edexcel § tH See Edexcel A2 Biology Vamenta 4 STUDENTS’ BOOK ‘Active BookUnit 4 The natural environment and species survival (ay ate) diet ee CE TOPIC 5 On the wild side 5.1 Photosynthesis ‘The need for energy Photosynthesis in plants The biochemistry of photosynthesis 5.2 How ecosystems work What is ecology? How ecosystems evolve ‘The effect of abiotic factors Biotic factors Population ecology Energy transfer in ecosystems 5.3. Global warming - causes, effects and questions ‘The carbon cycle in nature Greenhouse gases Looking at the evidence The global warming debate Models of global warming ~ and its effects ‘What can be done? 5.4. Speciation and evolution Gene mutation, natural selection and evolution Evolution and speciation Identifying individual species New evidence for evolution Examzone: Topic 5 practice questions 0 10 R “ 8B 8B 20 24 28 30 34 38 38 wears 54 54 56 58 60 aoa AM CUP Ue LR ani) TOPIC 6 Infection, immunity and forensics 6.1. Forensic investigations and analysis. ‘of DNA What is forensic science? The process of decay The importance of DNA DNA and identification 6.2 Microorganisms and disease Viruses How viruses reproduce Bacteria How bacteria reproduce Bacteria — pathogens and benefactors Invading the body Non-specific responses to infection ‘The specific response to infection 6.3. People versus pathogens Controlling disease How antibiotics work Healthcare-acquired infections Developing immunity Case studies of disease ~ tuberculosis Case studies of disease — HIV/AIDS Examzone: Topic 6 practice questions n 66 66 68 nm 78 82 a2 34 36 a8 90 92 96 100 104 104 106 108 mW 16 120 1247 ites) Run for your life TOPIC 7 Run for your life 7.1 Cellular respiration — the energy supply Introducing cellular respiration Finding out about cellular respiration The biochemistry of respiration ‘The Krebs cycle ‘The electron transfer chain 7.2. Muscles and movement ‘The importance of muscles Different types of muscle fibre? How muscle contracts Tissues of the skeletal system 7.3. The heart, energy and exercise Controlling the heart Homeostasis and responding to exercise Breathing rhythms Temperature control and exercise Human temperature regulation 74 Health, exercise and sport The risks of too little exercise The risks of too much exercise How healthy is your heart Exercise and the joints Performance-enhancing drugs ‘The ethics of performance-enhancing practices Examzone: Topic 7 practice questions 132 128 128 130 132 136 138 142 142. 144 148 150 182 154 154 158 162 164 168 168 170 1. 174 178 182 184 TOPIC 8 Grey matter 8.1. Sensitivity in plants Responding to the environment The effects of light on plants ‘Tropic responses in plants Unilateral light and phototropisms 8.2 How the nervous system works The nervous system Nerve impulses The neurones in action Interactions between neurones How sensory receptors work The human eye Coordination at work 83. Brains and behaviour The human brain How the human brain works Nature and nurture in brain development Development of the human brain Learning and memory Habituation 8.4. Brains, the genome and medicine The chemical balance of brains The human genome and medicine Drugs from genetically modified organisms Examzone: Topic 8 practice questions 186 188 188 190 194 196 198 198 202 206 210 22 214 218 220 220 22 228 232 238 240 242 242, 248 252 258 260How to use this book This book contains a number of great features that will help you find your way around your AZ Biology course and support your learning. Introductory pages Each topic has two introductory pages to help you identify how the main textis arranged to cover all that you need to learn. The left-hand page gives brie summary ofthe topic, inking the content to three key areas of How Science Works: What ar the theories? What s the evidence? What are the implications? The right-hand page of the introduction consist of atopic map that shows ‘you how all the required content ofthe Edexcel specification for that topic 's covered in the chapters, and how that content all intrlnks. Links to other topics are also shown, including where previous knowledge is bult on within the topic Main text ‘The main part of the book covers all you need to learn for your course. The text is supported by many diagrams and photographs that will help you understand the concepts you need to learn Key terms in the text are shown in bold type. These terms are defined in the Interactive glossary that can be found on the ActiveBooK CO-ROM using the Glossary tab, 6.2 Microorganisms and diseaseDanan Tce pce usin ramzone page Examzone pages At the end ofeach topic you wil ind two pages of exam questions from past papers You can use these questions to test how fly you have understood the topic, a wl 5 to help you practise for your exams HSW boxes How Science Works is a key feature of your course. The many HSW boxes within the text wil help you cover all the new aspects of How Science Works that you need. These include how scientists investigate ideas and develop theories, how to evaluate data and the design of studies to test their validity, and reliability, and how science affects the real world including informing decisions that need to be taken by individuals anc society. Practical boxes Your course contains a number of core practicals that you may be tested on. These boxes indicate links to core practical work Your teacher will give you ‘opportunities to cover these investigations Question boxes ‘tthe end of each section of text you wil finda box containing questions that cover wat you have just lean, You can use these questions to help you check whether you have understood what you have just read, and whether there is anything that you need to look at again. Some question boxes contain stretch and challenge questions @, These questions help you practise different types of assessment and offer opportunities to ink what ‘you know from other topics together. Tine contents list shows you that there are two units and four topics in the book matching the Edexcel A2 specication for biology Page numbering in the contents ist, and inthe index at the back ofthe book wil help you find what you ae looking forHow to use your ActiveBook === } Cck on ths tab to see menus whieh list all the electronic files ‘on the ActiveBook. The ActiveBook is an electronic copy of the book, which you can use ‘on a compatible computer. The CD-ROM will only play while the dise is in the computer. The ActiveBook has these features: ‘Student Book Dstt lick this tab atthe top af the Photosynthesis in plants 453.452 screen to access the electronic version ofthe book ‘anpatttepcery etna wei The importance of chloropla patisbay plans, glucose + oxygen chlorophyll light energy 6CO, + -6H,O > CH,,0,+ 60, ‘chlorophyll ‘The energy from the light is used to split the strong, H-O bonds in the water molecules. The hydrogen Which is released is combined with carbon dioxide to form a fuel for the cells (glucose). Oxygen is released into the atmosphere as a waste product of this process ne Simple madels of photosynthesis such as the one shown in the equation above show a one-step process. They cover the most important points of the process ‘and make it relatively easy to understand Detailed research into the biochemistry of photosynthesis has shown that this madel is much 00 simplistic. Photosynthesis is actually a sequence ‘of many diferent reactions in two main stages, one ‘of which does not need light to take place. And the pigment chlorophyll isnot a single pigment but 2 group of five closely related ones! ‘Yu will be learning some of the details inthe process, but even this a simplification as the whole process is extremely complex ‘The whole stricture of plants has evolved around the process of photosynthesis. The different parts of the plant are adapted for efficiently obtaining the raw materials carbon dioxide and water, and for tapping as much sunlight as possible. The importance of chloroplasts Chloroplasts are relatively large organelles found in the cells of the green parts of plants. An average green, plant cell contains from 10-50 chloroplasts which are ‘uniquely adapted for the process of photosynthesis (see AS Biology pages 204-5), ‘The membranes within a chloroplast are arranged in stacks called grana, A granum is made up of stacks of membrane discs known as thylakoids. This is where the green pigment chlorophyll is found. The pigment ‘molecules are arranged on the membranes in the best possible position for trapping light energy. stroma here ATP is used Xo convert carbon oxide to glucose (stack of thyakens) thylakoid — | | ware arp coptues ier anergy rom ght a outer membre “GRE RIGATP membrane fig. 5:4 Evidence fom electron micrographs has helped scents build up a realistic and complex picture ofthe way the structure of loropasts i adapted to ther functions in phatosynthesisEvidence from clectron micrographs also shows that the sgranal membranes are covered in particles which seem to be involved in ATP synthesis (see page 139) “These membrane stacks are surrounded by a matrix called the stroma, The stroma contains all the enzymes needed to complete the process of photosynthesis and produce glucose. This can then be used in cellular respiration, converted to starch for storage or used as an intermediate for the synthesis of other organic compounds such as amino acids and lipids. Chlorophyll ‘The other major adaptation of the chloroplasts is the light-capturing, photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll, ‘Chlorophyll’ is actually a group of five closely related pigments, These include chlorophyll « (blue-green), chlorophyll & (yellow-green), the carotenoids (orange carotene and yellow xanthophyll) along with grey pigment phacophytin which is @ breakdown product of the others. Chlorophyll a is found in all, photosynthesing plants and is the most abundant of the five. The other pigments are found in varying. proportions, and it is these differences which give the leaves of plants their almost infinite variety of shades —ceeia f\ Shes crown Relative absorption of light 400 500 600 700 Light wavelength/nm (ig 5.5 Th eferent photosynthetic pigments absorb light and capture ls energy at a variety of fecent wavelengths, making mare ofthe ght avaable for use by the plant Each of the pigments absorbs and captures light from particular areas of the spectrum. As a result, far more of the energy from the light falling on the plant can be used than if only one pigment was involved eee Ce Plants look green. If you extract the pigments from a plant by grinding up leaves with acetone and filtering, the filtrate looks green. So how can you show that there ae five different pigments? The answer is paper chromatography, With a suitable solvent the pigments travel up the paper at different speeds and are readily Pematel A carotene (nee) iy hacophytin (rey) jo ‘xanthophyll (yellow) la { = chlorophyll (blue-green) ‘chlorophyll b (yellow-green) {ig 516 Cramatogram showing the ve photosynthetic pigments ____ ‘There are two distinct chlorophyll complexes known as photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSI). Each system contains a different combination of chlorophyll pigments and so absorbs light in « slightly different area of the spectrum (wavelength 700nm for PSI and 680nm for PSI). The different photosystems have been identified as different-sized particles attached to the membranes in the chloroplasts in electron micrographs. PSI particles are mainly on. ‘the intergranal lamellae, while PSII particles are on. the grana themselves. They have different functions in photosynthesis as you will see =a 1 a Chloroplasts are not present in all plant cells = why not? 1b Summarise the adaptations of chloroplasts for their role in photosynthesis. 2 Using the datain fig. 5.1.5, explain why plant leaves usually appear green.Se Cer The biochemistry of photosynthesis 45.4456 Photosynthesis is a two-stage process involving a complex series of reactions. The reactions in the first stage only occur in light, while those of the second stage occur independently of light. The light-dependent reactions produce materials which are then used in ») Pee the light-independent stages. The whole process takes place all the time during the hours of daylight. However, the light-independent reactions can also continue when it is dark ‘There are several strands of evidence for the two stages of photosynthesis 1 Light-dependent chemical reactions get the energy. ‘hey need from light. They do not use heat energy, so temperature should not affect the rate of the reaction. However, when the ate of photosynthesis is investigated experimentally, temperature has a clear effect (see fig. 5.1.7) Initial photochemical (ight-dependent) reactions are limiting the rate of the overall process and so temperature has no effect. But once there is plenty of light = wore £3 ; £3 00 << e FE wo ge 28 100 fe = ae D oo} 2 3 a ¢ ¢ Ligh intensity/arbitary units fig 5.1.7 Th fect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis suggests that two diferent processes ae invlved available, the process seems to be limited by diferent, temperature-sensitive reactions This suggests there are ‘two distinct phases to photosynthesis, one dependent con light and the other controlled by temperature sensitive enzymes (see AS Biology pages 84-8) 2 Aplant whichis given altemating periods of dak and light forms more carbohycrate than a plant in continuous light The best explanation is that the light- ‘dependent reactions produce a chemical which feeds Into the light-independent stage. The light-independent stage cannot keep up and so in continuous light this product builds up. As the concentration rises, it inhibits the enzymes controling the lighindependent reactions for making carbohyrates. period of darkness ensures that all of the light stage products are converted into carbohydrate without the concentration getting too high This syster i vey efficient in a natural environment with periods of light and dark (day and night) More recent techniques have allowed regions of the chloroplast to be isolated, The reactions accuring onthe arena have been shown to depend on the presence of light but those ofthe stroma do not. The light-dependent stage of photosynthesis “The light-dependent stage of photosynthesis takes place on the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts. Tt has two main functions. One is to produce ATP, Which supplies the energy needed for the synthesis of carbohydrates, The other is to split water molecules in a photochemical reaction, providing hydrogen ions to reduce carbon dioxide and produce carbohyttrates. Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation and the smallest unit of light cnergy is a photon, When 1 photon of light hits @ chlorophyll molecule, the energy is transferred to the electrons of that molecule, ‘The electrons are excited ~ they are raised to higher energy levels. If an electron is raised to a sufficiently high energy level it will leave the chlorophyll ‘molecule completely. The excited electron can be picked up by an electron acceptor (carrier molecule). ‘This in tam results in the synthesis of ATP by one of two processes ~ eyelic and non-cyelic photophosphorylation. In both cases ATP is formed as the excited electron is passed along an clectron transport chain,‘The electron transport chain is a model that ‘ean be used in diferent cellular processes to descrive the sequence of reactions by which living organisms make ATP. It can be imagined as a series of downwards steps Each step is a different carier molecule, and represents an energy level. As electrons move along the chain, they lose energy Which can be used to drive the synthesis ‘of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate Details of electron transport chains are ‘covered in Topic 7; see pages 138-141), secon ro spt — See he wecron fig. 5.1.8.8 simple representation ofan electron transport chain. The eariers may vary but the Principle are the ame wherever hey are found. Cyclic photophosphorylation Cyclic photophosphorylation involves only PSI and drives the production of ATP, ‘When light hits a chlorophyll molecule in PSI, a light-excited electron leaves the molecule. I is taken up by an electron, acceptor and passed directly along an electron transport chain to produce ATP. When an electron returns to the chlorophyll molecule in PSI, it can then be excited in the same way again, eee Ce AP election < ©} o ) de ‘anspor ain light. £5.19 Gye phatophosphonstion. Non-cyclic photophosphorylation ‘Non-cyelic photophosphorylation involves both PSI and PSIL Ie splits water molecules to provide reducing power to make carbohydrates. At the same time it results in the production of more ATP, Water always dissociates spontaneously into hydrogen (H*) ions and hydroxide (OH) ions. As a result there are always plenty of these ions present in the cell, including in the interior of the chloroplasts (fig. 5.1.10) aauae lection —> seduced Secepter ‘NADP NASP ¥ ae tolighe- indepencent HOP Ht + On” (0, +H.) © sae / Se fig. 51.10 Non-eytcphotephospherylatin: one electron eaves a chlorophyll molecule in PSI and moves int the ight independent stage of the process.A “ferent electrons returned to PI from Pl by an electron transport chan, ving the production of more ATP 35 it does so. In light conditions, photons are constantly hitting chlorophyil molecules in both PSI and PSII, exciting the electrons, In non- cyclic photophosphorylation an excited electron from PSI is picked up by an electron acceptor, in this case nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP). The NADP takes ‘up a hydrogen ion from the dissociated water at the same time to form reduced NADP. This reduced NADP is then used as a source of reducing power in the light-independent reactions of Photosynthesis to make glucose.Se Cer [At the same time an excited electron from PSII is picked up by another electron acceptor and passes along an electron transport chain until it reaches PSI. This drives the synthesis of a molecule of ATP, and PSI receives an electron to replace the one that was lost to the lightindependent reactions. Now the chlorophyll molecule in PSI is short of an electron and unstable. The original electron cannot be returned to the ehlorophyll because it has continued on to PSI. So an electron has to be found from somewhere to restore the chlorophyll to its original state, This electron comes from the splitting, of water ~ a process known as photolysis as it depends on light (see fig. 5.1.10). Photosynthesis is @ reaction that occurs millions of times in every chloroplast, This means many hydrogen ions are removed by NADP, and many hydroxide ions are ‘left behind’. ‘The hydroxide ions react together to form oxygen and water. As a result, of the reaction electrons are freed and taken up by chlorophyll 4OH™ ~ 4c lost to chlorophyll) > 0, + 24,0 ‘Once each PSIT is chlorophyll molecule has received an clectron itis restored to its original state, ready to be excited again when hit by a photon of light. Four chlorophyll molecules regain electrons in the production of one molecule of oxygen. ‘This clever piece of biochemistry was worked out by Robert Hill and Fay Bendall at Cambridge and is often referred to as the Z scheme, though nowadays the Z is usually turned round so it looks like an NI The light-independent stage of photosynthesis ‘The light-independent stage of photosynthesis uses the reducing power (reduced NADP) and energy- supplying ATP produced by the light-dependent stage. This stage consists of a series of reactions known as the Calvin eyele which take place in the stroma of the chloroplast. A series of small steps results in the reduction of carbon dioxide from the air to bring about the synthesis of carbohydrates. Each stage of the cycle is controlled by enzymes (see fig. 5.1.11). prem j Eee ia sc y E (2 CALP) Eos Nt oe apP+P,) a fig. 5.1.11 The Calvin cycechere the products ofthe light-dependent stage ‘of photosynthesis ae sed ina continuous cele to fx earbon dixie. The tnd results new carbohydrates, In the first step, carbon dioxide from the air combines ‘with the 5-cazbon compound ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), making it part of the photosynthetic reactions. ‘The carbon dioxide is said to be fixed. The enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylaseloxygenase (usually known as RUBISCO) is necessary for this vital step. Research has shown that RUBISCO iis the rate-limiting ‘enzyme in the process of photosynthesis. It makes up about 30% of the total protein of a leaf so this enzyme is probably one of the most common proteins on Earth, ‘The result of the reaction between RUBP and carbon dioxide is, in theory, a 6-carbon compound. Scientists ‘are convinced that this theoretical compound exists but it is highly unstable and no one has been able to isolate it It immediately splits to give two molecules of glycerate 3-phosphate (GP), a 3-carbon compound. GP is then reduced (hydrogen is added) to form glyceraldehyde 3- phosphate (GALP), a 3-carbon sugar. The hydrogen for this reduction comes from reduced NADP and the energy required from ATP, both produced in the light-dependent stage ‘Much of the 3-carbon GALP passes through a series of steps to replace the ribulose bisphosphate needed in the first step of the cycle. However, some of it is synthesised into the 6-carbon simple sugar glucose, ‘The glucose produced during photosynthesis is used as a fuel for respiration in the plant. It is converted into double sugars such as sucrose for transport round the plant andinto polysaccharides such as starch for energy storage and cellulose for structural support (sce AS Biology pages 38-9). Glucose is needed as a building block for amino acids (combined with nitrates from the soil), and for nucleic acids with the addition of phosphates. The products of photosynthesis are also used to produce eee Ce lipids ~ in fact many compounds needed by the plant originate from photosynthesis. ‘The reactions of the Calvin cycle take place both in the light and in the dark. They only stop in the dark when the products of the light reaction run out, leaving no reduced NADP or ATP available in the chloroplasts. Melvin Calvin worked atthe University of California with a team of scientists from many different disciplines — one of, the first people to mix biologist, chemists and physicists on | a single project! He came up with a method for investigating the reactions that occur in photosynthesis, which sounds incredibly simple, but no one had thought of it before. He produced a thin, transparent vessel known asa elipop’. Into this was placed a suspension of photosynthetic protoctists ‘called Chlorella which were supplied with radioactively | nancy | photopher Uight-dependent reactions labelled "4C, Light was shone through the suspension of ‘organisms so they could photosynthesise, The experiment was repeated, with the Chlorella being killed at intervals ranging from a few seconds to a few. minutes after the start of photosynthess. This stopped all ‘erzyrme-contralled reactions immediately. The radioactive ‘compounds formed were then extracted, separated by paper ‘chromatography and identified. n this way the biochemical pathway which we now call the Calvin cycle was buit up. ' i er, i _rinar) i Se ' SF i of \ cain i ‘ocr ae J ea ' light-independent reactions ‘ig. 5.1.12 The fl proces of photosynthesis, which occurs continuously in plans when they ae exposed t light aD 1 Make a table to compare what happens in cyclic and ‘non-cyclic photophospharylation 2 Calvin cele reactions are also known as the light- independent reactions of photosynthesis. Explain why this name is appropriate yet in some ways inaccurate. 3 In GCSE Biology you learnt about limiting factors in photosynthesis. Light and carbon dioxide levels as well as temperature affect the rate at which photosynthesis ‘takes place. Using what you have just learnt, explain why ‘hese three factors limit the rate of photosynthesis