FACULTY OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS (BFC10502)

1BFF 2016/2017

INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT

(METAL,ALLOY,GLASS)

STUDENT NAME: MOHAMAD KHAIRUL DANIAL BIN MOHD KASIM

STUDENT ID: AF160028

SECTION: 3

LECTURER’s NAME: PROF. MADYA DR. DAVID YEOH ENG CHUAN

DATE OF SUBMISSION: 4/5/2017

MARK %

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Content Pages
1.0 Introduction
1.0 Background of Metal
1.2 Background of alloy 2-4
1.3 Backgroud of steel

2.0 Properties of Metal Alloy & Steel

2.1 Properties of Metal
2.1.1 Density
2.1.2 Strengthness
2.2 Properties of Alloy 5-7
2.2.1 Composition
2.2.2 Production
2.3 Properties of Steel
2.3.1 Hardness
2.3.2 Notch toughness
2.3.3 Stress strain behaviour
3.0 Type of Metal Alloy & Steel
3.1 Type of metal
3.1.1 Ferrous Metal
3.1.2 Non Ferrous Metal
3.2 Type of Alloy 8-10
3.2.1 Subtitutional Alloy
3.2.2 Interstitial Alloy
3.2.3 Combine Alloy
3.3 Type of Steel
3.3.1 low Carbon Steel
3.3.2 Medium Carbon Steel
3.3.3 High Carbon Steel
4.0 Application of Metal Alloy & Steel
4.1 In Construction
4.2 In Daily Life 11-12
4.2.1 Electronic
4.2.2 Machinery
5.0 Conclusion
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6.0 References 14

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INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Metal

A metal is a material that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and has good electrical and
thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable—that is, they can be hammered or pressed
permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking—as well as fusible (able to be fused or
melted) and ductile (able to be drawn out into a thin wire).] About 91 of the 118 elements in the
periodic table are metals, the others are nonmetals or metalloids. Some elements appear in both
metallic and non-metallic forms.

Astrophysicists use the term "metal" to collectively describe all elements other than
hydrogen and helium, the simplest two, in a star. The star fuses smaller atoms, mostly hydrogen
and helium, to make larger ones over its lifetime. In that sense, the metallicity of an object is the
proportion of its matter made up of all heavier chemical elements, not just traditional metals.[4]

Figure 1

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1.2 Background of Alloy

An alloy is a metal (parent metal) combined with other substances (alloying agents),
resulting in superior properties such as; strength, hardness, durability, ductility, tensile strength
and toughness. The parent metal is the majority of the allo AlloysAn alloy is a mixture of two
elements, one of which is a metal. Alloys often have properties that are different to the metals
they contain. This makes them more useful than the pure metals alone. For example, alloys are
often harder than the metal they contain.Alloys contain atoms of different sizes, which distorts
the regular arrangements of atoms. This makes it more difficult for the layers to slide over each
other, so alloys are harder than the pure metal.

Figure 2

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1.3 Background of steel

Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction
and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steel's base metal is iron, which
is able to take on two crystalline forms (allotropic forms), body centered cubic and face centered cubic
(FCC), depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the alloying elements,
primarily carbon, that gives steel and cast iron their range of unique properties. In the body-centred
cubic arrangement, there is an iron atom in the centre of each cube, and in the face-centred cubic, there
is one at the center of each of the six faces of the cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within
iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the
crystal lattices of iron atoms.

The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.1% of its weight. Varying the amount of
alloying elements, their presence in the steel either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases,
retards the movement of those dislocations that make iron comparatively ductile and weak, and thus
controls its qualities such as the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. Steel's
strength compared to pure iron is only possible at the expense of iron's ductility, of which iron has an
excess.

Steel was produced in bloomery furnaces for thousands of years, but its extensive use began after
more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century, with the production of blister steel
and then crucible steel. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century, a new era
of mass-produced steel began. This was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas
process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron.

Figure 3

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2.0 Properties of Metal, Alloy and Steel

2.1 Properties of metal

The physical properties of different metals make them useful for different purposes. For
example, copper is used for electrical wiring because it is a good conductor of electricity.Metal
particles are held together by strong metallic bonds, which is why they have high melting and
boiling points.

2.1.1 Density

Actinium Ac 10 Cobalt Co 8.86

Aluminum Al 2.70 Copper Cu 8.96

Antimony Sb 6.68 Dysprosium Dy 8.55

Barium Ba 3.62 Erbium Er 9.07

Beryllium Be 1.85 Europium Eu 5.24

Bismuth Bi 9.79 Gadolinium Gd 7.90

Cadmium Cd 8.69 Gallium Ga 5.91

Calcium Ca 1.54 Gold Au 19.3

Cerium Ce 6.77 Hafnium Hf 13.3

Cesium Cs 1.93 Holmium Ho 8.80

Chromium Cr 7.15 Indium In 7.31

Table 1 Table 2

2.1.2 Strengthness

Strength is a measure of how well a material can resist being deformed from its original
shape. Typically, metals are specified for their tensile strength, or their resistance to being
pulled apart, but compressive strength is also a legitimate material property describing
resistance to being squeezed

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2.2 Properties of Alloy

2.2.1 Composition

Thousands of alloy compositions are in regular production, while new compositions are
developed regularly.Accepted standard compositions include the purity levels of constituent
elements (based on weight content).The make-up, as well as mechanical and physical properties
for common alloys, are monitored by international organizations such ISO, SAE International
and ASTM International.

2.2.2 Production

Alloys are naturally occurring and require little processing to be converted into industrial
grade materials. Ferro-alloys such as ferro-chromium and ferro-silicon, for instance, are
produced by smelting mixed ores and are used in the production of various steels.Commercial
and trade alloys, however, generally require greater processing and are most often formed by
mixing molten metals in a controlled environment. Yet, one would be mistaken in thinking that
alloying metals is a simple process.For example, if one were to simply mix molten aluminum
with molten lead, we would find that they would separate into layers, much like oil and water.

The procedure for combining molten metals, or mixing metals with non-metals, varies
greatly depending on the properties of the elements required.Important considerations when
alloying metals include the melting temperatures of component metals, impurity levels, the
mixing environment and the alloying procedure.In some cases, intermediate alloys must be
prepared in order to persuade elements to combine.An alloy of 95.5% aluminum and 4.5%
copper is made by first preparing a 50% mixture of the two elements. This mixture has a lower
melting point than either pure aluminum or pure copper and acts as a 'hardener alloy'. This is
then introduced to molten aluminum at a rate that creates the right alloy mix.

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2.3 Properties of Steel

2.3.1 Hardness

Hardness is regarded as the resistance of a material to indentations and

scratching. This is generallydetermined by forcing an indent or on to the surface. The resultant
deformation in steel is both elastic and plastic. There are several methods using which the
hardness of a metal could be found out. They basically differ in the form of the indentor, which
is used on to the surface. They are presented in Table 1.2. In all the above cases, hardness
number is related to the ratio of the applied load to the surface area of the indentation formed.
The testing procedure involves forcing the indentor on to the surface at a particular road.

2.3.2 Notch-toughness

There is always a possibility of microscopic cracks in a material or the material

may develop such cracks as a result of several cycles of loading. Such cracks may
grow rapidly without detection and lead to sudden collapse ofthe structure. To ensure that this
does not happen, materials in which the cracks grow slowly are preferred. Such steels are known
as notch-tough steels and the amount of energy they absorb is measured by impacting a notched
specimen with a heavy pendulum as in Izod .

2.3.3 Stress – strain behaviour:

The stress-strain curve for steel is generally obtained from tensile test on
standard specimens as shown in . The details of the specimen and the method of
testing is elaborated in IS: 1608 (1995A typical stress-strain curve of the tensile
test coupon is shown in. After a certain amount of the plastic deformation of the material, due to
reorientation of the crystal structure an increase in load is observed with increase in
strain. This range is called the strain hardening range. After a little increase in load,
the specimen eventually fractures.

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3.0 Type of Metal ,Alloy , Steel

3.1 Type of Metal

3.1.1 Ferrous metal

Ferrous Metals mostly contain Iron. They have small amounts of other metals or elements
added, to give the required properties. Ferrous Metals are magnetic and give little resistance to
corrosion. Some examples of the ferrous metals we deal with: Vehicle scrap metal

Figure 4

3.1.2 Non Ferrous metal

Non-Ferrous Metals do not contain Iron, are not magnetic and are usually more resistant to
corrosion than ferrous metals. Some examples of Non-Ferrous Metals we deal with are:
Aluminium & Aluminium Alloys. Copper.

 Aluminium & Aluminium Alloys.

 Copper.
 Brass.
 Lead.
 Zinc.
 Stainless Steel.

Figure 5

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3.2 Type of Alloy

3.2.1. Substitutional alloys:

These are alloys formed by the substitution or exchange of the atoms that make up the
elements of which the alloys are composed of based based on both the size and amount of the
elements in the mixture. In other words, due to similarities in sizes of the atoms within the
elements, the atoms of the elements that make the metals are interchanged with atoms of the
other metals. For example bronze and brass are substitutional alloys because some of the copper
atoms are substituted with either tin or zinc atoms.

3.2.2 . Interstitial Alloys:

These are alloys formed in which because one atom is smaller than the other hence the atom
cannot replace the other atom in the crystals of the base metal and so the smaller atoms are held
firmly in the spaces between the atoms in the crystal matrix called interstitices giving rise to
what is called form what is interstitial alloys. Steel is an example of an interstitial alloy, because
the very small carbon atoms fit into interstices of the iron matrix.

3.2.3 Combined Alloys:

These are alloys that combine the mode of formation of substitutional alloys and interstitial
alloys because while the carbon atoms fit into the interstices however some of the iron atoms are
replaced with nickel and chromium atoms as seen in stainless steel ( an example of a
combination of interstitial and substitutional alloys ).

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3.3 Type of Steel

3.3.1 Low Carbon Steel

Also known as mild steel contain 0.05% -0.32% carbon .It tough, ductile and malleable
Easily joined and welded Poor resistance to corrosion Often used a general purpose material

3.3.2 Medium Carbon Steel

Contains 0.35% - 0.5% of carbon Offer more strength and hardness BUT
less ductile and malleableStructural steel, rails and garden tool

3.3.3 High Carbon Steel

Also known as ‘tool steel’Contain 0.55%-1.5% carbon very hard but offers higher strengthess
ductile and less malleable

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4.0 Application of Metal , Alloy and Steel

4.1 Application in construction

Chosen for their durability, strength and resistance to weather, metals used in the construction
industry serve a wide range of functions. The most common of them are carbon steel, aluminum,
copper tubing and stainless steel, which each have their particular qualities and ideal uses. As a
whole, however, these metals are ubiquitous in the world of buildings and architecture, in
applications both small and large.

Carbon steel is one alloy that is prized in the construction industry for its hardness and
strength. It is typically used to make beams for structural framework, plates for highway
construction, and rectangular tubing for welded frames trailer beds, and bridges. It is also a
material of choice to make rebar and hollow structural sections (HSS). Made by mixing carbon
and iron together, carbon steel is classified on a scale of “mild” to “very high,” depending on
how much carbon is present in the metal.

Carbon steel, aluminum, copper tubing and stainless steel are all durable, strong and corrosion
resistant metals that are frequently applied in the building industry. These metals form
everything from door frames and highways, to pipes and staircases.

Figure 6 Figure

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4.2 Applicaton in daily life

4.2.1 Electronics

Electronics are the equipment which largely rely on electricity to function. We use many
electronics like TV, mobiles, fridges etc. in daily life. These electronics use metals in the body
for different purposes. But one of the key purposes is to facilitate electricity transfer. Since are
metals are good conductors, metals like copper, lead are widely used. Perhaps without metals,
electronics would not have been progressed so much. Thermocouples provide an option to switch
on and off automatically in refrigerators and air conditioners.

4.2.2 Medicine:

Metals are available as micro-elements in our body. They are needed for conduction of nerve
impulses, to carry oxygen by blood, to facilitate enzyme reactions and more. So metals are used
in medicine to cure any micronutrient metal deficiency diseases in humans and animals. Ex. iron
is a part of hemoglobin a biomolecule. Hence it is used as ferrous sulfate to cure some forms of
anemia.Similarly, any metals constitute micro-essentials called “trace elements” in the body.
They are part of few enzymes and co-enzymes or in the form of electrolytes. They are present in
very trace quantities in both plants and animals. The examples include Sodium (Na), potassium
(K), Magnesium (Mg), Ni, Cu, Co etc.Besides, metals like titanium, aluminum, magnesium are
widely used in medicine for roles like antacids. They are especially studied under the subject of
inorganic chemistry.

4.2.4 Machinery & automobiles

Many machines and automobiles are made of metals extensively. Metals which can
withstand high temperature and pressure during work are preferred. The commonly used metal is
Iron, steel, aluminum etc. so cranes, mills, satellites. The machines and automobiles include road
vehicles, railways, airplanes, rockets etc

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5.0 Conclusion

In conclusion, metals and alloys differ in terms of their properties and usage. An alloy is a
mixture of two or more metals. There are different alloys made from different metals including
aluminum and magnesium alloys. The usage of metals and alloys depends on the properties.
Metals have unique properties, but there are properties that are similar to all metals. The
characteristics include conductivity, high melting points and high boiling points. The
conductivity is depicted by the ability of metals to transfer electricity. Some metals do not
transfer electricity. Metals also have high melting points because of the extensive metallic bonds
within the structure of the metals. In addition, metals have high boiling points due to the complex
bonds. This has led to different applications of metals including manufacturing of electrical
appliances and electric wiring. Moreover, alloys also have different properties. The properties
depend on the metallic elements used to form the alloy. Alloys have superior properties
compared to metals. The properties include hardness, resistance and resistivity. Alloys are hard
compared to metals because of combination of various elements when forming alloys and the big
atoms. Alloys are also resistance to wear and corrosion.

Further, alloys have economic significance, unlike traditional steel. Manufacturing of alloys is
more cost effective compared to steel, and this leads to more profits. The manufacturing of alloys
has led to increase in jobs in different sectors including mining, engineering, refinery and
designing. Employees in these fields perform different functions aimed at manufacturing the
alloys. Alloys are useful in the aviation industry, and they will continue to be useful because of
the high demand for durable products. Different metals and alloys are important to the aviation
industry due to their distinct properties. The metals and alloys used in the aviation industry
should have various properties including strength, ductility, malleability and elasticity. Other
properties are brittleness, conductivity and density. The properties affect aviation products in
different ways and manufacturers in the aviation industry should take the properties into account
during manufacturing. Manufacturers should consider the density of the alloy when
manufacturing planes as poor density measurements lead to plane crashes. Density is vital in
aircraft manufacturing as it ensures the plane is balanced and has the right weight.

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6.0 References

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal

https://www.slideshare.net/SameerNK/uses-of-various-steel-in-civil-engineering

(https://sites.google.com/site/chempendix/densities-of-pure-metals)

http://customwritingtips.com/component/k2/item/19740-conclusion-on-metals-and-
alloys.html?tmpl=component&print=1

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