PETROLEUM EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Volume 44, Issue 4, August 2017

Online English edition of the Chinese language journal

Cite this article as: PETROL. EXPLOR. DEVELOP., 2017, 44(4): 603–614. RESEARCH PAPER

Progress and prospects of reservoir development geology

LI Yang1,*, WU Shenghe2, HOU Jiagen2, LIU Jianmin3
1. China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation Ltd., Beijing 100728, China;
2. College of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China;
3. SINOPEC International Petroleum Exploration and Production Corporation Limited, Beijing 100029, China

Abstract: This paper deals with the main scientific problems, academic connotation, progress and prospects of reservoir development
geology. The reservoir development geology involves the key scientific problems of reservoir connectivity, flow ability, and time variabil-
ity. Its research focuses on the forming mechanism and distribution model of geological factors controlling the reservoir development, the
control mechanism of geological factors to oil and gas production, the rule of reservoir dynamic evolution during development, and the
reservoir characterization and modeling technology. Important progress has been made on theory and technology of reservoir develop-
ment geology in high water-cut reservoirs, low permeability and tight shale reservoirs, fracture-cavity reservoirs, which makes the reser-
voir development geology grow as an independent academic subject already. With the development expansion in areas of deep-strata,
deep-water, and unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs, and the increasing difficulties of high water-cut reservoir development, the the-
ory and technology of reservoir development geology remain to be developed in order to support efficient and economic development of
hydrocarbon fields with a sustainable growth.

Key words: development geology; scientific problem; research progress; development geologic factor; reservoir development

Introduction quantitative study, computerization of research processes and

The reservoir development geology is the basis for eco-
nomic and effective development of hydrocarbon reservoirs
and enhancing oil recovery. To a large extent, the success or
failure of reservoir development depends on the research de-
gree of reservoir development geology[1].
The reservoir development geology has developed for more
than 70 years since the 1940s. In the 1940s, re-injection of
sewage method (i.e., water injection) was first applied to de-
velop the hydrocarbon reservoirs. The change of development
approach makes it realized that the continuity and connec-
tivity of reservoirs have a great influence on the oil-gas de-
velopment, which brings much attention to the study of res-
ervoir development geology. In the 1960s, Daqing oilfield
first proposed the sub-layer correlation and oil sandbody de-
scription method to study the reservoir heterogeneity, which
greatly improved the development effects of continental oil-
fields. In 1976, Schlumberger Corporation first proposed the
concept of reservoir description, and pioneered the systematic
research procedures of reservoir development geology, which
integrated the single well to multi-well study, qualitative to
visualization of results. MAКCИMOВ from the Soviet Union
wrote a book named Geological Basics of Oilfield Develop-
ment[2]; and Dicky from the Tulsa university published a book
named Petroleum Development Geology[3], which marked the
establishment of the subject of reservoir development geology.
In the 1980s, with the deepening of reservoir development,
especially the refined tapping of high water-cut reservoirs and
the development of tertiary oil recovery, the reservoir devel-
opment geology has entered into a rapid developing stage.
Since 1986, China has carried out numerous researches of
reservoir description and promoted their application in a large
scale. Thus, the reservoir geology research has become one of
the key works in the area of reservoir development. In 2006,
China first built the academic group of reservoir development
geology, Petroleum Geology Committee, Chinese Petroleum
Society, which marks the subject of reservoir development
geology stepping into a new stage.
This article systematically elaborates the academic conno-
tation of reservoir development geology, and summarizes its
research progress and prospects, with a purpose of promoting
the development of this subject.

Received date: 15 Nov. 2016; Revised date: 08 Jun. 2017.

* Corresponding author. E-mail: liyang@sinopec.com.cn
Foundation item: Supported by the National Key Basic Research and Development Program (973 Program), China (2011CB201003); the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (41372116).
Copyright © 2017, Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina. Published by Elsevier BV. All rights reserved.
 LI Yang et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(4): 603–614
1. Academic connotation and research content
The reservoir development geology is a subject which
studies the geological elements controlling the oil-gas devel-
opment and their evolution, and it is an interdiscipline of ge-
ology and reservoir development.
Oil and gas are produced in the multi-scale, multi-time and
multi-field coupling reservoirs. The reservoir connectivity,
flow ability and time variability are the key geological char-
acteristics influencing the reservoir development, and they are
also the important scientific problems of reservoir develop-
ment geology research. The reservoir connectivity represents
the way reservoirs are contacted with each other in space and
its connected degree. Flowing barriers, such as shale interlay-
ers and closed faults, could prohibit the fluid flow within the
reservoirs, exerting great impacts on the arrangement of well
pattern and injection-production relation in reservoir devel-
opment. The flow ability refers to the flowing capacity within
the connected units, which is affected by multiple factors,
including reservoir properties, fluid properties, drive type and
energy, artificial fracturing and other factors. The time vari-
ability refers to the dynamic change of fluid properties, reser-
voir properties, as well as the sealing of fault and fracture
during development. Therefore, it is necessary to study both
the static reservoir geological characteristics at the beginning
of development, and the dynamic change of reservoir geo-
logical factors and fluid distribution in the production period.
Based on the above scientific problems (reservoir connec-
tivity, flow ability and time variability), the research content
of reservoir development geology includes the following three
aspects: (1) the mechanism and distribution model of geo-
logical factors controlling the reservoir development; (2) the
controlling mechanism of geological factors on the reservoir
development and the dynamic evolution rule; (3) reservoir
characterization and modeling technology.
1.1. The mechanism and distribution model of geological
factors controlling the reservoir development
Reservoir development is mainly controlled by multiple
factors such as structure, reservoir, fluid, and so on. Structural
factors mainly include structural form, fault, burial depth and
ground stress. Reservoir factors mainly include reservoir scale,
lithology, petrophysical properties, pore structure, pore-caves,
fractures, interlayers, and oil-gas surface properties. Fluid
factors include fluid distribution, properties, reserves, pressure,
and temperature. Geological controlling factors vary from
different reservoir types and different developing stages[46].
Among them, there are four controlling factors showing
strong distribution heterogeneity, and it is necessary to deepen
the study of their genetic mechanism and distribution model.
1.1.1. Low-order faults
Low-order faults refer to the 4th-order and lower-order
faults, such as the faults between small fault blocks in a fault
block region, the faults inside a small fault block, etc. With
 604 
smaller fault offset (several meters to tens of meters) and
shorter extension (several hundred meters), these faults are
difficult to identify in conventional seismic profiles. The dis-
tribution and sealing of low-order faults play an important
role in controlling the subsurface fluid movement and re-
maining oil distribution.
1.1.2. Reservoir architecture
Reservoirs consist of hierarchical architecture units (reser-
voir units and flowing barriers). For the meandering river
reservoirs in a sub-layer, for example, the architecture hierar-
chy can be divided into channel sandstone/interlayer, mean-
dering belt sandstone/flood plain mudstone, single point bar
sandstone/abandoned channel mudstone, lateral accretion
sandstone/lateral accretion mudstone, and other smaller hier-
archies. The reservoir units and flowing barriers of different
hierarchies always show differential shape, scale, direction
and spatial superimposition, which lead to the variations in
reservoirs compartmentalization and connectivity. Such varia-
tion controls the subsurface fluid flow, especially the forma-
tion and distribution of macroscopic remaining oil.
The reservoir architecture characteristics are controlled by
both the high frequency sequence and sedimentary environ-
ment. It is necessary to focus on the spatial distribution pat-
tern and quantitative scale relationships of the architecture
units.
1.1.3. Reservoir space and petrophysical property
Hydrocarbon mainly occurs in the clastic and carbonate
reservoirs, whose reservoir space types include pore, fracture
and cave. The reservoir space of clastic reservoirs is domi-
nated by pore and fracture, while carbonate reservoirs have all
the three types of reservoir space.
The pore structure affects the fluid flow in reservoirs, and
governs the microcosmic displacement efficiency in the wa-
ter-injection development (gas injection, polymer, etc.). Petro-
physical properties (porosity and permeability) are the mac-
roscopic expression of pore structure. The permeability con-
trast between layers, in plan view and inner layers controls the
fluid flow capacity, and further controls the differential dis-
tribution of subsurface oil, gas and water. The pore structure is
mainly affected by sedimentary factors (rock texture and
composition) and diagenetic environment (burial depth, tem-
perature, pressure, fluid).
Fractures are not only important reservoir space, but also
important flow channels. During the reservoir development,
the fracture development degree determines the initial hydro-
carbon productivity. During the water injection, fractures are
easy to become crossflow channels. For tight and shale reser-
voirs, natural fractures directly influence the fracturing effect.
There are many types of natural fractures, such as tectonic
fractures, diagenetic fractures, weathered fractures, and so on.
These fractures of different origins have differential control-
ling factors and distribution law. Tight and shale reservoirs are
 LI Yang et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(4): 603–614
prone to develop multi-order fractures due to the high rock
brittleness.
Fracture-cavity reservoirs refer to the reservoirs developing
both fractures and caves. In fracture-cavity reservoirs (as rep-
resented by the fractured-cavity reservoirs in Tahe area, Tarim
Basin), the different reservoir space types show differential
geological characteristics and discontinuous distribution. Mul-
tiple flowing states occur in the reservoirs, where the domi-
nant fracture-caves display free fluid-flow with high produc-
tion. However, the fracture-caves are hard to recognize be-
cause of their discontinuous distribution, which tends to cause
the low drilling success rate, low recovery efficiency and rap-
id production decrease during development.
In this aspect, it is necessary to focus on the type and
mechanism of pore structure, the forming mechanism and
distribution pattern of fractures (including the water injection
induced fractures), the forming mechanism and distribution
pattern of fracture-caves, and the mechanism and distribution
pattern of rock petrophysical properties variations.
1.1.4. Differential fluid distribution
The differential distribution of oil, gas and water in reser-
voirs has great influences on the optimization of development
zone and arrangement of well pattern. The conventional res-
ervoirs always show relatively simple fluid distribution pat-
tern and weak reservoir heterogeneity. In contrast, the uncon-
ventional tight and shale reservoirs, with less influence of
buoyancy on the oil migration, always show complicated fluid
distribution pattern as controlled by the organic matter abun-
dance, reservoir properties and some other factors. Thus, it is
necessary to focus on the mechanism of differential hydro-
carbon accumulation and the fluid distribution law.
1.2. The controlling mechanism of geological factors on
the reservoir development and the dynamic evolution rule
The dynamic evolution of reservoirs is the coupling result
of multiple physicochemical fields that involve geostress field,
temperature field, pressure field, chemical field, saturation
field and other physicochemical fields. In the production pro-
cess, the fluid distribution, fluid properties and reservoir
properties would change dynamically as a result of the phys-
icochemical effect between rock and fluid, the change of geo-
stress, and so on. In particular, as for some unconventional
reservoirs such as the tight and shale reservoirs that need
large-scale fracturing, the effect of fracturing fluid and the
pressure change during production might cause the closure of
natural fractures and artificial fractures, which exerts great
influences on the hydrocarbon distribution and productivity.
Therefore, another important task of reservoir development is
to study the controlling mechanism of geologic factors on the
reservoir development (the priority is the dominant factors
and distribution of remaining oil), as well as the dynamic
change mechanism of fluid-reservoir properties and the cor-
responding evolution rule.
 605 
1.2.1. Formation and distribution of remaining oil
In the oil-gas production process, the dynamic evolution of
subsurface oil-gas distribution is controlled by both reservoir
geological and engineering factors. From the perspective of
reservoir development geology, it is necessary to characterize
and predict the spatial distribution characteristics and chang-
ing rules of remaining oil within the reservoirs, to investigate
the forming mechanism and distribution pattern of remaining
oil, and to figure out the spatial position and quantity of re-
maining oil after the elastic and water drive. As for the water-
flooding oilfields, understanding of the remaining oil distribu-
tion rules and their relationships with reservoir characteristics
and injection-production status is the premise and basis for the
oilfield adjustment, potential tapping, and improvement of
displacement and recovery efficiency.
1.2.2. Dynamic change of reservoir and fluid characters
In the oil-gas production process, the interaction between
subsurface fluid (including injected fluid) and rocks makes the
dynamic change of the initial reservoir characters (lithology,
petrophysical properties) and fluid characters. For instance,
the particle migration in reservoirs causes the formation of
large pore path, the variation in fluid pressure results in the
opening and closure of fractures (faults), water injection in-
duces the formation of fractures. Such change is the results of
multiple physicochemical fields, also a process from quantita-
tive change to qualitative change, causing the transition from
one balance to another.
1.3. Reservoir characterization and modeling
By integrating multi-subject information (core, well log,
seismic, production, outcrop, etc.), the reservoir characteriza-
tion and modeling technology attempts to recognize, describe
and predict the reservoir geological characters, as well as their
dynamic change in the production process, with the purpose
of establishing the three-dimensional geological model and
evaluating its uncertainty. The content includes the following
three aspects.
1.3.1. Recognition and prediction of reservoir geological
characteristics
A series of technologies have developed in order to recog-
nize and predict the reservoir geological characteristics, and
evaluate the reservoir connectivity and flow ability. They are
(1) small-scale chronostratigraphic correlation; (2) micro-
structure characterization; (3) reservoir architecture charac-
terization; (4) recognition and prediction of reservoir space
(pore and fracture-cavity); (5) interpretation and prediction of
reservoir petrophysical properties; (6) interpretation and pre-
diction of hydrocarbon-bearing layers; (7) prediction of
tight-shale reservoir fracturing-ability.
1.3.2. Recognition and prediction of reservoir dynamic
changes during development
A series of technologies have developed in order to recog-
 LI Yang et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(4): 603–614
nize and predict the reservoir dynamic changes during devel-
opment, and evaluate the reservoir time variability. They are:
1) interpretation and prediction of remaining oil; 2) interpreta-
tion and prediction of dynamic change in oil-gas properties; 3)
interpretation and prediction of dynamic change in reservoir
properties; 4) evaluation of fault sealing and fracture dynamic
change.
1.3.3. Three-dimensional reservoir geological modeling
Three-dimensional reservoir geological model is a digital
model which reflects the three-dimensional distribution of
reservoir geological characteristics, including stratigraphic-
structural model, facies model, petrophysical model, stress
field and fracture model, brittle model, fluid distribution
model and so on. It is necessary to study three-dimensional
geological modeling technique by integrating geology, mathe-
matics and computer science, especially the mathematical
models, algorithms and corresponding software of geologic
modeling.
2. Research progress
The reservoir development geology has grown as an inde-
pendent subject from previous reservoir characterization,
which promotes the development of the theory and technology
of reservoir development geology. Significant progress has
been made in high water-cut reservoirs, low permeability and
tight reservoirs, shale oil and gas, and fracture-cavity reser-
voirs[67]. Such progress also promotes the development of
basic geology subjects. For instance, the sedimentation-con-
strained high-resolution chronostratigraphic correlation facili-
tates the development of stratigraphy; the study of reservoir
architecture pushes the development of sedimentology; the
characterization of low-ordered faults and fractures promotes
the development of structural geology; the investigation on
the preferential flowing pathways and remaining oil promotes
the integration of reservoir geology and engineering subjects.
2.1. Research progress in development geology of high
water-cut reservoirs
Most of the China’s old oilfields have entered into the high
water-cut stage since the 1990s. The complicated distribution
of remaining oil results in poor development efforts. As a re-
sult of the strong reservoir heterogeneity, most of the oil can-
not be extracted with a lower recovery efficiency (<30%).
How to understand the distribution of remaining oil is the key
to enhancing the recovery efficiency. On the basis of abundant
studies, the characterization method of the subsurface reser-
voir architecture was investigated, the remaining oil distribu-
tion theory of the continental complicated heterogeneous res-
ervoirs was proposed, and the key technology of remaining oil
quantitative prediction was established.
2.1.1. Reservoir architecture characterization
Reservoir architecture characterization is an important
 606 
method studying the reservoir connectivity. In the middle and
late stages of reservoir development, it mainly depicts the
stacking relationships of hierarchical reservoir architecture
units and the flowing barriers within the reservoirs, with the
purpose of revealing the subsurface fluid flowing rules and
the potential remaining oil enrichment areas. Hence, study on
the subsurface reservoir architecture is pivotal to enhance the
hydrocarbon recovery efficiency and exploit the maximum
hydrocarbon resources in the middle and late stages of reser-
voir development. Since Miall proposed the architectural
analysis methods[8], new progress has been made in the depo-
sitional architecture model and subsurface architecture char-
acterization method.
Depositional architecture model focuses on the distribution
pattern (shape and temporal-spatial stacking relationships) of
hierarchical architecture units (such as individual microfacies
units) and the quantitative scale. As for the architectural dis-
tribution pattern, much work has been done on different sedi-
mentary environments, such as meandering rivers, braided
rivers, alluvial fans, delta, and submarine fans, with their ar-
chitectural hierarchy system, shape and stacking relationships
of multi-hierarchical architecture units established. In the as-
pect of architectural quantitative scale, some universal quan-
titative scale relationships have been built for the high-sinu-
osity meandering rivers, such as the quantitative relationship
between the point bar thickness and the river width, relation-
ship between the river width and the pointbar span, the rela-
tionship between the dip of the lateral accretion packages and
the aspect ratio, and so on. In addition, some other quantita-
tive scale relationships, such as the aspect ratio of the deltaic
distributary channels and that of the submarine channels, were
also established[918].
The subsurface reservoir architecture characterization is
mainly based on seismic information and multi-well informa-
tion, corresponding to two types of research methods. One is
the seismic sedimentology-based method, which integrates the
seismic imaging technology, such as the stratal slice, to study
the distribution of sedimentary units[1921]. The other is the
multi-well based model prediction method, whose basic re-
search idea includes hierarchical constraint, model fitting, and
multi-dimensional interaction. In particular, that is to fit the
well data (including the dynamic monitoring data) with the
hierarchical quantitative architecture model, and to predict the
inter-well distribution of hierarchical architecture units under
the constraint of architecture hierarchy (Fig. 1)[2226].
The subsurface reservoir architecture characterization can
not only reveal the hierarchical flowing barriers within the
reservoirs, but also provide research basis for the differential
fluid flowing within the reservoirs, especially the hierarchy of
flow units and its dynamic study. Hence, an architecture based
flow-unit characterization method were proposed[2730].
2.1.2. Rock texture variation and prediction of preferential
flowing pathway in the waterflooding process
As for the high water-cut reservoirs, some methods were
 LI Yang et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(4): 603–614

Fig. 1. Subsurface reservoir architecture characterization based on multi-well model fitting (modified from references [2326]).

applied to study their time variability, including the statistic

correlation of coring inspection wells, the wireline analysis of
small-spaced pair wells, and the long-term waterflooding ex-
periments. With different hierarchies from microcosmic to
macroscopic, they reveal the evolution of dynamic reservoir
heterogeneity and the dynamic changing rule and mechanism
of the reservoir petrophysical properties. Some quantitative
relationship equations were built reflecting the change of res-
ervoir properties with time and other development parameters
such as water-cut[31]. Other methods, especially the monitoring
of well test, analysis of tracer production curves, monitoring
Fig. 2. Preferential flowing channels in reservoirs.
of injector pressure drop curves and discrimination of produc-
tion performance, were used to (semi-) quantitatively recog- drive continental oil and gas reservoirs at the high water cut
nize the preferential flowing pathway within the reservoirs[31] stage. The enrichment area of remaining oil is compartmented
(Fig. 2). This preferential flowing pathway results in the for- by the lower-order faults, muddy and physical intercalated bed,
mation of high water-consuming zones, greatly reducing the and compartment of the fluid percolation in reservoirs con-
displacement efficiency. Integration of permeability contrast, trolled by injection production method. The remaining oil
vertical-horizontal permeability ratio, subsurface fluid viscos- enrichment area is controlled by lower-order faults and inter-
ity ratio and injection strength helps to quantitatively predict bed, and the stronger the heterogeneity of lower-order faults
the developing interval, well area, and timing of the preferen- and interbed distribution, the more likely to form remaining
tial flowing pathway, which provides great support to improve oil enrichment area. In strong heterogeneous reservoirs,
the waterflooding effects and enhance the displacement effi- whose permeability ratio is tens of times, preponderance flow
ciency[32]. paths form during water injection and causes injection hydro-
dynamic division, as well as a lot of inefficient water circula-
2.1.3. The forming mechanism and distribution law of
tion, then remaining oil accumulates at weaker seepage area
remaining oil
of the top of the reservoir[33]. From the microcosmic dis-
The reservoir compartment controlled remaining oil en- placement experiment and the sealing core drilling test re-
richment theory has been put forward to reveal formation sults[34], the microscopic remaining oil distribution is con-
mechanism and accumulation law of remaining oil in water trolled by the pore throat distribution, wettability, inject mul-
 607 
 LI Yang et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(4): 603–614
tiple, and the remaining oil is distributed as oil slug, oil drop-
let, oil slick in the reservoir. With the oil and gas reservoir
characterization developing from macroscopic to microscopic,
from qualitative to quantitative, from description to prediction,
gradually formed remaining oil comprehensive quantitative
description technology. The technology is composed of de-
velopment geology method including mini rhythmic layer
separation, lower-order faults description and reservoir archi-
tectural elements analysis, oil and gas reservoir integrated
geophysical method and large-scale fine numerical simulation
method[35].
2.2. Research progress in development geology of low
permeability, tight and shale oil-gas reservoirs
The low permeability, tight and shale oil-gas reservoirs
generally have a micron to nano-scale reservoir space without
natural productivity. Fracturing technology is thus needed to
form the artificial fractures so as to improve the oil-gas flow
ability and fulfill the effective development. China has devel-
oped mature technology and research methods in the low
permeability oil-gas exploration. In recent years, new progress
has been made in the study of tight and shale oil-gas reservoir
development geology. In the area of tight reservoirs, it was
studied with great interest concerning the densification
mechanism of sandstone and mixed sedimentary reservoirs,
distribution pattern of relatively high-quality reservoirs, ge-
netic mechanism of multi-stage cracks, oil-gas differential
distribution mechanism, distribution law of brittle minerals
and crustal stress, dessert forecast and evaluation system, and
so on. In the area of shale oil-gas, researchers focused on hy-
drocarbon sources, lithology, physical properties, fragility,
hydrocarbon-bearing property and their occurrence (free or
adsorbed state), stress anisotropy matching, dessert area eval-
uation, and so on[36-40]. With the successful development of
shale gas in Fuling, China has become a country engaged in
large-scale commercial development of shale gas other than
North America.
Three remarkable progress has been made in the research in
development geology of low permeability reservoirs, tight
reservoirs and shale oil-gas.
2.2.1. Characterization of pore structure
Mobility of oil and gas in low permeability, tight and shale
reservoirs is mainly influenced by pore structure, it is neces-
sary to perform the quantitative description of pore structure
parameters, and the analysis of the diagenetic environment
and diagenetic evolution history of the reservoirs.
Pore and throat type, shape, size and configuration are studied
using casting thin-section, x-ray diffraction, electron probe,
fluid inclusion, field emission and environmental scanning
electron microscopy, nano-CT, the pore throat distribution
model of reservoir is established, which provides the basis for
the study of flowing mechanism and reservoir reformation.
Diagenesis of low permeability, tight and shale oil-gas res-
 608 
ervoirs develops from qualitative diagenetic observation and
inference of diagenetic mechanism to the mechanism of geo-
logical fluid and water rock interaction. The diagenesis nu-
merical simulation technology was utilized to simulate the
diagenetic evolution history, predict the diagenetic stages and
diagenesis facies, as well as quantitatively calibrate the dia-
genetic parameters affecting reservoir physical properties. It
can help to reveal the mechanism of reservoir densification
and elaborate the spatial distribution law of high quality res-
ervoirs.
2.2.2. Characterization of natural fractures and
injection-induced fractures
Generally, natural fractures are more likely to be developed
in brittle reservoirs such as the low permeability, tight and
shale oil-gas reservoirs, which can improve the fluidity and
production of reservoir. However, they can also affect the
development and extension of hydraulic fractures and can
easily act as the breakthrough pathway. A large amount of
researches have been carried out on the formation and distri-
bution of natural fractures on various lithology, and great pro-
gresses have also been made on the genesis, controlling fac-
tors, quantitative characterization and prediction of multi-
scale natural fractures (large-scale, middle-scale, small-scale
and micro-scale fractures)[4147]. At present, the research
methods of natural fractures (Fig. 3) are as follows: (1) geo-
logical methods, which include field survey of outcrop ana-
logues, core description and thin-section observation; (2)
geophysical methods, which include recognition by well logs
and seismic data, where well logs can be divided into conven-
tional logs and special logs such image logs and multiple
acoustic logs, and seismic fracture recognition method in-
cludes post- stack attribute, pre-stack P-wave anisotropy,
P-wave and S-wave jointed analysis; (3) experimental methods,
such as rock acoustic emission, palaeo-magnetism, inclusions,
rock mechanics experimental analysis; (4) dynamic methods,
mainly including production analysis, pressure test and mi-
cro-seismic monitoring; (5) numerical simulation methods,
including structural main curvature method, stress field finite
element numerical simulation, stochastic simulation, and so
on.
During the water flooding development process, the bottom
pressure, near water injection wells, may exceed the rock
breakdown pressure and therefore induce new fractures or
selectively open the originally closed fractures, or extend
fractures in certain directions. This type of fractures reflects
the time-varying characteristics of low-permeability or ul-
tra-low permeability reservoirs, changes the flowing charac-
teristics of water flooding, exacerbates reservoir heterogeneity,
causes rapid water breakthrough, reduces the horizontal and
vertical sweeping degree, and finally affects the reservoirs
development efficiency[4850]. Understanding of the natural
fractures development rules was combined with the dynamic
production data, water-absorbing profiles and time-varying
 LI Yang et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(4): 603–614
Fig. 3. Multi-subject integrated characterization for natural fractures.
well test to study the genesis mechanism of injection-induced
fractures and predict their opening pressure, extension direc-
tion and distribution rules under the guidance of Coulomb
failure criterion and Griffith crack propagation theory.
2.2.3. Research on reservoirs fracturing-ability
The main factors affecting the fracturing-ability of reser-
voirs are: (1) content of brittle minerals, such as quartz and
carbonate minerals; (2) geostress field, especially the ratio of
maximum and minimum principal stress; (3) development of
natural fractures.
Many reservoir fracturing-ability prediction methods have
been developed, which include petrophysical experiment,
mineral decomposition, seismic elastic parameters prediction
and geostress field analysis. And the appraisal method of
fracturing effect has also been developed using micro-seismic,
well test and production data.
2.3. Research progress in development geology of
fracture-cavity reservoirs
Carbonate rocks are the main types in fracture-cavity res-
ervoirs, and the typical example is Paleozoic carbonate rocks
in the Tarim basin. The main progress of development geol-
ogy research of fracture-cavity reservoirs is (1) clarifying the
formation and distribution rules of fracture-cavity reservoirs;
and (2) forming a 3-D geological modeling method for frac-
ture-cavity reservoirs that can quantitatively characterize the
spatial distribution of fracture-cavity system.
2.3.1. Development and internal architecture of
fracture-cavity reservoirs
The fracture-cavity reservoirs are characterized by various
 609 
types of reservoir space, large differences in fracture-cave size,
extreme irregular reservoir shape, random discontinuous dis-
tribution, and so on. The reservoir space is composed of karst
caves, fractures and dissolved pores. It is characterized by the
development of giant caves, which is the karstification of
carbonate rocks under the surface and near surface conditions.
The fracture-cavity system is controlled by the paleo-geo-
morphology in plan view, and has vertical zoning characteris-
tics. It can be divided into epikarst zone, vadose zone, runoff
erosion zone and underflow erosion zone, where the runoff
erosion zone is most commonly seen, which is characterized
by large caves such as sinkholes (halls), mainstream caves,
tributary caves, peripheral caves and fracture-cavity complex.
Most of the cave systems are completely filled or partly filled
by external fills, internal fills, collapsed deposits and chemical
fills. Through the study, the formation and distribution of
caves, channels and pores at different levels and the filling
structure in caves are clarified. The internal architecture char-
acters and the fracture development restrict the connectivity of
the fracture-cavity system. The methods of tracer analysis,
injection production and production feature similarity were
used to evaluate the inter-well connectivity[5154].
Various methods have been developed for inter-well geo-
physical prediction in fracture-cavity reservoirs in order to
describe the external form, the internal architecture and
oil-bearing properties of fracture-cavity reservoirs. For exam-
ple, strong amplitude cluster analysis of trunk cave and large
cavern, seismic reflection structure analysis of large frac-
ture-cavity network system, wavelet multi-scale method for
detecting small clutter in small caves and dissolved pores and
fractures, and coherent analysis, discontinuous edge detection,
 LI Yang et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(4): 603–614
Fig. 4. Characterization approach of carbonate fracture-cavity
reservoirs.
and multi-azimuth P-wave anisotropy detection method of
fractures (Fig. 4).
2.3.2. 3-D geological modeling of fracture-cavity reservoir
A discrete modeling (DFN) method is proposed to describe
the three-dimensional spatial shape and development of frac-
ture-cavity reservoirs. The fracture-cavity reservoirs have
been classified according to the type and size of reservoir
space, and a classified hierarchical modeling of frac-
ture-cavity reservoirs was built under the guidance of pa-
laeo-geomorphology, karst development pattern, and fault
development rule (Fig. 5). There are four types of reservoir
space for fracture-cavity reservoirs, including cave (large and
small cave), dissolved pore-cave, fracture (large-scale, meso-
scale and small-scale fracture), as well as bedrock and mi-
cro-fracture. The discrete distribution model of different types
of reservoir space models were established separately and
then were merged into one model to get the discrete distribu-
tion model of typical fracture-cavity units. The large cave
model was established using deterministic method via seismic
truncation and pattern modification. The small cave model
was built using the method of multi-point geostatistic simula-
 610 
Fig. 5. 3-D geological modeling approach showing classified
hierarchical modeling, karst-facies constraint, and multi-in-
formation integration.
tion with large cave model as the training image. The dis-
solved pore model was built using sequential Gaussian simu-
lation. The large-scale fracture model was established using
the deterministic method of manual interpretation, the meso-
scale fracture model was built using deterministic method of
ant-tracking, and the small-scale fracture model was built
using stochastic object-based modeling[5557].
3. Prospects of reservoir development geology
Nowadays, the hydrocarbon development has expanded to
the areas of deep-strata, deep-water, unconventional oil-gas
and high water-cut oilfields. The deep-strata reservoirs are
difficult to study because of the complicated lithology, diverse
reservoir accumulation types, and the environment of high
temperature and high pressure. The development of deep-
water reservoirs always needs small numbers of wells but
high productivity because of the high drilling cost, making it
hard to predict. The unconventional oil-gas resources have
diverse types (such as tight gas, shale oil-gas, and coal-bed
gas) with huge potentials, and their development approach is
different from the conventional oil-gas reservoirs. The high
water-cut old oilfields have complicated oil-water distribution
and diverse accumulation types after long-term development
and adjustment. In these research areas, the present geological
theories, methods and technologies cannot meet the research
needs. Therefore, it is necessary to further strengthen the the-
ory study of reservoir development geology and the technol-
ogy innovation.
3.1. Deepening the basic theory research
The theory research focuses on the three scientific problems
of reservoir development geology (reservoir connectivity,
flow ability and time variability), aiming to deepen the study
of mechanism and distribution law.
3.1.1. Reservoir architecture model
It is important to strengthen the study of prototype model
(outcrop and modern sedimentation, dense well pattern, shal-
low seismic dissection), physical simulation and numerical
simulation, and deepen the architecture study of braided river,
delta, alluvial fan and subaqueous fan facies by establishing
 LI Yang et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(4): 603–614

their distribution pattern and quantitative scale relationship,

with the ultimate purpose of building the quantitative archi-
tecture model.

3.1.2. Mechanism and distribution pattern of reservoir

quality and fluid variation

It is necessary to strengthen the research on the controlling

factors and mechanism of reservoir quality variations for
low-permeability, tight and shale reservoirs, and establish the
distribution model of relatively high-quality reservoirs. Be-
sides, it is necessary to perform the research on the controlling
factors and mechanism of oil-gas distribution variations for
unconventional tight and shale reservoirs, with the purpose of
building the oil-gas distribution pattern for unconventional
reservoirs.

3.1.3. Fracture forming mechanism and reservoir
geomechanics
It is imperative to deepen the research on the forming
mechanism and distribution law of micro-scale natural frac-
tures, as well as the influencing factors and effectiveness of
fracture filling. The geological controlling factors (brittleness,
rock composition, surface properties, stress, etc.) that can help
to improve the reservoir permeability and their mechanism
also need to be studied in depth. Besides, we should focus on
the distribution of the stress field induced by zippered frac-
turing and multi-well simultaneous fracturing, as well as the
multi-well, multi-fracture fracturing and the expansion rule.
For reservoirs with high temperature and high stress, the in-
fluencing factors and mechanism of flow conductivity in high
closure conditions are the key aspects to study.
3.1.4. Time variability of reservoir properties and multi-
field coupling mechanism
It is necessary to deeply investigate the inducing conditions
and mechanism of the time variability of reservoir properties
(especially the pore structure and water injection induced
fractures) during the water (or other displacing agents) injec-
tion production. For different development stages, it is impor-
tant to study the time variation rule of reservoir properties and
the sealing of faults and fractures, as well as the distribution
of preferential flowing channels. The coupling mechanism of
multi-field interaction and evolution is another focus (Fig. 6).
It is especially important for the deep-strata and deep-water
environment to study the multi-field coupling (temperature
field, pressure field, stress field and chemical field) and its
impacts on the reservoir time-variability.
3.1.5. Forming mechanism of remaining oil
It is necessary to perform the dynamic geological analysis,
remaining oil monitoring, physical and numerical simulation,
in order to reveal the controlling mechanism of reservoir con-
nectivity, flow ability and time variability on the remaining oil
and its distribution rule. It is also important to deepen the
Fig. 6. Diagram illustrating the multi-field coupling in reservoirs.
quantitative prediction model of remaining oil distribution in
high water-cut reservoirs, and build the remaining oil distribu-
tion pattern in tight and shale reservoirs during reservoir de-
velopment, in order to guide the exploration of high-quality
hydrocarbon resources.
3.2. Developing the research method and technology
It is necessary to develop new recognizing, predicting and
modeling technology in reservoir development geology, in
order to fulfill the 1) quantitative reservoir architecture pre-
diction; 2) distribution prediction of reservoir quality varia-
tions; 3) fracture recognition and quantitative prediction; 4)
fracture-cavity prediction; 5) prediction of reservoir fractur-
ing-ability; 6) description of fracturing fractures and the fluid
distribution before and after fracturing; 7) prediction of the
changeability of reservoir properties through time; 8) 3-D
geological modeling; and 9) quantitative description of re-
maining oil.
3.2.1. Multi-well analysis and prediction technology
The integration of multi-well, different space-time drilling,
well logging and production data is the advantage of reservoir
development geology study. Mathematic methods such as the
geostatistics and neural network have played a greater role in
the reservoir analysis and prediction. It is necessary to de-
velop the inter-well prediction method and software based on
geological model fitting, for the purpose of better evaluation
and prediction of reservoirs and remaining oil distribution. It
could provide solutions for oilfield development.
3.2.2. Integration technology of multi-subject and
multi-information
It is necessary to study the integration technology of multi-
subject and multi-information, such as the well-to-seismic tie
and static-dynamic integration. It is especially important to
combine the production data with various monitor data such
as the well drilling and logging data, cross-well seismic data,

 611 
 LI Yang et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(4): 603–614
3-D and time-lapse seismic data, nanobots, isotopic tracer, and
so on. Integration of big data, cloud computing, intelligence,
and other information technology can effectively improve the
accuracy of reservoir development geology research. Building
the 3-D, multi-scale reservoir based on multi-information
integration technology is the key to fulfilling the accurate
characterization of deep-strata, deep-water complicated res-
ervoirs. The unconventional sweetspots prediction and mi-
cro-seismic monitoring technology remain to be developed in
order to improve the prediction accuracy of reservoir
sweetspots.
3.2.3. Experiment and physical modeling technology
It is imperative to develop some experimental technologies
(such as the digital core, micro-porosity and micro-fracture
characterization, nano pore structure characterization, etc.)
and the physical simulation technology for the formation and
distribution of remaining oil. It is especially important for the
deep-strata and deep-water reservoirs to simulate the fluid
phase, fluid-rock physicochemical interaction mechanism in the
production process. Besides, simulation experiment of fractur-
ing production is the focus of tight and shale reservoirs study.
3.2.4. 3-D geological modeling technology for
complicated reservoirs
It is necessary to strengthen the combination of reservoir
geology and geostatistics. It is also important to develop the
multi-point geostatistic modeling method (such as the con-
struction of 3-D training images and model fitting of compli-
cated non-stationary geological bodies), the architecture
boundary based modeling method, and the geological process
based modeling method. It is imperative to build the software
systems suitable for complicated geological bodies such as the
architecture boundaries, fractures, and caves.
4. Conclusions
Study of reservoir development geology has played a great
role in the oil-gas field development, and has grown as an
independent subject. This subject involves the scientific prob-
lems of reservoir connectivity, flow ability, and time variabil-
ity. Its research focuses on the forming mechanism and dis-
tribution model of geological factors controlling the reservoir
development, the rule of reservoir dynamic evolution during
development, and the reservoir characterization and modeling
technology. With the expansion in areas of deep-strata, deep-
water, and unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs, as well as
the increasing difficulties of high water-cut reservoir devel-
opment, the theory and technology of reservoir development
geology remain to be developed in order to support efficient
and economic development of hydrocarbon fields with a sus-
tainable growth.
Acknowledgements
We thank Professor Zeng Lianbo and Associate Professor
 612 
Yu Dali from China University of Petroleum-Beijing, who
provide part of the material during the writing of this paper.
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