(45)
when r/o denotes the (diagram) efficiency calculated for Rep =

2 X 10s and whereby the exponent x appears to have numerical
values between 0.02 and 0.4, depending on the Reynolds number
itself and increasing with decreasing Reynolds number [12].
Examining Fig. 9 more closely, it is observed that the Reynolds
number is in the vicinity of 105 to 2 X 105 for cases where the
back pressure p3 is about 15 psia; i.e., for typical sea-level designs.
For smaller back pressure, the Reynolds number most likely is
smaller than 105 so that for designs operating at back pressures
below 15 psia, an efficiency correction as quoted in equation (45)
Fig. 7 Pressure ratio as function of M a c h number for single-stage, may be necessary.
axial-impulse turbines
Comparison oi Full-Admission and Partial-Admission, Axial,

120gKYT ( f o ) ^ - 2 C ° 7 f / C 0 ) + ( ^ ° ) ;
Impulse Turbines
Re =
A comparison of the performance characteristic of full-admis-
sion and partial-admission turbines is now of interest in order to
establish the respective operating regimes for these two turbine
(44)
types. A pertinent diagram is obtained when the maximum ob-
which is graphically represented in Fig. 9. Equation (44) and tainable efficiencies are shown as function of specific speed (for
RJ IC
liub
1o ^ ^ r/ —
"L
K = 1.3
<*2 = 16'
Fig. 8 A p p r o x i m a t e l y efficiency correction due to

M a c h number influence for single-stage, axial-
impulse turbines, using subsonic blade designs Fig. 9 Reynolds-number interrelation for single-stage, axial-impulse turbines

.1 1 10 100 KX»
MS
Fig. 11 C o m p a r i s o n of performance of full-admission and partial-admission, axial-impulse turbines
Ds-opt), Fig. 11. This diagram also shows the required h/D- times the clearance for the same leakage loss. Hence the choice
values which are of particular significance for this comparison. of the optimum turbine tj'pe in the specific-speed regime be-
Fig. 11 indicates that at specific speeds below 25 the partial-ad- tween 8 and 15 depends on the a*/D-value; i.e., blade number as
mission turbine obtains higher maximum efficiencies than the full- well as the allowable radial clearance. Thus turbines operating
admission turbine when «*/jD-values of 0.01 can be realized. For with high-temperature gases and consequently requiring large
larger a*/£)-values the crossover occurs at lower specific speeds. radial clearances will preferably be designed for partial admission
Another aspect is revealed when the h/D-values are reviewed for in this regime.
the different turbine types. It is apparent from Fig. 11 that a
comparatively small blade length results, amounting to 3 per cent
of the turbine diameter at a specific speed of 15 and to about 1 Axial, Reaction-Type Turbines
per cent of the turbine diameter at a specific speed of 10 for the The ArsDs-diagrams presented so far have been computed on
full-admission turbine. In contrast the partial-admission turbine the basis of a loss analysis. This procedure presumes that suf-
has an optimum blade length of 14 per cent of the rotor diameter ficiently exact relations for the component losses can be estab-
at a specific speed of 15 and (3 per cent of the rotor diameter at a lished. This is generally true for subsonic impulse-type turbines,
specific speed of 10. This difference is of importance for un- but not necessarily for reaction-type turbines, since for this tur-
shrouded rotor designs, since the tip leakage loss is a function of bine type, particularly in designs which require comparatively
the /i/D-value for given clearance ratios s/D as indicated in Fig. long blades, a three-dimensional flow exists which makes the op-
12 (computed from [8]), meaning that extremely small clearances timization technique cumbersome. It may be expected that the
of s/D = 5/10,000 will be required for efficient full-admission single-streamline concept, used so far, will not yield data of suf-
turbines in the specific-speed range below 15, whereas partial- ficient accuracy for reaction-type turbines, i.e., for optimized de-
admission turbines in this operating regime can afford about 3 to 4 signs in the large specific-speed regime. Actually, this reservation

By combining Figs. 4 and 5 and extending Fig. 4 to include
reaction turbines, the maximum obtainable efficiencies for axial,
single-stage turbines can be represented in one diagram as shown
in Fig. 14, which now covers the full operating regime of single-
stage turbines. The shaded line in this diagram indicates the
regime where partial-admission and full-admission impulse tur-
bines yield about the same efficiency, thus revealing that the
operating regime to the left of the shaded line is covered best by
partial-admission turbines, whereas the operating regime on
the right of the shaded area requires full-admission designs.
The numerical values quoted for the efficiency are only
valid for the Reynolds numbers quoted in Fig. 14 and for M„-o <
1.0 when subsonic rotor-blade designs are used; i.e., for cor-
responding pressure ratios and turbine back pressures. Correc-
tions, Figs. 8 and 9, are required when operating beyond the quoted
limits. It is important to note that the data for high-specific-
speed designs are considerably more tentative than the data for
low-specific-speed designs since they are extrapolated by con-
sidering generalized trends instead of being calculated by a more
Fig. 13 Efficiency border lines in NSDS d i a g r a m rigorous optimization procedure.
is also valid for impulse turbines with large /i/D-values; i.e., for
full-admission impulse turbines when Ds < 0.9 and partial-admis-
Multistage Axial Turbines
sion turbines with Ds < 2. It might, therefore, be attempted to The iVs-Ds-diagrams can also be used for calculating the per-
use a somewhat different procedure for obtaining ATSDS-diagrams formance and design criteria for multistage arrangements. This
for axial, reaction turbines. This approach is to use available becomes evident if it is considered that the specific speed and
test data on efficiencies of turbines and to convert this informa- specific-diameter of the different stages (I, II) are directly in-
tion to jV s D s -values and thus to arrive at lines of constant ef- terrelated, namely,
ficiencies. This process is only feasible when the available test
data cover a sufficient spread of specific speeds and by considering AVi Ni ( Yn V/4(l - i?iFi)v
(1 - Fu)2**-1' (47)
the peak efficiencies of the different turbines exclusively. These JV,-II Arh \ F, / V l - I?iFI
data can then be extrapolated by the following argument:
and
Equation (26) indicates that for a given design geometry, i.e.,
given ft, and p-values (since p determines also the incidence- D,-1 fli ( Yi \ ' A V l - VuYu
free inlet angle ft) the hydraulic efficiency is a function of the (48)
Dr Di YuJ (l-7)i F,)'/4
turbine-velocity ratio. By writing equation (12) in the form (1 - FIT) '*2 -1
'
sin fti/^ - y p + (1 - p)'./V - 2 c o s oc-2 (1 - p) v . - +(2LV

Co \ Co /
<P = (46)
u/co
it becomes apparent that the flow factor is also a function of the meaning that the operating points of the different stages can be
parameters which determine the efficiency (see also [13]). Thus a identified in the Ar„Ds-diagram and that the efficiency and
certain combination of flow factors and turbine-velocity ratios is geometry of the different stages can be read directly from the
required to obtain a desired efficiency, whereby the optimum com- diagram. With the proper selection of the (optimum) stage pres-
bination is largely a function of the degree of reaction. Consider- sure ratios, the most efficient stage arrangements can be found
ing now the design parameters which are required to obtain a readily. Such calculations can then be used to compute NSDS-
certain efficiency, for example, rj = 0.5, it results from a numerical diagrams for multistage designs, which, after proper optimization,
evaluation of equations (26) and (46) that a certain minimum and can show the optimum pressure split and optimum geometry as
maximum flow factor exist for this condition, and that also a cer- function of N, and Ds. Instead of plotting ArsDs-diagrams for
tain minimum and maximum turbine-velocity ratio exists. two-stage, three-stage, and so on, turbines, it is possible to con-
Hence, for given degrees of reaction, the borderlines for t] = 0.5 dense the presentation to a single .2V,D,-diagram for multistage
are limiting flow factors and limiting turbine-velocity ratios as designs by showing the performance of the two-stage turbine only
indicated by the dashed lines in Fig. 13. Since lines of constant in that specific-spced regime where it is superior to the single-stage
flow factors (or gulp factors) have a slope of 3:1 and lines of and three-stage designs, and by showing the performance of the
constant-velocity ratios have a slope of 1:1 in a logarithmic three-stage design only for the specific-speed regime where it is
ArsZ)3-diagram, it results that the borderlines for rj = 0.5 form a superior to the two-stage and four-stage designs, and so on. In
parallelogram. This consideration gives only a rough approxima- this way lines of optimum stage numbers are obtained (assuming
tion of the constant 7)-lines since the interrelation of the loss co- that all disks rotate with the same speed, and that Ds is referenced
efficients with Ars and Ds imposes some additional limits which to a particular stage and that disks, which have a different
tend to cut off some extreme sections of the parallelogram as diameter from the reference disk, are properly identified).
schematically shown by the solid line in Fig. 13. This considera- As an example, the over-all efficiency of multistage (pressure-
tion, however, is sufficient to recognize major trends and to serve staged) single-disk turbines (according to a patent from Perrigault
as a fair basis for the extrapolation of the available test data. It and Farcot, described in Stodola's third edition, 1905) may be
indicates, for example, that the degree of reaction must increase quoted based on the calculations presented in [8]. These data are
with increasing specific speeds for optimized designs and that lines presented in Fig. 14 as short dashed lines in the form of lines of
of constant degree of reaction and, consequently, lines of constant constant efficiency, whereby these lines are only shown in the
ft will follow lines of constant turbine-velocity ratio. regime where this turbine type gives better performance than the

Fig. 14 N s D s - d i a g r a m for single-disk turbines
Fig. 15 N.SD,-diagram for single-disk turbines s h o w i n g total efficiency

single-stage arrangement. The long clashed lines indicate the coefficient iplt which causes the turbine peak efficiencies to be
optimum number of stages. It is evident that this turbine type about 20 per cent lower than the peak efficiencies of axial turbines
offers better performance in the low-specific-speed regime, par- having a*/D-values of 0.025, reference [8].
ticularly in the specific-speed range from 0.5 to 10. It is to be
noted that the optimum number of stages increases with de-
creasing specific speeds but that at specific speeds below 0.5 the "Total" Efficiency
performance of the multistaged single disks approaches rapidly It is to lie emphasized that the efficiency values, shown so far
the performance of the partial-admission single stage. in the A r s D s -diagrams, with the exception for the drag-turbine
The data quoted for the multistage single disk are calculated data, are calculated with the assumption that the kinetic leaving
on the basis that the axial clearance between rotor blade and energy (C3-/2IJ) is considered lost. Thus the efficiency values are
nozzle is one thousandth of the turbine diameter. For larger conservative since often at least a part of this energy can be re-
axial clearances the interstage leakage begins to offset the ad- covered, equation (36). The total efficiency defined in equation
vantage achieved by multistaging, particularly in the low-specific- (36) is higher. The difference between the two definitions is
speed regime. The performance advantage obtained by pressure particularly noticeable for designs with small specific diameters;
staging on a single wheel is comparatively small at stage numbers i.e., large specific speeds. Actually, the term specific diameter
above 4 so that most likely for all practical purposes more than indicates the minimum value of the ratio (c 3 /c 0 ) 2 , the decisive
four stages appear unwarranted for a single-disk design. Even criterion between ?/, and r\. This becomes evident by the follow-
then a stage number of 4 is only feasible for limited pressure ratios, ing consideration:
not exceeding 100:1 per disk. This becomes evident when the The minimum possible c 3 -value occurs when a3 = 00 cleg, i.e., for
operating points of the different stages are located in the stage zero swirl exhaust and when h/D = 0.5, i.e., when it is assumed
diagram, Fig. 4, revealing that the first stage operates at lower that the displacement clue to the rotor hub is negligible. For this
specific speeds than the over-all specific speed, i.e., largo specific case
diameters and, consequently, small relative blade length h/D.
The subsequent stages operate at larger specific speeds and, con- 0.025
(49)
sequently, larger relative blade lengths. The difference in opti- Co / ni i n D,4
mum blade lengths increases with increasing over-all pressure
ratios. The actual blade length, incorporated in the design, will revealing that for a specific diameter of Ds = 1, the minimum
have to be a compromise, whereby a small blade length will have leaving energy is 2.5 per cent of the supply energy; whereas for
to be favored when a good first-stage efficiency is essential. This Ds = 0.5, the minimum leaving energy is 40 per cent of the supply
means that the blade length of the last stage is smaller than energy. Actually, the (c3/co)2-values are larger in many cases
optimum. This is acceptable from an efficiency point of view since h/D < 0.5.
but increases the required arc of admission so that the number of A r s D s -diagrams, showing total efficiencies, therefore, differ
stages which can be accommodated on a single wheel is limited. considerably from A r s D s -diagrams showing "static" efficiencies,
By favoring a comparatively long blade, the efficiency of the first particularly in the low-specific-diameter regime. Fig. 15 shows
stage is severely affected, so that performance sacrifices result, the total efficiencies for single disk, single-stage designs revealing
which tend to offset the advantage of multistaging. This then peak efficiencies in excess of 85 per cent for full-admission designs
means that even smaller stage numbers than 4 become optimum and also "improved" performance of partial-admission turbines,
in eases where the over-all pressure ratios exceed 100:1. thus indicating the benefits which can be obtained by effective
exhaust diffusers.
There is, however, one remaining advantage for a large number
of stages; namely, that large stage numbers decrease the opti-
mum specific diameter and, consequently, the turbine-velocity Radial Turbines
ratio and, therefore, the required tip speed. Hence, for cases
where the tip speed becomes the governing criterion, due to stress As another example for a calculated ArsD„-diagram, Fig. 10 is
limitations, a comparatively large number of stages may present shown which represents the optimized performance for radial
the most feasible solution. turbines with blade angles of (S2 = 90°; i.e., a turbine type which
is frequently considered the preferred arrangement for small gas
turbines and turbosuperchargers. This turbine has a certain
Special Turbines natural degree of reaction clue to the radius ratio of the impeller;
A turbine type which has some of the characteristics of a multi- i.e., the centrifugal field which causes p-values between 0.5 and
stage single-disk turbine is the drag turbine [8] which exhibits 0.7 for the optimum Ns and Devalues. The comparatively high
good performance at low specific speeds. Lines of constant ef- degree of reaction causes the Mach number to exert a somewhat
ficiency for this turbine type arc shown in Fig. 14 by clotted lines. larger influence on the performance than is usually encountered
It is evident that this turbine type has better efficiencies at low in impulse turbines. This becomes evident when the wheel-
turbine-velocity ratios than the single-stage turbine, but is in- disk friction losses are examined in detail. The wheel-disk friction
ferior to the performance of multistaged single-disk turbines. is proportional to the density surrounding the turbine disk. For
Due to the simplicity of its rotor and the comparatively low tip impulse turbines, this density is equal to the exhaust density
speed required in the low-specific-speed regime, this turbine and, therefore, independent of turbine pressure ratio. For reac-
t}'pe will offer a preferable solution for applications where tion-type turbines, the density of the gas surrounding the disk is
low manufacturing costs and small rotor diameters (low weight) larger than the exhaust density and increases with increasing tur-
are the prime criteria. The performance quoted in Fig. 14 for bine pressure ratios. This effect occurs only on the upstream
drag turbines so far is valid only for low pressure ratios. Further side of the disk in axial, reaction turbines but is felt on both sides
research, however, may indicate design geometries which enable of the radial-turbine wheel for conventional designs and, there-
the same performance at high pressure ratios or improved per- fore, is of larger influence. With some simplifying assumptions
formance at low pressure ratios. the change in efficiency can be expressed bj' the relation
It is interesting to note that the Terry turbine offers also good
performance in the low-specific-speed regime with, however, lower
peak efficiencies than the corresponding axial design. The main (50)
•q = t)o -NS3D*5 X 10- 9
reason for the lower efficiency is a somewhat smaller rotor-velocity L \ P3
Journal of Engineering for Power J A N U A R Y 1 9 6 2 / 95

when subscript 0 denotes the reference pressure ratio denoted in
Fig. 1G with (pi/p3)mai = 6. Sample calculations indicated that
increase in pressure ratio to 20 :1 decreases the turbine efficiency
by 2 to 4 per cent for the optimum A*s and Devalues.
Another parameter which is of importance in radial turbines is
the diameter ratio e defined as the ratio of the wheel-tip diameter
D to exducer diameter d, Fig. 1. It is apparent from the previous
considerations that optimum values for this parameter exist and
that this optimum is a function of specific speed and specific
diameter. Hence, lines of optimum diameter ratio can be shown
in an A r s D s -diagram. No exact relations for the interrelation of
the loss coefficients with the diameter ratio have been found in the
literature so that only the main trends of this parameter can be
indicated. The lines of constant diameter ratio shown in Fig. 16,
therefore, are not to be considered as absolute values but rather REACTION BLADES (NOZZLE)
as approximations demonstrating trends, resulting from the

analysis presented in [13].
Another interesting fact is revealed when lines of constant
exhaust energy expressed in percentage of the total supply energy
20° 40° 60° 80° 12.0° 140° 160° 180°
(CJVOT) are presented. This is expressed by the daslied-dotted
Afb
lines in Fig. 16, indicating that exhaust diffusers become of in-
Fig. 17 V e l o c i t y coefficients for n o z z l e s a n d buckets
creasing importance for turbines showing small specific diameters,
i.e., comparatively large specific speeds. In this respect it is im-
portant to note that the static efficiency is shown in Fig. 16 and
that higher total efficiencies result as indicated by equation
(36). It should be realized that the absolute leaving velocity c3
depends on the diameter ratio e. Hence, the location of the
(cs/co) 1 lines is, to a large degree, dictated by the e-values. The
(C3/C0)2 lines shown in Fig. 16 are in accordance with the selected
e approximations.
In general, it can be said that this turbine type shows maximum
static, efficiencies at specific speeds between 45 and 90; and
specific diameters of about 2 to 1.2. The limited specific-speed
range is caused mainly by the assumption that the blade-inlet
angle is /32 = 90°. By selecting smaller blade-inlet angles, i.e.,
by designing this turbine type for a smaller degree of reaction, the
optimum-performance regime shifts to lower specific speeds,
whereas, by selecting blade angles larger than 90 deg, optimum
efficiencies occur at larger specific speeds.
Actually, the radial turbine shows performance criteria which
are very similar to axial turbines so that a good part of the per-
formance regime covered by axial, single-stage turbines, Figs. 4
and 14, can be covered equally well by radial turbines. However, Re = -p
this might be doubtful for partial-admission, single-stage designs Fig, 18 W h e e l - d i s k friction coefficients
q DENOTES EFFICIENCY
RELATED TO 8TATIC EX-
HAUGT PRESSURE ABO
TOTAL 1MLET PRE88URE.
fit " SO"

Ro* > I 0°
n/VT
»s • N• rpm
Hod —T
% V« ft3/«oc
Hod n ft Ib/H
D Hod **
0 . II YR
/vj
Fig. 19 Effect of v e l o c i t y coefficients on
turbine h y d r a u l i c efficiency
I !
3 6 10 30 60 100 Ng 300
Fig. 16 C a l c u l a t e d N , D 6 - d i a g r a m for s i n g l e - s t a g e r a d i a l turbines
96 / J A N U A R Y 1962 Transactions of f fie A S IE

where the pumping losses in the unadmitted portion of the [16] are quoted in Fig. 21 by plotted <r/Y.u against temperature.
periphery most likely are larger, due to the radial pressure This diagram indicates that nickel and cobalt-based alloys are
gradient, than in the corresponding axial design. applicable up to 1500 to 2000 R and that for higher temperatures
molybdenum alloys must be applied.
Comments on Peak Efficiencies The relation quoted in equation (51) and Figs. 20 and 21, can
also be interpreted as meaning that for certain temperature levels
It has to be realized that some generalizations had to be made
a certain maximum allowable turbine-velocity ratio exists. This
in order to present definite efficiency values in Figs. 4, 5, 11, 14,
means that in the A' s D s -diagram a limiting turbine-velocity ratio
15, and 16. This necessarily means that only average values have
exists, equation (11), so that only operating points to the left of
been presented in these diagrams, whereby the prime emphasis
the limiting »/co-line can be selected since otherwise the maximum
was to indicate trends, thus leaving some degree of uncertainty
allowable stress will bo exceeded. This interrelation is an im-
regarding the accuracy of the absolute values. This is primarily
portant criterion for turbines using high-energy propellant gases
due to the difficulty in finding accurate data on the loss coefficients
as a power source. In order to give some indication of commonly
of the turbine elements. Different values are reported by dif-
experienced limits for these designs, the interrelation between
ferent investigators. The influence of these differences may be
disk temperature and gas temperature must be determined.
discussed on the example of a full-admission, axial, impulse tur-
bine. It is evident from equation (32) that the velocity co- An approximate value for the rim disk temperature in axial
efficients tpjf, and the loss coefficient /?„,* determine the ef- turbines can be obtained by assuming that the rim disk tem-
ficiency besides the similarity parameters Ns and Ds. Fig. 17 perature is equal to the blade temperature. For the average
shows the scattering zone of the and j-data, reported in the blade temperature the argument holds that about 85 per cent of
literature, by plotting these values as function of the deflection the dynamic temperature rise is effective at the blade. This then
at angle A/3. Fig. IS shows the different values for the wheel- means that the average blade temperature can be computed as a
disk friction coefficient /3,„*, found in the literature. Calculating function of the gas temperature at the turbine inlet and the tur-
now the hydraulic efficiency of axial-impulse turbines for (w/co)0pt bine-velocity ratio, yielding the relation
as function of ipK and \pv, Fig. 19 is obtained, which indicates that
the hydraulic efficiency is particularly sensitive to \pN and that
the difference between the average l/'-values, used in the NSD3-
diagrams, and the maximum l/'-values can cause efficiency dif-
ferences of as much as 5 to 7 per cent. Considering now addi-
tionally the differences in /S^-values, it results that higher (as
well as lower) efficiencies than quoted in the A r s D s -diagrams can be
obtained and that this difference can amount to as much as 6 to 8
per cent. It appears reasonable to assume that the efficiencies
quoted in Figs. 4, 5, 11, 14, 15, and 16 are obtained with good
aerodynamic design features, whereas up to 8 per cent higher
efficiencies should be obtainable with aerodynamically refined
designs; i.e., designs with carefully considered flow-path details,
such as surface roughness, avoiding sudden flow decelerations or
sharp corners, and so on.
Stress Considerations 1
Important considerations in the selection of the turbine-wheel
design are the disk stresses. These are for similar wheels a func-
tion of the wheel-tip speed [14, 15] and the specific weight y M of
the rotor material. Similarity considerations indicate that the
stress tr follows the relation
Tit
<t = Sll2 (51)
Fig. 2 0 A p p r o x i m a t e values for characteristic stress factor
(I
whereby the factor S represents a characteristic value which

depends mainly on the wheel type. Typical values are shown in
Fig. 20. These values are valid only in cases where compara-
tively small thermal stresses exist in the wheel, i.e., when it is 9
mox
assumed that the temperature gradient in the wheel disk is Y
comparatively small, and that for axial wheels the blade length
does not exceed 20 per cent of the disk diameter (h/D < 0.2).
For larger /i/D-values the stresses in the blade base become
larger than the disk stresses and, consequently, are the main
criterion. It is to be noted that the <S-fac.tors presented in Fig. 20
represent average values for typical design geometries. Lower
S-values, i.e., higher admissible tip speeds, may prove to be ob-
tainable with rotor geometries which are carefully stress-balanced
by a rigorous stress analysis.2
The maximum allowable stress tr depends on the material
composition and on the disk temperature. Some typical values
2 A p p a r e n t l y the S - v a l u e s can be reduced to of the values Fig. 21 M a x i m u m allowable stresses for different materials for 1000-hr
shown in Fig. 20 with reasonable disk and blade taper ratios. rupture life

Co 2 <Ml _p) ( O.Soii.'r Vmu is reached). It is to be noted that this diagram is computed
Tl\ = 'A
2]gcp _ + 2}gc f by assuming a constant "recovery factor" of 0.85 and using the
average blade temperature as a basis; i.e., by using simplifying
sin a'2 assumptions, which may not be entirely correct at supersonic
= r, < i - YTiN\ 1 - P) 0.S5 (52)
sin /3o speeds in the rotor blade passage; i.e., at high values of Co. This
diagram is shown mainly to indicate trends rather than absolute
Since the blade temperature decreases with decreasing degrees of values. It stands to reason that a more refined stress analysis
reaction, it becomes apparent that impulse turbines are most which duly accounts for the thermal disk stresses and the interre-
suitable for operation at high gas temperatures. The approxi- lation between disk shape and stress can yield values which differ
mate temperature limits for this turbine type may now be dis- from Fig. 22. Additionally, it is to be noted that higher gas
cussed in more detail. temperatures than shown in Fig. 22 may be obtained by provid-
With the approximation (sin a 2 /siii (S2)2 = (1 — u/coY the dif- ing external cooling, particularly in partial-admission designs.
ference between average blade temperature and gas temperature Another interesting feature regarding allowable gas tempera-
can be expressed by the relation [from equation (52) for p = 0] tures is exhibited by the double-staged (pressure-staged), single-
disk design. For many designs, particularly when operating at
O.loco2 + 1.7-»Co - 0.85» 2 large pressure ratios, it can be assumed that the last stage occupies
A I = T, - T„ = (53)
K 2g about 00 to 80 per cent of the periphery so that the disk tempera-
R T ture is mainly determined by the blade temperature of the last
K- 1 l/'.V"
stage. This means that the disk temperature is lower than ex-
Thus the temperature drop can be calculated as a function of pressed by equation (52) and, consequently, the allowable gas
wheel speed and spouting velocity for selected K and 7?-values. temperature is higher than shown in Fig. 22. Actually, this can
Using now equation (51), the required cr/yM ratio can be cal- only be the case when the first-stage efficiency is reasonably high.
culated as a function of wheel speed after selecting the proper This is demonstrated in Fig. 23 by comparing the blade tempera-
stress factor S, so that the allowable blade temperature can be ture of a single-stage design with the blade temperature of a two-
found from Fig. 21 for the different materials. Adding, now, the staged, single-disk design having rji = 0.6 and r]i = 0.4 for dif-
temperature drop A/, equation (53), to the blade temperature, ferent over-all pressure ratios (expressed by F 0 ), pressure splits
the allowable gas temperature is found. This procedure yields between the stages (expressed by y), and different wheel speeds,
the interrelation between turbine-velocity ratio and allowable f t is evident that in this case (hydrazine) the blade temperature
gas temperature for different spouting velocities and wheel ma- of the two-stage design is smaller than the blade temperature of
terials as presented in Fig. 22 for S = 0.21, for a gas with k = 1.4 the single-stage design, particularly for high expansion ratios
and R = 53.3. This diagram reveals the interesting fact that the when iji = 0.6 (solid lines in Fig. 23). Thus in many cases where
allowable gas temperatures increase with increasing spouting single-stage designs have to resort to molybdenum alloys, double-
velocities. The influence of the turbine-velocity ratio depends on staged, single-disk designs can still use nickel alloys. When, how-
the material, or more specifically, on the slope of <r/yM = f(Tb). ever, the first-stage efficiency of a double-staged, single-disk de-
For a material with a steep slope (aluminum) the admissible gas sign is only TJI = 0.4, the blade temperature is about equal to the
temperature increases with increasing turbine-velocity ratios (up blade temperature of a single-stage design, as evidenced by the
to the point where crmax is reached), whereas for materials with a dashed lines in Fig. 23, so that no temperature advantage results
more gradual slope (nickel and molybdenum alloys) the ad- for the double-staged, single-disk design for these conditions.
missible gas temperature may increase, decrease or be almost in-
dependent of the turbine-velocity ratio (up to the point where Similarity Relations for Rotary-Displacement Machines
The similarity laws for displacement machines differ to some
degree from the similarity laws for turbomachines. However, it
can be demonstrated that the maximum obtainable efficiency of
="
Co
u= 1 6 0 0 ft/ooc __
3000 ^-"^mifcqcL ZL _ _ [ _
Tgaa
Fig. 2 4 Typical cross section through

rotary-displacement machine (Roots
type)
Yi
Fig. 2 2 Interrelation between a l l o w a b l e turbine-velocity Fig. 23 C o m p a r i s o n of blade temperatures

ratio a n d g a s temperature for different spouting velocities for double-stage, single-disk, axial turbines
a n d materials (1000-hr rupture life) a n d single-stage axial turbines

displacement machines is a unique function of the specific speed Introducing equations (55), (56), and (61) into equation (60), the
and specific diameter as it was for turbomachines. Hence N,Da- relation for the ideal head expanded in the Roots motor reads
diagrams can also be calculated for optimized designs of dis-
placement machines. The validity of the foregoing argument may (1 - p3/pi)(l - e~2)2RTi
H id = (62)
be demonstrated for the case of a Roots-type expander. Pi/Pi
X 1 +
A typical cross section through a Roots expander is given in - vYi
Fig. 24, indicating two lobe-type rotors with a diameter of D, ar-
ranged in such a manner that they constantly intermesh, thus i.e., is entirely independent of diameter and rotative speed of the
sealing the exit area from the inlet area at any position of the machine, in contrast to the head relation for turbomachines,
lobes. The weight flow W which passes through the machine equation (2). Hence the basic similarity relations for positive-
can be expressed by the relation displacement machines do not allow formulation of such terms as
specific speed and specific diameter. Equation (57), however,
TF = WK + W, (54) indicates that the similarity relation for the volume flow is de-
scribed by the flow of the gulp factor as becomes evident by com-
when TFB denotes the weight flow transported from inlet section
paring equations (57) and (13). Since the gulp factor is in-
to exhaust section due to the rotation, and when IF; denotes the
terrelated with specific speed and specific diameter, as indicated
leakage flow passing through the clearance s, Fig. 24. The volume
in equation (13), it becomes evident that the terms specific speed
flow V R transported by the rotor is
and specific diameter will have a definite meaning, also, for dis-
TTD'LXN placement machines. This becomes even more evident when it is
Vn = (55) considered that the efficiency relation for displacement machines
120
is a function of the turbine-velocity ratio u/co, i.e., Na and D, ac-
when L denotes the length of the rotor and X the ratio of the free cording to equation (11).
area compared to the area of the full circle; i.e., the ratio of the The basic definition for efficiency states that the efficiency is the
actually swept volume to the volume swept in the ideal case for ratio of the work output to work input, whereby work input is de-
zero thickness of the lobes. This volume flow passes through the fined by the product of the head Hid and flow TF delivered to the
machine with a mean density y m which may be approximated by machine. The output is defined by the head H* transferred into
rotative power and the weight flow IF® participating in the
Yi + 73 Pi Pi/Pi process, i.e.
1 + (50)
RTi 1 - VY,
H* Wn
V (63)
From equations (54), (55), (56), and (1) it results for the exhaust Had TF
volume flow
The head ratio in equation (63) can also be written in the form
Pl/P3
irBX + 1 (1 + X )
Fs 1 - i)Y H* = Hid - Hw
(57) (64)
ND3 240 H ad Hid + H lr
when the length L in equation (55) is expressed as percentage of when Hit denotes the head loss due to wall friction
the rotor diameter by writing L = BD, and when X denotes the
o,2 V2
leakage rate
Hf r = — ? (65)
TF, with £ denoting a loss coefficient which depends mainly on the

X =
TF® P-i/V i K passage geometry', on the pressure ratio, and on the Reynolds
XB — I 1 RTi
1 - i)Y K- 1 number. The term H w in equation (64) denotes the head lost
due to wheel-disk friction and windage, i.e.,
(58)
u22
3 ± - ( l + B + ± ) r H,„ = (66)
gBX1
W, = (59)
Vr'I\ with (3W* denoting a loss coefficient which is mainly a function of
when e denotes the ratio of the outer diameter of the lobe to the the Reynolds number. The weight flow ratio in equation (63) can
hub diameter of the lobe, Fig. 24. Comparing equation (57) with also be written in the form
(1), it is found that the similarity relation for the volume flow of
the rotarv-displacement machine and the turbomachine are equal 1F« = 1F„ = 1
(67)
as long as X is constant; i.e., as long as similar machines operating TF TFk + TF, 1 + X
at equal w/co-values and pressure ratios are considered. The rela-
Introducing, now, equations (58), (62), (64), (65), (66), and (67)
tion for the expanded heads, however, are different. The head
into equation (63) the relation for the efficiency of rotary-displace-
expanded in the Roots motor for the ideal case, i.e., without con-
ment motors is obtained and reads
sidering friction and windage losses, follows the relation
Taw TmttN V =
H id = (60)
W 30Fk7„ 2 ft/fc,
,c0/ B( 1 - e"
when 2'id denotes the torque which is exerted by the airflow on the
lobes. For T\i it holds 12 1+B + - ) k .
D
Vi P3
1 + 1 1 Co- J, 16(1 - e" 2 ). {u/co)XB
2ApLr dr =
=
I D3B{ 1 - e~2) (61)
(68)

600 1000
Fig, 2 5 Preliminary N s D s - d i a g r a m for rotary-displacement m a c h i n e s operating as motors (low-pressure ratio)
where ki and fa are factors which depend mainly on pressure ratio
k — 1 T \ ' 1 — f]YT
fe. =
l - in/Pi
((59)
r
Ps/Vi
h = 2;, YT I ( 1
k - 1 1 - 7]Y
Equation (68) reveals that the efficiency depends on the velocity L/o
ratio it/ct, the pressure ratio, and the geometry as expressed by the
Fig. 2 6 A p p r o x i m a t e values for weight factor of rotary-displacement
X and B-factors. If it is now considered that the A* and B-factors machines
are interrelated with specific diameter and specific speed as indi-
cated by equation (57), and that the velocity ratio u/c0 is also a paratively large for large pressure ratios in "displacement"
function of Nt and D, as indicated by equation (11), it becomes machines representing sudden expansion losses in addition to the
apparent that the efficiency of rotary-displacement machines is a friction losses, but smaller in true "expansion" machines.
unique function of the similarity parameters N, and D, and that Due to the lack of detailed information on the different loss co-
the leakage relations are mainly responsible for this result. This efficients in rotary-displacement machines, no detailed per-
then means that lines of constant efficiencies can be plotted in an formance diagrams of this machine type are presented. It ap-
iYjDj-diagram together with lines for the optimum geometry. pears, however, feasible to indicate from the available per-
Hence the similarity concept developed for turbomac-hincs is also formance data of this machine type in conjunction with equation
directly applicable for rotary-displacement machines and has equal (68) the approximate operating regime for rotary-displacement
significance for both machine types. Tt is, however, to be noted devices. These lines necessarily are preliminary and merely serve
that the pressure ratio is more critical in displacement machines to indicate in a somewhat generalized form the most feasible
than in turbines so that an jV s D s -diagram for displacement operating regime of rotary-displacement machines. A typical
machines usually is valid only for a narrow range of pressure diagram is shown in Fig. 25, indicating that displacement ma-
ratios. This is particularly true for compressible media, since chines cover the low-specific-speed regime extremely well and are
the maximum obtainable efficiency depends to a major degree on efficiencywise superior in this regime to single-stage turbines.
the type of expansion process which can be utilized in the machine; Considering only the maximum obtainable efficiency (D,-opt) as
i.e., to which degree the full expansion energy (in contrast to the function of specific speed, it is found that the rotary-displacement
displacement energy) is utilized. This can be expressed in equa- machine exhibits about the same efficiency as the pressure-staged,
tion (68) by the loss coefficient J, meaning that J will be com- single-disk turbine at, however, specific diameter and conse-

quently tip speeds which are only '/a to ' / j of the values required In cases that the resulting rotor diameter is too large or the
for the single-disk turbine. This advantage is for some applica- calculated weight is too heavy for the intended application, Fig. 5
tions offset by the fact that these efficiencies are obtained, at least also indicates the design values for a lighter turbine. If it is, for
for the true "displacement" type, only at comparatively low pres- example, assumed that the maximum allowable rotor diameter is
sure ratios. D = 7 in., then it follows from equation (8) that the desired
It may be pointed out also that for many designs the weight of specific diameter is Ds = 4.9. For this specific diameter and the
the unit is again proportional to the square of the diameter. The previously quoted specific speed, a maximum turbine efficiency
weight factor, however, is considerably larger for this machine of 7) = 0.51 results from Fig. 5, which also indicates that the
type than it was for turbines, ranging, for example, from 150 to blade length now has to be h = 0.058 X D = 0.406 in. and that
350 for Roots-type motors, as indicated in Fig. 26. 14 per cent admission is required. The leaving energy is 20 per-
cent of the spouting velocity, and the cutter diameter has to be
a* = 0.07 in., yielding a blade number of 2 = 109. The bucket
Application of Design Diagrams angle now is 20.0 deg according to equation (33), i.e., somewhat
smaller than the bucket angle required for the first design. It is
A brief description may now be given for the application of the
to be observed that this design delivers only 50.5 hp due to the
design diagrams for finding the optimum design for given prob-
decreased efficiency. The design values for a 60-hp turbine with
lem statements.
D = 7 in. and N = 32,000 rpm are found by correcting Ds and Ns
It may be assumed that the problem statement calls for a tur-
for the reduced efficiencj' by a trial-and-error calculation, yielding
bine design delivering 60 hp at a rotative speed of 32,000 rpm
an efficiency value of 7? = 0.535, h/D = 0.062, (c 3 /c 0 ) 2 = 0.21,
operating on a gas with a ratio of specific heats of K = 1.3, a pres-
and 15 per cent admission.
sure ratio of 20:1, a gas temperature of 2000 R, a gas constant of
R = 80 with a back pressure of p3 = 15 psia. Assuming, now, It must be kept in mind that the i;-values quoted are average
an efficiency, the specific speed can be calculated from equation values as discussed in detail in the section "Comments 011 Peak
(19)—or from equation (6), after calculating the adiabatic head Efficiencies."
with equation (35) and the required volume flow from the It is evident, then, that fairly detailed design information can
energy relation—and yields N, = 6.45 for t) = 0.605. From Fig. be read from the quoted diagrams, which, in most cases, is suf-
14 it is found that an efficiencj' of rj = 0.605 can be obtained (thus ficient for judging the compatibility of the design with the re-
confirming the initially assumed efficiency and eliminating the quirement. It stands to reason that the values obtained this way
need for correcting the A^-value) for this condition if the optimum in some cases may have to be refined by more exacting calcula-
specific diameter is selected which has a numerical value of Ds = tions.
7.3. This means that the optimum rotor diameter is D = 10.4
in., according to equation (8).
Fig. 14 also indicates that the partial-admission, axial turbine Conclusions
gives the best solution so that now the detailed geometry can be The similarity parameters, specific speed N s and specific diame-
found from Fig. 5. For the specific speed and specific diameter ter Ds, are adequate parameters for expressing the similarity rela-
quoted, it results that the optimum ratio of blade height to diame- tions for turbomachines as well as rotary-displacement machines.
ter is h/D = 0.042, meaning that the optimum nozzle height is Machines which have the same specific diameter and specific
h = 0.438 in. if a nozzle angle of a« = 16 deg is assumed. Equation speed and similar geometries are similar in fluid-dynamic behavior
(33) indicates that for these conditions the rotor angle becomes and, consequently, have the same efficiency if Reynolds number
ft = 23.0 deg. It further results from Fig. 5 that a degree of ad- and Mach number influences are neglected. This concept is
mission of 8 per cent is required, that the ratio of leaving energy used to compute the optimum geometry and maximum obtaina-
to supply energy is (c 3 /c 0 ) 2 = 0.09. meaning that the exhaust loss ble efficiencies as function of Ns and D„. This information is
is 9 per cent, and that the velocity vector has an angle of <23 = presented in the form of AfsDs-diagranis, thus providing informa-
50°. In order to obtain the quoted efficiency, a cutter diameter tion on the maximum obtainable efficiencies and the desired ge-
of a* = 0.104 is required, meaning that a blade number of 2 = ometry of the machine types discussed. These diagrams are
tr sin ft/(a*/D) = 124 is desired. The maximum allowable valid for a certain range of Mach numbers and Reynolds numbers
radial clearance is s = 0.00876 in. since s/h = 0.02 and the and express the present state of the art. For Reynolds and
maximum allowable trailing-edge thickness is te = 0.0053 since Mach number different from those indicated in the diagrams,
I j l = 0.02. From these values the wheel-tip speed is calculated correction factors can be devised which account for the influence
to 1450 ft/sec which means, according to equation (51), a rim of Reynolds number and Mach number. By presenting the dif-
stress of 54,100 psi if a material density of 520 lb/ft 3 is assumed. ferent tj'pes of turbomachinery and rotary-expansion machines
The blade temperature amounts to 1456 R according to equation 011 the same diagram, the most feasible turbine type for given re-
(52), which means that a nickel alloy should be taken for the quirements is readily determined, together with its optimum
rotor material, as indicated by Fig. 21. The approximate weight geometry, based 011 present state-of-the-art knowledge, by merely
of the turbine amounts to 28 lb according to equation (14) if a determining two significant numbers. These numbers can be
weight factor of ka = 38 is assumed, Fig. 2. A check of the calculated readily from the design requirements.
Reynolds number indicates a value of Re = 4.45 X 105 if a /Li- The particular advantage of this technique is that the similarity
value of 0.015 centipoises is assumed, meaning that the Reynolds parameters, specific speed and specific diameter, directly reflect
number is sufficiently large to render Fig. 5 valid. A check of the values which are of immediate concern to the designer; namely,
Mach number reveals an approach Mach number of M = 1.7 the rotative speed of the machine and the rotor diameter of the
which, according to Fig. 8, means that the efficiency quoted in machine.
Fig. 5 has to be corrected by a factor of 0.98, when a subsonic
Although a conscientious effort has been made to collect all
rotor blade design is selected, meaning that the obtainable ef-
available information 011 turbine-performance data, it has to be
ficiency is 7} = 0.593. It is, however, possible to obtain the
realized that some of the A r s D s -diagrams presented in this paper
originally assumed value of 7) = 605 when an exhaust diffuser is
are necessarily of preliminary nature, and are labeled as such,
provided, which yields an efficiency of = 0.222, according to
due to the still incomplete knowledge of the interrelation between
equation (36). Hence the most significant values for the opti-
losses and geometiy. This emphasizes the need for additional
mum design are readily found from the quoted diagram.
research in the field of turbomachines.
Journal of Engineering for Power JANUARY 1 96 2 / 1 0 1

Acknowledgments Flow and Pressure Losses in Blade Rows of Axial-Flow Turbines,"
A R C Technical Report, R and M No. 2891, Great Britain, 1955.
T h e similarity c o n c e p t described herein e v o l v e d while working 7 "Results of Systematic Investigations on Secondary Flow
on an Office of N a v a l Research sponsored turbine research c o n - Losses in Cascades," Institute of Fluid Mechanics, University of
Braunschweig, Germany, Report N o . 54132a.
tract ( C o n t r a c t N o . N O N R - 2 2 9 2 ( 0 0 ) T a s k N o . N R 094-343)
8 0 . E. Balje and D. II. Silvern, " A Study of High Energy Level,
with S u n d s t r a n d - T u r b o , a division of the Sundstrand C o r p o r a - Low Power Output Turbines," A M F / T D N o . 1190, Department of
tion. T h e diagrams for partial-admission axial turbines, pres- the N a v y , Office of Naval Research, Contract N o . NONR-2292(00),
sure-staged single-disk axial turbines, and drag turbines, shown Task N o . N R 094-343.
in this paper, were calculated under this contract. A c k n o w l e d g - 9 W . Traupel, " N e u e allgemeine Theorie der mehrstufigen
axialen Turbomachinen," Leeinan and Companv, Zurich,Switzerland,
ment is due to the Office of N a v a l Research and t o t h e S u n d - 1942.
s t r a n d - T u r b o Division for permission to use these diagrams. 10 A. H . Stenning, "Design of Turbines for High-Energy-Fuel,
T h e author is indebted t o M r . H . J. W o o d for his valuable c o m - Low-Power-Output Applications," M I T Dynamic Analysis and
Control Laboratory Report N o . 79, 1953.
ments in discussing the details of this paper.
11 W . Traupel, "Thermische Turbomaschinen," Band 1, Springer
Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1958.
References 12 R . Rotzoll, " Untersuchungen an einer Langsamlaufigen
Kreiselpumpe bei Verschiedenen Reynoldszahlen," Konstruction, v o l
1 D . G. Shepherd, "Principles of Turbomachinery," The M a c - 10, 1958, p. 122.
millan Company, New York, N. Y . , 1950. 13 O. E. Balje, " A Contribution to the Problem of Designing R a -
2 0 . Cordier, " Aenlichkeitsbedingungen fUr Stromungsma- dial Turbomachines," TRANS. A S M E , vol. 74, 1952, pp. 451-472.
schinen," VDI Berichte, vol. 3, 1955, pp. S5-8S. 14 K . T . Miiller, " D i e Festigkeit hoehbeanspruchter rein radial
3 H. J. W o o d , "Parametric Data Presentation for Radial Flow beschaufelter Kreiselverdichter-Laufrader," Jahrbuch dor Deutschen,
Turbines," A S M E Paper, 1952. Luftfahrtforschung, 1944.
15 R . E. Strong, " A x i a l Flow Gas Turbines," Summer Session
4 H . Kraft, " R e a c t i o n Tests of Turbine Nozzles for Subsonic
1955 on Gas Turbines and Free Piston Engines, Lecture 7, University
Velocities," TEAKS. A S M E , vol. 71, 1949, pp. 781-787.
of Michigan, College of Engineering, 1955.
5 J. H. ICeenan, " R e a c t i o n Tests of Turbine Nozzles for Super- 16 J. W . Freeman, " H i g h Temperature Materials," Summer Ses-
sonic Velocities," TRANS. A S M E , vol. 71, 1949, pp. 773-780. sion 1955 on Gas Turbines and Free Piston Engines, Lecture 5,
6 D . G. Ainley and G. C. R . M a t h i e s o n , " A n Examination of the University of Michigan, College of Engineering, 1955.
102 / JANUARY 1962 Transactions offfieAS IE

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Study on Design Criteria and Matching of

Journal of Engineering for Power JANUARY 1 96 2 / 8 3

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84 / JANUARY 1962 Transactions of f fie A S IE

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Journal of Engineering for Power JANUARY 1 96 2 / 8 5

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In equation (20) c„- 2 denotes the peripheral component of the inlet

Fig. 2 A p p r o x i m a t e values of weight factor

86 / JANUARY 196 2 Transactions of the A S M E

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90 / J A N U A R Y 1962 Transactions offfieA S IE

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88 / JANUARY 1962 Transactions offfieA S IE

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Journal of Engineering for Power JANUARY 1 96 2 / 8 9

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90 / J A N U A R Y 1962 Transactions offfieA S IE

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when r/o denotes the (diagram) efficiency calculated for Rep =

Comparison oi Full-Admission and Partial-Admission, Axial,

Fig. 8 A p p r o x i m a t e l y efficiency correction due to

Journal of Engineering for Power JANUARY 1 96 2 / 9 1

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Fig. 11 C o m p a r i s o n of performance of full-admission and partial-admission, axial-impulse turbines

92 / JANUARY 1962 Transactions of f fie A S IE

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sin fti/^ - y p + (1 - p)'./V - 2 c o s oc-2 (1 - p) v . - +(2LV

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Fig. 15 N.SD,-diagram for single-disk turbines s h o w i n g total efficiency

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as approximations demonstrating trends, resulting from the

fit " SO"

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whereby the factor S represents a characteristic value which

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Fig. 2 4 Typical cross section through

Fig. 2 2 Interrelation between a l l o w a b l e turbine-velocity Fig. 23 C o m p a r i s o n of blade temperatures

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TF, with £ denoting a loss coefficient which depends mainly on the

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Fig, 2 5 Preliminary N s D s - d i a g r a m for rotary-displacement m a c h i n e s operating as motors (low-pressure ratio)

where ki and fa are factors which depend mainly on pressure ratio

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