Ground Improvement (2006) 10, No.

2, 55–68 55

Dynamic consolidation of a saturated plastic clayey

fill
A. PERUCHO and C. OLALLA
Laboratorio de Geotecnia (CEDEX), Madrid, Spain

Dynamic consolidation has been used to improve a plastic
clayey fill in a port area reclaimed from the sea, with the
blows from a 140 kN hammer dropped from heights
ranging from 7 to 10 m onto a grid of impact points. The
improvement achieved was evaluated on the basis of
laboratory test results (dry density, moisture content, void
ratio and oedometric tests) and field tests (standard
penetration tests, continuous heavy dynamic penetration,
static penetration and pressuremeter tests) conducted
before and after the improvement. On the basis of the test
results the interpreted improvements obtained can be
regarded as satisfactory.
Keywords : case history; dynamic compaction;
dynamic consolidation
Nous avons utilisé la consolidation dynamique afin d’amé-
liorer un remblai argileux plastique dans une zone
portuaire récupérée sur la mer, consolidation réalisée avec
les frappes d’un marteau de 140 kN tombant de hauteurs
allant de 7 à 10 m sur un réseau de points d’impact. Nous
avons évalué l’amélioration ainsi obtenue en nous basant
sur les résultats de tests en laboratoire (densité sèche,
teneur en eau, taux de pore et essais à l’oedomètre) et
d’essais sur le terrain (SPT, pénétration dynamique lourde
en continu, pénétration statique et essais au pressiomètre)
menés avant et après l’amélioration. Sur la base des
résultats de ces essais, les améliorations obtenues, une fois
interprétées, peuvent être considérées comme satisfai-
santes.

Notation this case, this point was close to the area where the final
phases of the filling process were carried out.
e void ratio Initially, static consolidation improvement with preload-
Ec pressuremetric cyclic modulus ing and vertical geodrains was selected. This method was
Ei initial pressuremetric modulus effectively applied for the first six sites.
fs sleeve friction (piezocone)
Applying preloads of earth together with geodrains to the
G specific weight of solid particles
NB heavy dynamic probing result
first fill stages (Sites 1 to 6) caused the mud to move from
Pl limiting pressure value (pressuremeter) one area to the neighbouring one. Although this procedure
qc cone resistance (piezocone) had provided rapid stabilisation of the settlements at those
ªd dry density first sites, it proved detrimental in the final sites (Sites 7, 8

c unconfined compression strength and 9), because the soft soils to be consolidated were thicker,
ø natural water content ranging from 5 to 7 m. Although initially these final sites
øL , øP Atterberg limits were also to be consolidated with a preload, because there
was a lack of earth material at that time for use in the
preload, different methods to consolidate the fill were
Background discussed. After considering several traditional alternatives
(preload, soil reinforcement, substitution, lime stabilisation),
Expansions have been made to the Juan Carlos I quay in the it was decided to use the dynamic consolidation method,
Bahı́a de Algeciras harbour (Cádiz, Spain). The works because of the circumstances on the site, and port operations
involved land reclamation into the sea, with a view to (CEDEX, 2002). This method had been successfully applied
increasing the surface area required for the container previously (Menard and Broise, 1975), but the fact that it
terminal that already existed. The reclaimed area was had rarely been used for these types of fine and plastic soil
obtained with fills that were laid in nine strips or zones, gave an added incentive to adopting it, as it was considered
which constituted the different performance sites (Fig. 1). a good opportunity to experiment with it, in view of its
The fills were originally placed using dredgers, but later, potential for application in other port fills using fine and
for economic reasons, hydraulic fills were used. The latter plastic materials (Varosio et al., 1995; Wang et al., 2000).
procedure brings about a separation of the material on the
basis of its size: the coarser elements are deposited in the
zones lying nearest to the discharge point, and the finer ones Introduction
settle mainly in the area adjacent to the overflow point. In
In the dynamic consolidation method, the mechanical
(GI 3196) Paper received 22 December 2003; last revised 2 March characteristics of a compressible soil are improved by
2005; accepted 8 December 2005 repeatedly applying heavy blows to the ground surface,

1365-781X # 2006 Thomas Telford Ltd

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 Perucho and Olalla
Site 2
Sites 7, 8 and 9
Sites 5 and 6
Fig. 1. Algeciras harbour: location of the works and performance sites (# Autoridad Portuaria de la Bahı́a de Algeciras)
using a heavy hammer dropped on the ground from a
specific height at different points on the surface. Consider-
able overburden loads are applied on the zone concerned,
with very short time intervals between them. As it is a
dynamic process, the geotechnical aspects of the ground’s
reaction are highly complex, as explained by Menard and
Broise (1975).
This procedure has been used extensively on granular
soils (Charles et al., 1981; Smoltczyk, 1983; Chen and Liao,
2000). When the treatment is applied to fine and plastic soils
several compaction phases are involved, and the time
interval between them has to be such that the generated
pore pressures have time to dissipate (Lukas, 1997; Liausu,
2003).
The waves produced by the sudden release of energy
cause a major increase in the pore pressures, and thus a
modification in the soil structure.
The thickness of the ground concerned and its character-
istics determine the main parameters that govern this
dynamic consolidation process. In this sense, the following
factors, among others, have to be considered
(a) the energy that is applied to the ground with each blow,
which has to be less than the energy saturation level of
the ground
(b) the number of blows at each point
(c) the geometrical arrangement of the impact points,
which must succeed in obtaining a suitable distribution
of the stress field with each blow
(d) the number of phases
(e) the delay between successive phases
( f ) the thickness and nature of the upper impact layer
(g) the geometry of the hammer that applies the dynamic
stress field to the ground.
The soil has to be consolidated gradually. This must start
at the deepest levels and work up to the shallowest ones,
achieved through a suitable distribution of the blows. It is
necessary to start with an open grid, which is progressively
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Site 3 Site 1
Site 4
closed in successive phases, in such a way that the ground is
treated homogeneously.
Applied theoretical model
The general theoretical framework and the way the
procedure is carried out were initially established by
Menard and Broise (1975). They also suggested a theoretical
model that reproduces the development process of the
ground when subjected to dynamic loads of the impact type
(high intensity for a short period of time). This model is
independent of and different from the theoretical model
proposed by Terzaghi and Fröhlich’s model (1936) for static
loads (high intensity for a long period of time) when
analysing the soil consolidation process. Other models or
explanations have been proposed for dynamic consolidation,
considering that it is more a horizontal strain-hardening
than a true consolidation (Jessberger and Beine, 1981;
Smoltczyk, 1983).
The success of the dynamic consolidation treatment is
based on the following arguments (Menard and Broise,
1975).
(a) Compressibility. The compressibility of saturated soils is
due to the presence of microbubbles of air or gas, which
come mainly from the decomposition of organic matter.
In the dynamic consolidation of fine soils (that are not
very pervious), an immediate and considerable settle-
ment takes place, because of the highly deformable
nature of the gas. This can reach values ranging from
1% to 3%, depending on the gas content.
(b) Liquefaction. As energy is applied to the soil in the form
of blows, the gas becomes compressed. When the
volume of gas is close to zero, the ground reacts like an
incompressible material and a phenomenon similar to
liquefaction starts to take place. The energy level that is
required to reach this threshold is referred to as the
 Dynamic consolidation of a saturated plastic clayey fill

saturation energy. This is the level that must be reached,
but not exceeded, in view of the fact that beyond this
threshold the ground behaves in an incompressible
way. Saturation energy ranges between 50 and 200
kN m/m3 , depending on the type of soil.
(c) Permeability. One phenomenon that can be observed in
dynamic consolidation is the rapid initial dissipation of
pore pressures. This process, which is noteworthy in
rather impervious soils with a low permeability coeffi-
cient, causes major settlement. This can be explained as
follows. First, vertical cracks appear, distributed around
the points of impact, and these facilitate drainage.
Second, the permeability coefficient of a soil increases as
the effective pressure decreases, and reaches its peak
when the soil liquefies. This phenomenon has been
demonstrated in laboratory experiments (Menard and
Broise, 1975). Therefore high permeability levels are
reached during dynamic consolidation operations, and
these are associated with very high pore pressures.
Furthermore, it would seem that the waves generated
by the blows transform the adsorbed water (solid water)
into free water, increasing the width of the channels
through which the water drains, and thereby increasing
the soil’s permeability.
(d) Thixotropy. As the soil approaches the liquefaction state
during the hammer impact process, there is a consider-
able drop in its shear strength. At that point the
adsorbed water is transformed into free water. Subse-
quently, and as the overpressure of the water dissipates,
the shear strength increases and the deformation mod-
ulus increases considerably, as the particles join back
together. This phenomenon, well known in ‘sensitive’
clays, is referred to as thixotropy.
The above basic points can be summarised by showing
the soil behaviour using a variation of Terzaghi and
Fröhlich’s model (1936) of a cylinder filled with incompres-
sible water and supported by a spring, in the following way
(Fig. 2).
(a) The water filling up the cylinder is partially compres-
sible because of the presence of microbubbles of air.
(b) There is friction between the piston and the cylinder,
which causes a hysteresis in the interaction between the
increase in hydraulic pressure and the overburden load
4 4
1 1
of the piston. This means that the pressure reduction in
the liquid does not automatically make the piston and
the spring move. The stiffness of the spring is generally
considered to be constant, but experience demonstrates
it to be variable. In fact, major variations take place
affecting the compressibility modulus, and the adsorbed
water plays a major role in this respect.
(c) The permeability is represented by a gap that varies in
size.
Figure 3 shows the changes in the soil after one single
compaction run. Curve 1 shows the energy applied to the
ground by a series of blows at the same point. The variation
in volume can be seen in Curve 2. Curve 3 shows how the
pore pressure evolves with respect to the liquefaction
pressure. Finally, in Curve 4 the way in which the ultimate
bearing capacity develops in time can be seen.
Figure 4 portrays the same curves as Fig. 3, but after a
series of compaction runs. Note that although the energy is
arithmetically proportional, the fluctuations in volume and
the ultimate bearing capacity are not.
Dynamic consolidation treatment
Soil profile to be treated
The surface fill consists of granular material whose
thickness ranges from 1.5 m at Site 7 to approximately 2 m
at Sites 8 and 9. A layer of soft clayey soils ranging from 5 m
to 7 mm in thickness underlies this surface fill layer. The
natural ground is composed of a layer of dark grey sandy
silt about 30 cm thick. Just below these soft soils is a Tertiary
marl, which represents the real foundation of the whole area
(Fig. 5).
The clayey fill has been considered to be subdivided into
two different units of similar thickness: the upper one
consists of ‘clayey mud’, and the lower one consists of what
has been termed ‘bottom fill’. There is not a clear division
between the two units, but one has been assumed to take
into account the fact that the bottom part of the clayey fill
(the ‘bottom fill’) is more granular, with a dry density
(15.3 kN/m3 ) slightly greater than in the upper part
(14.5 kN/m3 ), and also to evaluate the degree of the im-
provement with depth.
Before the ground improvement investigation was started,
some boreholes were drilled to investigate the properties of
the soft clay. The moisture was between the liquid limit (wL )
and plastic limit (wP ) values, with a consistency index ((wL

w)/PI) ranging from 0.5 to 0.9. When struck with the
blade of a digger the cushioning effect on the soft clay could
clearly be observed. The appearance of the soil before the
treatment can be seen in Fig. 6.

2
3
Classical consolidation theory
1. Frictionless piston
2. Incompressible liquid
3. Constant-rate spring
4. Fixed-diameter perforation permitting
the escape of fluid under pressure
Fig. 2. Comparison of traditional and dynamic theories of consolidation
(Menard and Broise, 1975)
2
3 Main treatment parameters
The main characteristics of the procedure were as follows.
(a) Weight of hammer: The hammer weighed 140 kN, and
comprised metallic plates covering a surface area of
Dynamic consolidation theory 2.16 m2 at their base. During the second consolidation
1. Frictional piston phase and for approximately half of Site 8 another
2. Compressible fluid with bubbles containing
a small percentage by volume of gas
hammer of the same weight was also used, but this time
3. Non-constant-rate spring the base covered a surface area of 3.95 m2 .
4. Variable-diameter perforations
(b) Drop height: In Sites 8 and 9 the hammer was dropped
from 7 m, and in Site 7 from a height of 10 m.
(c) Impact grid: A square with 5 m sides was used to define

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 Perucho and Olalla

Energy: (t 3 m)/m3 1
10 Saturation energy levels
T

1 4 10 days
1. Applied energy
Volume variation: % 2 2. Volume variation with time T
3 (log scale)
2
1 T 3. Ratio of pore pressure (pi) to
liquefaction pressure (pi)c
against time T
100% Degree of liquefaction: % (pi)c 4. Variation of bearing capacity
of ground with time
(pi)
3 5. Liquefaction phase
(pi)c T
6. Pore water pressure
5 6 7 dissipation phase
7. Thixotropic phase
Bearing
capacity
4

Fig. 3. Change in the soil after consolidation phase (Menard and Broise, 1975)

Energy: (t 3 m)/m2
200 1
100
Time: T

1. Applied energy
2
10% 2. Volume variation with time T
5% (normal scale)
T 3. Ratio of pore pressure (pi) to
liquefaction pressure (pi)c
against time T
10% Degree of liquefaction: %
(pi) 4. Variation of bearing capacity
3 of ground with time
(pi)c
T

20 4
Bearing
capacity 10
T

Fig. 4. Variation of a soil subjected to a series of dynamic consolidation phases (Menard and Broise, 1975)

Elev. 12·5 m

1·50 to 2·00 m Surface fill

3m Clayey mud
Clayey
fill
Bottom fill (clay with lumps and cobbles)
3m
Elev. 24 to 26 m:
natural ground
Grey silt
Marl
Fig. 6. Aspect of the soil to be treated, taken out from a trench and
Fig. 5. General soil profile affected by finger pressures

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 Dynamic consolidation of a saturated plastic clayey fill

Penetrometer
the impact mesh. The treatment was carried out in three
stages in Sites 8 and 9. The first and third stages Borehole and pressuremeters
involved striking the corners of the squares, whereas Piezocone
the centre was struck at the second stage. Two stages Borehole and piezometers
Test site 7
were applied to Site 7, in the corners and centre of the
squares.
(d) Number of blows per point: In Sites 8 and 9 six blows were
applied in the first stage and eight blows in the second
Site 7
and third stages. In Site 7 ten blows were applied in
both stages, except in the test zone (Test Site 7), where
20 blows were applied in each stage.
(e) Energy per blow: 140 kN 3 7 m ¼ 980 kN m (or 140 kN 3
10 m ¼ 1400 kN m first, in Site 7).
Site 8
(f) Number of stages: Up to three.
(g) Delay time: The delay time between stages was defined
to be at least three weeks, but owing to circumstances
affecting the works, in some zones was longer.

The two cranes and the hammers used for the treatment
process can be seen in Fig. 7.

Treatment control
An extensive field and laboratory test investigation was Site 9
devised for controlling the treatment. These investigations

Fig. 8. Scheme of the location of the field tests

were conducted both before and after the dynamic consoli-

dation. The locations of the conducted field surveys can be
seen in Fig. 8.

Field tests
Test investigation before treatment
An initial investigation was carried out in October 2000,
prior to the dynamic consolidation treatment. In fact, this
treatment had already been performed on part of Site 7,
where the hammering process had got under way at the end
of August. This first test investigation was conducted when
the dynamic compaction was just starting in Site 8. This is
why the tests were confined mainly to Site 8. Only a few
tests were performed on Site 7, where the treatment process
had by then reached an advanced stage.
The investigation comprised the following tests.

(a) Five boreholes were drilled with core extraction down

to a depth ranging from 10 to 11.50 m. Undisturbed
samples were taken, using a Shelby sampler. Standard
penetration tests (SPT) were also conducted, two tests
per boring.
(b) There were 10 pressuremeter tests at the mud level,
using conventional equipment.
(c) Five more boreholes were performed, in which 10
vibrating wire piezometers were installed. Several un-
disturbed samples were taken and standard penetration
tests (SPT) carried out.
(d) There were 26 heavy dynamic continuous penetration
tests. This is the most common dynamic penetration
equipment used in Spain (mass ¼ 63.5 kg; drop height
Fig. 7. The two cranes and hammers used for the treatment ¼ 0.5 m).

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 Perucho and Olalla
(e) There were five piezocone (CPTU) tests with a total of
39.4 m investigated and eight dissipation tests.
Test investigation after treatment
A second test investigation was conducted in May 2001, in
order to assess the improvement that had taken place, as
follows.
(a) Eight boreholes to a depth ranging from 8.40 to 10 m.
These borings were drilled about 1 m from the spot
where the first investigation tests took place. Eleven
standard penetration tests were conducted in these
boreholes, and 10 undisturbed samples were extracted
using a Shelby sampler, plus nine more waxed samples,
so that laboratory tests could be undertaken.
(b) Fifteen pressuremeter tests at the mud level. Ten were
conventional pressuremeter tests, done at approximately
the same depths as in the first investigation and using
the same testing equipment. Five new self-boring
pressuremeter type tests were conducted close to the
others.
(c) Thirty heavy dynamic penetration tests with the same
automatic equipment as used in the previous test. All
these tests were carried out at a distance of 1 m from
those in the first investigation. Some of them were even
repeated, because of the refusal at the first layer of
granular fill.
(d) Five piezocone tests, with a total of 42 m investigated,
and five dissipation tests. These tests were also con-
ducted 1 m away from those in the first investigation.
Laboratory tests
In addition to the aforementioned in situ tests, laboratory
tests were conducted on the undisturbed samples extracted.
These were carried out both before and after performing the
treatment. The scope of the investigation can be seen in
Table 1. (The purpose of the identification tests was to
confirm the similarity of the samples tested.)
Results of laboratory and field tests
Laboratory tests
The grain-size curves show a clayey silt with a content of
approximately 70% silt-sized fines (ranging from 0.074 to
0.002 mm, according to ASTM standards (ASTM, 1972)) and
a content of about 30% clay-sized particles (, 0.002 mm).
Table 1. Number and type of laboratory tests conducted
Type of test Before After
Dry density, ªd 22 15
Natural moisture, ø 19 10
Specific weight of solid particles, G 11 12
Organic matter 26 – (a) The order of magnitude of the values attained was low,
Sifted grain size 30 30
Atterberg limits, øL , øP , PI 29 31
Oedometers* 10 7 are likely to occur in the test section, making the results
Triaxial (CU) 5 –
Triaxial (CD) 4 2
Unconfined compressive strength,
c – 7
* The oedometer tests were conducted by loading up to 1 MPa and with
an unloading–reloading cycle at 300 kPa.
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50·0
PI: plasticity index
40·0 ùL: liquid limit
CH
30·0
PI: %
CL
20·0
MH and OH
10·0
CL-ML ML and OL
0
0 20·0 40·0 60·0 80·0 100·0
wL: %
Fig. 9. Casagrande chart: *, before treatment; m, after treatment (CL, low
plasticity clay; ML, low plasticity silt; OH, high plasticity organic soil)
According to the Casagrande chart, this clayey fill is
classified as CL type soil, with low to medium plasticity (wL
 40; PI  18) (Fig. 9). These values are out of range of the
values given by some authors (Smoltczyk, 1983; Van Impe et
al., 1997) to define the suitability of soils to be compacted by
heavy tamping; these values are about 30–35% for the liquid
limit, and between 10% (Smoltczyk, 1983) and 20% (Van
Impe et al., 1997) for the plasticity index.
The most relevant values obtained from the laboratory
tests conducted (dry density, water content and void ratio)
are shown in Tables 2 and 3, separated into the two
aforementioned sublevels, clayey mud and bottom fill
respectively (Fig. 5).
Figure 10 shows the values of the dry density before and
after consolidation. An increase of between 10% and 15%
with respect to the initial dry density was obtained.
Figure 11 shows the natural water content before and after
consolidation. The water content after consolidation was
reduced by between 12% and 20% with respect to the initial
water content.
Figure 12 shows the initial void ratio before and after
consolidation. After the treatment the void ratio was be-
tween 24% and 27% lower, with respect to the initial void
ratio.
Tables 2 and 3 contain a synthesis of the more relevant
findings obtained from the laboratory test results.
Field tests
Dynamic penetration tests
Two types of dynamic penetration test were performed,
with the following results.
No improvement could be detected from the standard
penetration tests conducted in the borings. The order of
magnitude of the results obtained (NSPT ) before and after the
treatment was similar.
However, this aspect was already expected beforehand,
because it is doubtful that reliable results can be obtained
when this type of test is conducted in very soft soils with
such a high water content. Several arguments may be
provided to support this observation, as follows.
and the dispersion level was high.
(b) Siphoning effects and crumbling away at specific points
unreliable.
Nevertheless, given that it is an extensively used test, and
that it is easy to conduct, once the borings were performed it
was thought preferable to carry out these tests.
With the heavy dynamic continuous penetration test, as it
 Dynamic consolidation of a saturated plastic clayey fill

Table 2. Clayey mud statistical geotechnical properties

Before After

Number of Average Standard Number of Average Standard

Geotechnical property samples value deviation samples value deviation

Dry density: kN/m3 17 14.5 0.5 9 16.0 1.3

Natural moisture, % 22 31.2 6.0 17 25.0 7.1
Void ratio, e 8 0.941 0.072 5 0.714 0.193

Table 3. Bottom fill statistical geotechnical properties

Before After

Number of Average Standard Number of Average Standard

Geotechnical property samples value deviation samples value deviation

Dry density, kN/m3 5 15.3 1.3 6 17.5 0.8

Natural moisture, % 16 23.9 5.2 11 21.0 6.1
Void ratio, e 4 0.786 0.151 2 0.574 0.045

Dry density: kN/m3 Water content: %

0 10·0 20·0 30·0 40·0 50·0
10·0 12·0 14·0 16·0 18·0 20·0 0
0

2
2

4 4
Depth: m

Depth: m

6
6

8
8

10
After compaction Before compaction 10
Average (after) Average (before) After compaction Before compaction

Average (after) Average (before)

Fig. 10. Dry density before and after dynamic consolidation
Fig. 11. Natural water content before and after consolidation

penetrates continuously from the surface, there is less
danger of siphoning and crumbling away. Therefore this
kind of test is considered to be more suitable for this type of
soil, despite the high energy displayed.
Graphs containing the average values for the penetration
numbers NB (dynamic penetration number per 20 cm)
recorded at each depth are shown in Figs 13–18. The graphs
are grouped to correspond to the various test sites. It must
be remembered that Site 7 had already been partly treated
when the first test investigation was conducted, so the
improvement detected was smaller. The considerable im-
provement measured in Site 7 in the top 4 m (see Fig. 13) is
probably due to the introduction of part of the surface
granular fill. Furthermore, Test Site 7 was a small testing
area located within Site 7 itself (see Fig. 8), in which trials
were carried out by dropping the hammer from different
heights, with a view to observing how the ground reacted
and to decide which criteria must be followed to optimise

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 Perucho and Olalla

Void ratio, e NB(Site 7)

0 0·2 0·4 0·6 0·8 1·0 1·2
0 0 10 20 30 40 50
0

2
2

3
4
Depth: m

6 5

Depth: m
6

8
7

10

After compaction Before compaction 9

Average (after) Average (before)

10
Fig. 12. Initial void ratio e before and after consolidation

11

the treatment. When the field investigation started many of Average values before treatment
these trials had been already carried out in Test Site 7, so Average values after treatment
significant improvement cannot be seen, and the penetration
numbers NB are quite high from the top already in the tests
performed before the treatment (see Fig. 14). Fig. 13. Values of N B (dynamic penetration number per 20 cm) in Site 7
A considerable improvement to the ground strength (already treated to a large extent when the test investigation ‘before’ was
conducted in October 2000)
throughout the depth of the fill can be observed from the
graphs, especially in Sites 8 and 9.

Pressuremeter tests
Figures 17 and 18 show the calculated values obtained for
the pressuremetric moduli, the initial (Ei ) and the secant one
(Ec ), the latter corresponding to the unloaded–reloaded cycle.
Figure 19 shows the estimated values obtained for the
limit pressure Pl , which is the maximum pressure that is
reached in a pressuremeter test. As with the values for the
penetration test results, it can be observed that an improve-
ment has taken place, as a consequence of the orders of
magnitude that have been measured in each of the three
concepts used (Ei , Ec and Pl ).
The average values obtained in the geotechnical para-
meters for the pressuremeter tests are given in Tables 4
and 5.
Piezocones
Ten piezocone tests were conducted, five of them before
treatment and five afterwards, referred to as PZ-1 to 5. A
clear improvement in the ground was observed in three of
the tests (PZ-1, PZ-2 and PZ-5), with a major increase in the
cone resistance of the ground. No improvement was ob-
served in PZ-4. The resistance measured in PZ-3 turned out
to be lower than it was beforehand.
It should be pointed out that it is a very sensitive test to
conduct, and the results can be greatly affected by the
penetration rate of the drilling rig. When the pore pressures
were read, there were times when not even the hydrostatic
pressure was recorded. In view of these factors, the results
obtained are considered to be of dubious reliability. Never-
theless, the evolution with depth of the sleeve friction and
cone resistance obtained before (in five piezocones) and after
the consolidation treatment (in the other five piezocones)
have been shown in Figs 20 and 21.
If the results are considered in overall terms, an improve-
ment can be observed.
The average values of the parameters obtained from the
piezocone tests are given, together with the pressuremeter
values, in Tables 4 and 5.
Evolution of pore pressure
Ten piezometers installed inside the borings were used to
record the pore pressures. The individual values measured
are shown as a whole in Fig. 22. Note that the scale of dates
is not constant.
The graphs in Figs 23 and 24 show the same results but
separated into two levels. The upper level (Fig. 23) is for the
piezometers placed inside the first sublayer (mud), at a
depth of about 3.5 m below the original ground surface
(elevation
1.5 m). The lower level (Fig. 24) is for the
piezometers placed in the second sublayer (bottom fill),

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NB(Test Site 7)
0 10 20 30
0
5
Depth: m
10
11
Average values before treatment
Average values after treatment
Fig. 14. Values of N B (dynamic penetration number per 20 cm) in Test Site
7 (already treated to a large extent when the test investigation ‘before’
was conducted in October 2000)
about 6.5 m below the original ground surface (elevation

4.5 m).
It is difficult to draw any definitive conclusion from the
data measured with the piezometers. The lower piezometers,
located in the more pervious sublevel, seem to mark only
the fluctuations with sea level. No significant conclusions
can be drawn from the piezometers located in the upper
level.
Interpretation of results
A comparative analysis made between the results of the
tests conducted before and after treatment revealed that
there was a considerable improvement to the ground, as
follows.
(a) The dry density increased from 14.5 to 16.0 kN/m3
(mud) and from 15.3 to 17.5 kN/m3 (bottom fill). There
was an increase of between 10% and 15% compared
with the dry density values prior to treatment.
(b) The natural water content fell from 31.2% to 25.0%
(mud) and from 23.9% to 21.0% (bottom fill). The water
content after consolidation was reduced by between
12% and 20% with respect to the initial values.
(c) The void ratio was reduced by about 0.2. In the upper
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Dynamic consolidation of a saturated plastic clayey fill
NB(Site 8)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0
40 50
Depth: m
10
11
Average values before treatment
Average values after treatment
Fig. 15. Values of N B (dynamic penetration number per 20 cm) in Site 8
sublevel of mud an average initial value of 0.941 fell to
0.714. For the bottom fill, the void ratio dropped from
0.786 to 0.574. This means that after treatment the void
ratio was between 24% and 27% lower with respect to
the initial value.
(d) There was a considerable increase in the values ob-
tained from the heavy dynamic penetration number NB ,
especially in Sites 8 and 9. It can be estimated that the
increase in the average values ranged from 5 to 15–
20 blows/20 cm depending on the section (depth) ana-
lysed and the type of material encountered. (Site 7 and
Test Site 7 had already been largely treated when the
first test investigation was conducted, so the improve-
ment is less marked in these sites.)
(e) The calculated pressuremetric moduli (initial, Ei , and
cyclic, Ec ) after treatment were about 2.5 to 4.5 times
greater than those calculated before treatment with the
same testing equipment and procedure.
(f) The limit pressure Pl , which gives an indication of the
strength of the ground, was also measured with this
equipment. The limit pressure was between 1.5 and 2.5
times greater after treatment.
(g) The results obtained with the piezocones indicated a
considerable improvement in the upper layer of mud,
where the resistance increase ranged between two and
three times the original. However, the improvement
was much less notable for the bottom fill (around 20%).
63
 Perucho and Olalla

NB(Site 9)
terminal by the Juan Carlos I Quay in the port of Algeciras,
0 10 20 30 40 50
0 Spain.
Although a preloading treatment with vertical geodrains
had been planned to improve the fill in all the sites, the
1 works situation and port operations made it necessary to
suspend it and use a different procedure that was not only
reasonably economical but could also be carried out in a
2 relatively short time. Consequently, the treatment was
applied only in Sites 7, 8 and 9 of those fills.
The ground to be treated, consisting of soft plastic clayey
3
fills (wL  40%, PI  18), ranged from 5 to 7 m in thickness.
The cross-section of the ground is shown in Fig. 5.
4 The treatment consisted in allowing a 140 kN hammer to
fall on a grid made up of squares with 5 m sides, which
contained different test points. The blows were applied in
5 three phases: the corners of the squares were struck in the
Depth: m

first and third phases, and the centres were struck in the
second phase. A minimum of three weeks was permitted to
6 elapse between each successive phase, in order to allow the
generated pore pressures to dissipate. The hammer was
dropped from a height of about 7 m, and the energy applied
7
per blow was approximately 1000 kN m.
Two test investigations were conducted to control the
8
treatment, in situ and in the laboratory, both before and after
the dynamic consolidation. The first investigation was carried
out in October 2000 and the second in May 2001. Basically,
9 the investigations involved conducting the following tests.
(a) In the laboratory: identification, grain size, strength and
10
deformability tests.
(b) In situ: standard and dynamic penetration tests, and
piezocones including pore pressure dissipation tests
11 and pressuremetric tests in the borings.
Average values before treatment Pneumatic piezometers were also placed at different depths,
in order to analyse the evolution of the pore pressures
Average values after treatment
during the course of the treatment.
From this work the following conclusions can be derived.
Fig. 16. Values of N B (dynamic penetration number per 20 cm) in Site 9 (a) A comparative analysis of the results of the tests
conducted before and after treatment revealed that the
dynamic consolidation applied brought about a consid-
Summary and conclusions erable improvement to the ground.
(b) This statement is based on an analysis of the average
A dynamic consolidation treatment was applied to clayey values, before and after treatment, of the following
marine fills deposited in the reclaimed zone for the container geotechnical parameters: dry density (from 14.9 to

6000

5000
Approximate test elevation: 22 m Approximate test elevation: 25 m

4000
Ei: kPa

3000

2000

1000

0
Test PR1-01 PR2 -01 PR3-01 PR4-01 PR5-01 PR1-02 PR2 -02 PR3-02 PR4-02 PR5-02
Before treatment After treatment

Average value before Average value after

Fig. 17. Value of initial pressuremetric modulus E i

64
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 Dynamic consolidation of a saturated plastic clayey fill

25000

20000 Approximate test elevation: 22 m Approximate test elevation: 25 m

15000
Ec: kPa

10000

5000

0
Test PR1-01 PR2 -01 PR3-01 PR4-01 PR5-01 PR1-02 PR2 -02 PR3-02 PR4-02 PR5-02

Before treatment After treatment

Average value before Average value after

Fig. 18. Value of discharge–recharge pressuremeter modulus E c

900

800
Approximate test elevation: 22 m Approximate test elevation: 25 m
700

600

500
Pl: kPa

400

300

200

100

0
Test PR1-01 PR2 -01 PR3-01 PR4-01 PR5-01 PR1-02 PR2 -02 PR3-02 PR4-02 PR5-02
Before treatment After treatment
Average value before Average value after

Fig. 19. Limit pressure value P l

Table 4. Clayey mud statistical geotechnical properties

Before After

Number Average Standard Number Average Standard

Geotechnical property of tests value deviation of tests value deviation

Initial pressuremetric modulus, Ei : kPa 4 800 200 5 2 300 900

Unloaded–reloaded pressuremetric 1 2700 – 5 12 100 5000
modulus, Ec : kPa
Limit pressure, Pl : kPa 4 200 100 5 500 100
Cone resistance, qc : kPa 5 1130 990 5 3 770 5640
Sleeve friction, fs : kPa 5 53 30 5 92 50

16.8 kN/m2 ); moisture content (from 27.5% to 23.0%);
void ratio (from 0.86 to 0.64); heavy dynamic penetra-
tion number NB (from 5 to 15); initial pressuremeter
modulus (from 950 to 2600 kN/m2 ); cyclic pressure-
meter modulus (from 3200 to 11 500 kN/m2 ); and the
limit pressure of the ground (from 300 to nearly
600 kN/m2 ). The results obtained with the piezocones
and with the SPT tests were not as relevant.
(c) The results obtained with the pneumatic piezometers
are not very significant. It is extremely difficult to place

65
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 Perucho and Olalla

Table 5. Bottom fill statistical geotechnical properties

Before After

Number Average Standard Number Average Standard

Geotechnical property of tests value deviation of tests value deviation

Initial pressuremetric modulus, E i : kPa 4 1100 300 5 2 900 1800

Unloaded–reloaded pressuremetric 4 3700 1100 5 10 900 7600
modulus, E c : kPa
Limit pressure, P l : kPa 4 400 200 5 600 200
Cone resistance, q c : kPa 3 2650 1220 3 3 390 340
Sleeve friction, f s : kPa 3 118 50 3 102 10

Cone resistance qc: MPa Cone resistance qc: MPa

0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
0 0
PZ-1 PZ-1
100 PZ-2 100 PZ-2
200 PZ-3 200 PZ-3
PZ-4 PZ-4
300 300
PZ-5 PZ-5
400 400
Depth: cm

Depth: cm

500 500

600 600

700 700

800 800

900 900

1000 1000

1100 1100
(a) ( b)

Fig. 20. Cone resistance q c (a) before and (b) after treatment at the five piezocones

Sleeve friction fs: MPa Sleeve friction fs: MPa

0 0·05 0·1 0·15 0·2 0·25 0·3 0 0·05 0·1 0·15 0·2 0·25 0·3
0 0
PZ-1 PZ-1
100 PZ-2 100 PZ-2
PZ-3 PZ-3
200 200
PZ-4 PZ-4
300 PZ-5 300 PZ-5

400 400
Depth: cm

Depth: cm

500 500

600 600

700 700

800 800

900 900

1000 1000

1100 1100
(a) (b)

Fig. 21. Sleeve friction f s (a) before and (b) after treatment at the five piezocones

them closer to the impact zone. It involves great risks of to quantify the improvement of the geotechnical charac-
misfunction and even destruction of the equipment. teristics of the ground.
(d) The average variation for these parameters, considered (e) It can be concluded from the results obtained that the
as a whole, before and after treatment, makes it possible treated fill has reached the strength and deformability

66
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 (depth)

Upper

Lower
Piezometers

piezometers

piezometers
V-4,2 (3·5 m)
V-4,1 (6·5 m)
V-3,2 (3·5 m)
V-3,1 (6·5 m)
V-2,2 (4·0 m)
V-2,1 (7·0 m)
V-1,2 (3·5 m)
V-1,1 (6·5 m)

V-4,1 (6·5 m)
V-3,1 (6·5 m)
V-2,1 (7·0 m)
V-1,1 (6·5 m)
V-4,2 (3·5 m)
V-3,2 (3·5 m)
V-2,2 (4·0 m)
V-1,2 (3·5 m)
Pressure: kPa Pressure: kPa Pressure: kPa

Fig. 22. Evolution of pore pressure with time

Date

Date
215
25
0
5

210
10
15

0
5

215
210
25
10
15
0
5

220
215
210
25
10
15
Date

25/10/2000 25/10/2000

Fig. 24. Readings taken from the lower piezometers

Fig. 23. Readings taken from the upper piezometers
25/10/2000
02/11/2000 02/11/2000 02/11/2000
06/11/2000 06/11/2000 06/11/2000
07/11/2000 07/11/2000 07/11/2000
08/11/2000* 08/11/2000* 08/11/2000*
09/11/2000 09/11/2000 09/11/2000
10/11/2000 10/11/2000 10/11/2000
13/11/2000 13/11/2000 13/11/2000
14/11/2000 14/11/2000 14/11/2000
16/11/2000 16/11/2000 16/11/2000
17/11/2000 17/11/2000 17/11/2000
20/11/2000 20/11/2000 20/11/2000
21/11/2000 21/11/2000 21/11/2000
22/11/2000 22/11/2000 22/11/2000
24/11/2000 24/11/2000 24/11/2000

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27/11/2000 27/11/2000 27/11/2000
28/11/2000 28/11/2000 28/11/2000
29/11/2000 29/11/2000 29/11/2000
30/11/2000 30/11/2000 30/11/2000
04/12/2000 04/12/2000 04/12/2000
12/12/2000 12/12/2000 12/12/2000
13/12/2000 13/12/2000 13/12/2000
14/12/2000 14/12/2000 14/12/2000
18/12/2000 18/12/2000 18/12/2000
19/12/2000 19/12/2000 19/12/2000
23/05/2001 23/05/2001 23/05/2001
Dynamic consolidation of a saturated plastic clayey fill

67
 Perucho and Olalla
values needed for the required service. The quay is in
satisfactory use, after several years of performance.
Acknowledgements
The authors of this paper would like to thank the Ente
Público Puertos del Estado and the authorities of the Port of
Bahı́a de Algeciras for the support that they provided to
carry out this study. We should particularly like to thank the
Chief Engineer of the Infrastructure Department, Mr Alfredo
Carrasco Jiménez, for his comments and contributions given
when the works were being performed, and when this paper
was being prepared.
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Discussion contributions on this paper should reach the
editor by 2 October 2006