DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM - When a primary consumer feeds on a producer, 10% of

the original energy in producer is incorporated into the

Ecology = the scientific study of the interactions of living
organisms with other living organisms and with physical
environment
Producers
primary consumer and 90% is lost as heat.
- When a primary consumer is eaten by a secondary
consumer, 10% of the original energy in producer is
incorporated into the next consumer and 90% is lost as heat.

*autotrophs- green plants THE INTERACTION BETWEEN BIOTIC COMPONENTS

*synthesis organic substances / food from nutrients &
sunlight

Consumers

(heterotrophs) acquire energy and nutrient by feeding on

other organisms-primary, secondary, tertiary consumers

Decomposers

*microorganisms-bacteria / fungi

*break down waste products and dead bodies of other

organisms into simple substances

Abiotic components

 pH affects the distribution of organisms

 Light intensity - distribution and growths of plants and
distribution of animals
 Humidity - rate of water loss by plants and animals (ii) Saprophytism = living organisms obtain food from dead
 Temperature - physiological activities of p and a and decaying organic matter
 Topography
- secretes enzymes to digest dead organisms before
 altitude- height
absorbing the digested compound.
 gradient- steepness of a slope
- Examples:
 aspect- windward / leeward slope
 Saprophyte - plants that depends fully on dead
 Microclimate
organisms for food - mushroom, fungi
 climate in microhabitat
 Saprozoite - animal that obtains food from dead
 affects the number and distribution of organisms
organisms - Earthworm, paramecium, saprophytic
Food chain = a sequences of organisms through which bacteria
energy is transferred.
(iii) Prey-predator = prey is hunted and killed by the
Food web - food chains link up to form a food web. predator for food.

The tropics level of an organism is its position in a food

chain.
- helps control the population of organisms in an
ecosystem, maintain the balance of the nature
- At the beginning, the rats (prey) have plenty of food,
and they survive to breed and their population rises.
- Increases in the population of rats means more food for
owls (predator), so they survive to breed and their
population rises.
- With more owls, the population of rats goes down
because the rats are eaten by the owls.
- With less rats, fewer owls survive to breed and their
population declines. Some of the owls migrate to other
places.
- With fewer owls, more rats will survive to breed and
their population rises, so the cycle repeats itself.
- The predator-prey cycles are self regulating and keep
the populations of both predator and prey in a dynamic
equilibrium.
Competiton = for limited resources, such as food, shelter,
breeding mates, light, nutrients, water, space
(i) Intraspecific Competition
- a competiton between individuals of the same species
- The two species of paramecium aurelia and
paramecium caudatum are cultured in two separate
culture dishes but given the same amount of food.
- The population of paramecium aurelia and paramecium
caudatum in each culture dish increased and then
reached a maximum.
(ii) Interspecific Competition
- a competiton between individuals of two or more
different species
- in this type of competition, the species that
- loses: either dies, or is forced to move out of the habitat
- wins : stays and become dominant in that habitat
- When paramecium aurelia and paramecium caudatum
are cultured in a same culture dish with the fixed amount
of food and space, paramecium caudatum lost out to
paramecium aurelia in this competition for food and
space.
- The population of paramecium caudatum initially rose
and then decreased while the population of paramecium
aurelia rose and finally became the dominant species.
8.2 COLONISATION AND SUCCESSION IN AN ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem = a system formed by the interactions of a
community of organisms with their non-living environment.
- dynamic system where all the biotic components are in
balance with one another and with the abiotic components.
1. Niche
- the role that an organism plays in the ecosystem.
- the way of life of an organism in its natural surrounding
- Example: grasshopper – hops and flies around the grass
field, feeds on grass, mates and becomes food for others.
2. Habitat - a place where an organism lives.
3. Community - consists of all the different populations of
plants and animals living together and interacting within a
defined area of habitat.
4. Population - a group of organisms of the same species
living in the same habitat at the same time.
1. Colonisation is a process whereby living organisms move
into the newly formed area which is completely devoid of
life.
2. The species organisms that colonise the newly formed
area called pioneer species.
- usually hardy plants
- able to survive on dry or nutrient-poor soil or sand.
5. Succession of a habitat take places when species move
into the modified environment, compete and gradually
replace the pioneer species.
6. Successor species grow larger than the pioneer species,
thus cutting off light, nutrients and space of pioneer species
and finally eliminating the pioneers.
7. The succession process continues gradually. Finally after
many levels of succession, a climax community (a balanced
and stable community) forms.
Pond
Pioneer Stage
a. Phytoplankton, zooplankton and submerged aquatic
plants (Hydrilla, Utricularia and Cabomba) are the pioneers.
b. They have long fibrous roots to penetrate the soil and
absorb nutrients.
c. When they die and decompose, the organic matter
settles to the bottom of the pond. This organic matter,
together with the eroded soil from the bank of the pond
gradually settles to the bottom, making the pond shallower
and more suitable for floating plants.
Succession by aquatic floating plants
- (Pistia, Eichornia and Lemna) gradually multiply and
cover the surface of the pond and prevent sunlight from
entering it.
- This causes the submerged aquatic plants to die as they
cannot carry out photosynthesis.
- The dead plants decompose and add on to the layer of
organic matter at the bottom of the pond.
- The dead plants together with the eroded soil from the
bank of the pond gradually raise the floor of the pond,
making it too swallow for the floating plants.
emergent (amphibious) plants
- (Firmbristylis sp, Scirpus sp and Cyperus sp) which can
live in water and on dry land succeed the floating plants.
- The emergent plants multiply and change the habitat of
the pond.
- Some of the emergent plants die, their decomposed
remains add on to the sediment making the pond even
swallower and eventually dry it up.
- prop roots for support in the soft and unstable mud.
- help the plants to breathe as they are permeable to gas.
- viviparous seedling - germinate while still being
attached to the parent on the tree branch.
- Hydathodes (on the edges of the leaves to get rid of
excess salt from the tree through guttation)
- Thick and fleshy leaves (to store water)
- Waxy cuticle (protects the epidermis from excessive
water loss)
Succession by Bruguiera sp.:
The stilt roots of Rhizophora sp. trap the deposit floating
debris, wood, sand and mud brought in by the tide. Over
time, these deposition creates firmer soil, raises the ground
level and makes it drier, making the habitat more suitable
for Bruguiera sp.
Adaptations:
- buttress roots and pneumatophores that are knee-
shaped.
- The buttress roots form loops that protrude the soil,
providing strong support and trapping more silt.
- viviparous seedling, Hydathodes, Thick and fleshy
leaves, Waxy cuticles
8.2 POPULATION ECOLOGY

land plants (creepers, herbaceous and woody plants)

replace the emergent plants and gradually from a jungle

Climax community Succession will stop when a level of

balance is achieved. It takes a few hundred years to form.

Colonisation and Succession In Mangrove Swamp

Pionner stage: Avicennia sp. and Sonneratia sp.

Adaptations:

- vertical aerial roots - pneumatophores.

- At the end of the pneumatophores are aerenchyma
tissues for gaseous exchange.

Succession by Rhizophora sp.:

Pneumatophores trap mud and sediment and the amount of

soil increases and becomes more compact and firm, making
the habitat more suitable for Rhizophora sp.

Adaptations: