Conservation Tillage and Water Availability For Wheat in The Dryland of Central Chile

Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 2013, 13(3), 622-637
Conservation tillage and water availability for wheat in the

dryland of central chile
N. Brunel 1,2*, O. Seguel 3, E. Acevedo4
Centro de Desarrollo para el Secano Interior, Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca, Chile. 2Programa de Doctorado en
1
Ciencias Silvoagropecuarias y Veterinarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile. 3Departamento de Ingeniería y Suelos,
Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile. 4Laboratorio Suelo Agua Planta, Universidad de
Chile, Santiago, Chile.*Corresponding author: nbrunel@ucm.cl
Abstract
The dryland areas of Central Chile are associated to Mediterranean climate. Under these conditions, water
availability during crop growth is a crucial factor for crop productivity. Conservation tillage systems play an
important role in this area, increasing soil water availability; however, crop yield responses can be variable. Soil
management should be aimed at reducing water loss and promoting water use by crops. The aim of this review is
to analyze and discuss the factors affecting water availability in the Mediterranean drylands of Central Chile, as
well as to study the effect of tillage systems on the water use efficiency of wheat.
Keywords: Mediterranean climate, water use efficiency, evapotranspiration, soil management
1. Introduction
Agricultural practices for the last 150 years are one of limiting factor for production specially considering
the main causes of environmental degradation of the the high evaporation rate in the summer, which is
Mediterranean regions, especially due to their characteristic of this climate (Austin, 1987; Turner and
negative impact on soil and water, producing a Asseng, 2005). The adaptation of the crop to this area
serious threat to human well-being (Zalidis et al., depends on the water availability and its efficient use
2002). In Chile, the intensive tillage of the drylands (Pala et al., 2007).
has caused critical levels of erosion, physical
degradation and low fertility levels of the soils, Soil management has an important effect on the
decreasing agricultural productivity. availability and the water use efficiency of crops
(Hatfield et al., 2001). However, the benefits of the
The drylands of south-central Chile is a geographic soil management systems on the increase of wheat
area associated having Mediterranean climate, in yields have been variable (Cantero-Martínez et al.,
which wheat is one of the main crops. Rainfall is the 2007) The purpose of this review is to analyze and
unique water supply for crops in this zone; the discuss the factors which influence the availability of
quantity and distribution of the rains make water water and
the main
622
111 Brunel et al.

Water availability in the mediterranean drylands 112
the effect that tillage soil cover; and the cultivation of the Mediterranean
systems have in rotation of soil with different climate, which they
improving the economically production share with four other
efficiency of water viable crops”. systems, regions of the world;
use in wheat crops in maintaining and/or southern Australia,
the dryland zones of From ancient times increasing its southern California
Central Chile. zero tillage and productive (USA), the extreme
reduced tillage capacity, being the south of South Africa
have been used by water availability and the countries
indigenous and the soil around the
2 cultures; in recent physical, Mediterranean Sea.
. years they have chemical and Wheat is one of the
been adopted as biological main crops grown in
C efficient properties the Mediterranean climate
u
technologies for keys to understand drylands (Schillinger
r
r soil conservation this result et al., 2008). In Chile
e in South American (Peterson et al., wheat is the base of
n countries (Triplett 1996; Acevedo and the local agricultural
t and Dick, 2008). Silva, 2003). economy;
These tillage 60% of this crop is
S systems have also 2.2. planted in drylands,
t been proposed as Availa
covering an area of
a bility
an alternative to about 61,700 ha (INE,
t of
increase the water water 2007).
u
s content of the soil, in
especially in zones drylan Mediterranean zones
2.1. in which the d are characterized
Conserva limitation of water zones principally by a
tion availability concentration of
tillage in exacerbates the The drylands of precipitation in winter,
dryland Chile, between 30º
degraded state of with completely or
zones and 38º south
the soils. nearly dry summers.
latitude, are Winter temperatures
Wall (2006) defined associated with
Zero tillage, an are mild and summers
conservation the special
integral concept are warm to hot, with
agriculture as “any condition of
which includes a high index of solar
management system
much more than radiation (Cramb,
that involves the
the replacement of 2000). In this climate,
following
plowing by the rainfall pattern is
characteristics: a
herbicides and one of the basic
clear reduction in
direct seeding limiting factors for
soil movement with
machinery, may be crop production, since
the final objective of
considered as one about 70% of annual
its complete
of the most rainfall is
elimination, except
representative concentrated in winter
for the small
models of months, only 15% in
movement involved
sustainable spring and about 2%
in sowing; the
agriculture; it is an in summer; water is
preservation of a
agronomic practice most available when
permanent or semi-
which allows the the temperatures are
permanent organic
Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition , 2013, 13(3), 622-637

113 Brunel et al.
less favorable for vegetative
growth (Del Pozo and
Ovalle, 1994).
Water is the main limiting

factor for the wheat crop in
the Mediterranean drylands
of central Chile. The scarce
availability of water during
the critical developmental
stages of the crop, coupled
to the high evaporation rates
in spring and summer,
produce a water stress
which affects its
productivity (Turner and
Asseng, 2005). The water
use of the crop after the
rainfall period is directly
related to the quantity of
water available in the soil
(Lafond et al., 1994); there
are several factors which
determine this water
availability.
2.3.
Availabl
e soil
water at
sowing
The stored water at sowing

time may be an important
complement to the seasonal
rains in drylands, since this
stored water may be more
effective in promoting yield
than the rainfall from
sowing to harvest, (French
and Schultz, 1984). Some
authors have found a linear
relation between yield and
stored soil water at sowing
(Musick et al., 1994;
Asseng et al., 2001);
however, Schillinger et al.
(2008), in studies
performed from
1953-1957 and 1993-2005,
concluded that in terms


115 Brunel et al.
of increasing as well as adverse win depends upon a greater
productivity of wheat, effects on soil quality g efficiency in the use of
peri
spring rainfall was and fertility (Stewart rainfall (Peterson et al.,
od
more effective than and Burnett, 1987; 1996); the variability of
stored soil water at Stewart and Robinson, In dryland zones with precipitation during the
sowing. Considering 1997). Farahani et al. Mediterranean climate, growing period
that in drylands with (1998) estimated that in the increase in yield contributes to
Mediterranean climate the great plains of the and productivity of differences in yields
less than 30% of annual USA there was a 75% agriculture (Cantero-Martínez et
rainfall occurs in loss of the precipitation al., 2007). Adequate
spring, the rain which in the fallow period, water availability in the
falls in this period is with enhanced reproductive period,
not enough to fulfill the 16-25% efficiency of particularly from the
water needs of this this practice in soil beginning of spike
crop. water storage with zero growth until 10 days
tillage. These authors after anthesis, is
One technique used in suggested an necessary in order to
dryland soils to improvement in the achieve high grain yield
improve water storage efficiency of use of (Acevedo et al., 2002).
and nutrient availability precipitation by a Water deficit after
at sowing is to leave decrease in fallow time anthesis produces early
the soil without a crop and the incorporation of senescence and more
for a time, known as crop rotations adequate mobility of assimilates
fallowing (Farahani et for dry zones. stored pre-anthesis to
al., 1998; Turner and grains in cereals (Zhang
Asseng, 2005). The key to crop et al., 2008). Musick et
Leaving the land fallow intensification, al. (1994) emphasized
may increase yield in reducing or even the importance of the
dry areas due to an eliminating fallow period of stem
increase in water during crop rotation, elongation to anthesis,
storage and in soil is through zero tillage continuing in early
nitrogen at the time of (McGee et al., 1997; grain filling, to
sowing (Army et al., Shaver et al., 2003). maintain potential
1959; Musick et al., Other authors agree that production in dryland
1994). Bonfil et al. in any system of crop zones. Considering that
(1999), from studies rotation used in order to water use in the interval
performed in Israel, increase soil water from the beginning of
concluded that under content, whether fallow spike growth to
severe drought or continuous rotation, anthesis determines the
conditions (less than both must be adapted to number of grains, a
150 mm annual systems of conservation variable which is
rainfall), only a wheat- tillage (Lafond et al., closely related to wheat
fallow system with zero 1994; Bonfil et al., yield,it is evident that a
tillage produces an 1999). stress in this period will
acceptable grain yield. reduce grain yield
However, other 2.4. (Cayci et al., 2008;
authors have Rai
Olivieri, 2008).
nfal
demonstrated low
l in
efficiency of fallowing the In Australia, Cornish
for soil water storage, gro (1950) associated 65%

of the variation in and depth of the root
wheat production with system (Kirkegaard and
the variability of Lilley, 2007), thus the
rainfall from April to early development of
October; rain in winter an extensive root
months was more system that can use the
effective in producing water from the deeper
high yield. Seif and soil strata at the end of
Pederson (1978) the growth period is
reported that in central particularly important
Australia precipitation in periods of drought
in spring, from three (Hurd, 1964; Bonfil et
weeks before to two al., 1999), as long as
weeks after anthesis, there is water at depth.
explained 86% of the
variation in yield. Kirkegaard et al.
(2007) demonstrated
2 that small amounts of
. water in the subsoil
5 may be very valuable
.
W
a
t
e
r
s
t
o
r
e
d
a
t
d
e
p
t
h
In rainfed crops, water

stored at depth in the
soil is valuable during
the most sensitive
stages to water deficit
(Passioura, 1983). The
absorption of water
depends to a great
extent on the extension

117 Brunel et al.

for grain yield, at anthesis (Valle, may lead to an and intensity of the
concluding that when 2004; Kirkegaard overestimation of annual rainfall. In a
there is moderate and Lilley, 2007), evapotranspiration study by Uribe et al.
stress after anthesis, and then decreases and (2003) in degraded
10.5 mm of additional substantially underestimation of soils of Chilean
water in the subsoil in (Gregory et al., water use drylands, the runoff
the strata from 1.35- 1978). In Th efficiency (WUE), coefficient was greater
1.85 m depth, rainfall in especially in than 50% in soils
increased grain yield Mediterranean humid seasons which had lost a large
by 0.62 t ha-1, environments (Sadras and part of their capacity
indicating an exceeds Angus, 2006). for water infiltration
efficiency of 59 kg of evapotranspiration and water retention;
grain ha-1 mm-1. only at the end of In the rolling these authors reported
tillering; from Mediterranean that the rain which fell
Wheat roots are tillering to drylands of central in the months of
mostly found maturity the crop Chile runoff is a March and April was
between 0 and 120 substantial factor
depends on the stored in the soil,
cm of water loss; it is
storage of water in while the rain after
depth (Bonfil et al., highly dependent
1999), but they can the subsoil (French that period produced
and Schultz, 1984). on the soil surface runoff. A
reach from
For this reason, the properties, slope study performed in the
150 cm (Cramb,
capacity of the soil and variability drylands close to
2000) to more than
240 cm (Winter and to store water is Ninhue (VIII Region
Musick, 1993) at even more relevant of Chile) showed that
anthesis ( time at in years with early runoff varied from
which wheat roots rainfall when the 10% in dry years to
reach maximum crop depends more than 50% in wet
depth). In southern mainly on stored years; for a year with
Australia, wheat root water (Asseng et low precipitation (400
depth varied from al., 2001; Olivieri, mm), the runoff
80 to 180 cm in 36 2008; Lawes et al., measured in small
fields evaluated; the 2009). watersheds was
main differences in approximately
root depth were 2.6. Runoff, 4
explained by the type percolation and 0
of soil, incomplete evaporation of
wetting of the soil water from the soil m
surface. m
profile, and the length
of the vegetative
Studies in dryland (
period (Kirkegaard
areas usually U
and Lilley, 2007). r
consider surface
Root growth is less i
runoff and deep
affected than b
percolation as
vegetative growth e
negligible (Angus
under conditions of
and van
water stress (Klepper, e
Herwaarden, 2001; t
1992); there is a
Cantero-Martínez
general consensus that
et al., 2007; Cayci a
wheat root growth
et al., 2008), which l
reaches its maximum

119 Brunel et al.
. from 36% for the
, system of continuous
2 rotation to
0
61% for a wheat-fallow
0
4 system. As is the case
) with deep
. percolation,evaporation
from the soil surface is
The high clay content of also complex to measure
these dryland soils governs in the field; thus usually
the water flow in the the concept of
profile. A study by Quezada evapotranspiration is
and Fernandez (1977) in an used, which includes the
Alfisol showed that this components of
type of soil had very slow evaporation from the soil
water movement in the and transpiration by the
profile. The results crop (Sinclair et al.,
indicated that at field 1984; Hatfield et al.,
capacity, the non- saturated 2001).
hydraulic conductivity was
less than 3.2*10-4 cm day-1;
the authors associated this
low flux with the fact that
about 60% of the soil pores
had a diameter lower than
0.20 microns.
Evaporation from the soil

is one of the main causes
for water loss in dryland
areas, mainly in the first
periods of high temperature
when the crop is at the
initial phenological stages,
with low soil coverage.
Both, surface runoff and
evaporation from the soil
coincide with the period
when the soil surface is not
completely covered by the
crop. Thus in wet years
these factors may result in
significant loss of rain,
drastically affecting the
availability of water.
Stewart and Burnett (1987)
indicated that in a wheat
rotation in dryland zones of
the USA, the loss of rainfall
by evaporation during the
period without crops varied


121 Brunel et al.
2 relation between yield crop evapotranspiration. evapotranspiration axis
. and water use was Using a mathematical estimates direct
7 suggested by De Wit model that considered evaporation from the
. the different concepts
(1958) through the soil. French and Schultz
equation: involved in this relation, (1984) used this model
W Sinclair et al. (1984) to determine that in
a showed that the slope
t the Southern
of the linear Hemisphere the water
e
r regression estimates use is closely related to
the use efficiency of the rain from April to
Where Y is biomass transpired water and
u October, and if there is
yield, m is a constant, T that the intercept in
s a negligible runoff, the
e is the total transpiration the rainfall in this period
during the growing
may be used to
b season and Eo is the
approximate the water
y mean seasonal
use of the crop. These
evaporation from a free
authors developed the
t water surface. Later,
concept of potential
h Bierhuizen and Slatyer
yield under limiting
e (1965), considering that
water for wheat, using
the processes of
data collected over 12
c biomass production and
r years in 61 sites in
transpiration depend on
o southern Australia
concentration gradients
p (Figure 1). They
and resistance to
estimated that for crops
Water consumption in diffusion, proposed a
with high yield and
crop production is variant to equation (1)
efficient water use the
normally measured in which incorporated the
direct evaporation from
terms of concept of atmospheric
the soil was 110 mm,
evapotranspiration vapor pressure deficit:
about a third of the total
(Cantero- Martínez et water use. The quantity
al., 2007; Katerji et al., of water transpired by
2008; Zhang et al., the crop which
2008) and water use contributes to a grain
efficiency (WUE), since where k is a constant yield potential is close to
99% of the water used and the difference sin the 20 kg ha-1 mm-1.
by the crops is released saturation vapor
a
to the atmosphere as pressure at the The relation between
water vapor (Katerji et atmospheric yield and water use is a
al., 2008). The relation temperature (e ) and the simple method to divide
between yield and the real vapor pressure at the water used into its
amount of water field conditions (e ) is components of
evapotranspired by the the atmospheric vapor transpiration and soil
crop is generally pressure deficit. evaporation, and has
linear (French and been used in dryland
Schultz, Graphs of zones with
1984; Sinclair et al., experimental data for Mediterranean climate.
1984; Musick et al., different species show French and Schultz
1994). A first analytical the linear relation (1984) concluded that
approximation of the between yield and total low rainfall by itself

does not explain the WUE that the
low yield of many productive systems of
crops, since the points dryland areas have
below the dashed line (Zwart, 2004), this topic
in Figure 1 indicate has received
sites where production considerable attention.
was limited by factors
such as extreme WUE has been used as
temperatures, an indicator of the
agronomic deficiencies, impact of crop
effects of pests and management in dryland
diseases, and possibly systems, it is closely
soil erosion. Several related to the
authors coincide that effectiveness of the use
water use and of rainfall, since rain is
transpiration in the the only source of
reproductive state is water (Hatfield et al.,
crucial to obtain high 2001).
yields in WUE (Musick
et al., 1994; Oweis et
al., 2000; Katerji et al.,
2008; Blum, 2009).
2
.
8
.
W
U
E
o
f
c
r
o
p
s
In regions where the

water is a limiting
resource, the need to
produce the maximum
yield using efficiently
the available water is a
key factor in
agricultural productivity
(Cantero-Martínez et
al., 2007; Zhang et al.,
2008). Due to the low

123 Brunel et al.
Figure 1. Wheat yield potential for southern Australia. From French and Schultz (1984).
This concept may be formulated using several

different scales of processes and time, such as the
relation between biomass accumulation (expressed as

CO assimilation, where k is a crop-
2
total crop biomass or specific coefficient, Es is
grain yield) and water the water loss from the
consumption soil surface due to
(expressed as evaporation, T is the
transpiration, crop transpiration and
evapotranspiration or VPD is the mean
total entrance of water seasonal atmospheric
into the system) water pressure deficit.
(Sinclair et al., 1984). Analysis of equation (4)
From the agronomic indicates important ways
perspective, the most to improve WUE, using
used relation is: agronomic management
to reduce the relation
(Es/T) and taking into
consideration the marked
seasonal variation in
water pressure deficit in
It may be deduced
Mediterranean climates
from this simple
(Acevedo et al., 1991)
equation that a for a
by growing crops in the
constant WUE, a
period of lower VPD.
greater amount of
Thus, management
water available for
practices which reduce
use by the crop will
the incidense of solar
increase the final
radiation to the soil
yield, which in
surface and increase
drylands will depend
water availability,
on techniques to
reducing loss by
achieve a higher
evaporation from the
efficiency in the use
soil, would have a
of precipitation
positive impact on WUE
(Peterson et al.,
(Acevedo et al.,
1996; Hatfield et al.,
1991; Musick et
2001).
al., 1994; Hatfield
et al., 2001).
Gregory (1991)
developed a more 2.9. Conservation
explicit form of tillage and soil water
equation (3), using availability
the rainfall in the
growth period as an The results of a number
approximation of the of investigations show
evapotranspiration, that conservation
and assuming that the systems generally
transpiration rate was maintain more water in
proportional to the the soil than the
deficit in conventional systems,
atmospheric vapor which is explained by the
pressure (Sinclair et effect of the crop residue
al., 1984), giving: left on the

125 Brunel et al.

soil surface, producing 35 trials in the Pampas precipitation greater 2.10. Conservation
less evaporation, an region of Argentina than 250 mm, zero tillage and soil physical
increase in organic there were small tillage increased yield properties
matter and an differences in the water and WUE (Aase and
Pikul, 1995; Jones and The cover of stubble
improvement of the content between tillage
Popham, 1997). left on soils managed
physical properties of systems when the soils
with conservation
the soil (Unger, 1994; were humid; the
tillage systems favors
Shaver et al., 2003; differences increased in
not only the increase in
Valle, 2004). However, drier soils; zero tillage
the water available for
the availability of water had a mean of 13-14%
plants due to the
in the soil profile may more water than tilled
decrease of water loss
be variable for each soils. However, the
by evaporation
tillage system (Lafond authors found that
(Fuentes et al.,
et al., 1994). wheat yields were
2009), but also has
significantly greater
Negi et al. (1981) effects on the physical
with conventional
reported for plots with properties of the soil,
tillage than in systems
zero tillage twice as specially in the top few
with reduced tillage.
much water available to centimeters (Martinez
the plants at a depth of The effect of the et al., 2008). Blanco-
30 cm than in plots protective mantle of Canqui and Lal (2007)
with conventional organic residues, observed that the top
tillage, while Tollner et improving the three centimeters of soil
al. (1984) found that infiltration of water under treatments with
the soil with zero into the soil and stubble were rich in
tillage had significantly reducing water loss by decomposing organic
less water available for direct evaporation, is a material and were more
the plant near the soil key factor in dryland porous, as well as
surface than zones, in which the having a significantly
conventional tillage. In high levels of solar higher worm
a review of research in radiation and slow population compared to
northern China, the infiltration of water plots without stubble.
results showed that into the soil increase This organic material
conservation tillage the loss of water and increases the
increased water storage reduce its availability microfauna and
from 3% to 50% and for the plant. The microflora of the soil,
crop yield increased results of Fuentes et al. as was observed by
from 2-36% compared (2009) in an area of Acevedo and Silva
to conventional tillage, Mexico with mean (2003), who measured
along with reducing the precipitation of 600 an increase of 30-40%
effects of erosion mm year-1 showed that in the microbial
(Wang et al., 2007); in treatments with zero population of soils with
dry years the effect of tillage and stubble on zero tillage.
conservation tillage top of the soil had a
Ela et al (1992)
tended to be greater greater water content
reported an increase in
than in wet years and lower penetration
water flow in the soil
compared with resistance than the
due to the development
conventional tillage. same treatment without
of macropores
Alvarez and Steinbach stubble. In dryland
constructed by worms.
(2009) found that for conditions with annual
However, an increase in

127 Brunel et al.
the worm population proportion of
does not always macropores and lead to
increase the rate of higher infiltration rates
water infiltration in than with conventional
soils, since these tillage
organisms may produce
unconnected channels
which do not
necessarily favor the
water movement into
the soil profile
(Blanco-Canqui and
Lal, 2007).
Some authors have

found that
conservation tillage
may reduce the total
porosity in the surface
horizon of the soil,
modifying the pore size
distribution, with
predominance of fine
pores, while the effect
of plowing in a
conventional system
increases the number of
larger pores (Negi et
al., 1981; Tollner et al.,
1984; Hill et al., 1985).
The more compact
surface of soils with
zero tillage would
explain the decreased
infiltration of water in
the profile (Pelegrin et
al., 1990; Martinez et
al., 2008).
Nevertheless, Dexter et
al. 2004) found a lower
hydraulic conductivity
of the plough layer in a
conventional system
attributed to the
destruction of biopores
by tillage. The increase
in organic carbon
observed in soils with
conservation tillage
may increase the


129 Brunel et al.
(Alvarez and Martinez et al., compaction of machines (Acevedo
Steinbach, 2009; 2008; Fuentes et clayey soils under and Silva, 2003;
Fuentes et al., 2009; al., 2009); which zero tillage, Schjonning et al.,
Stone and Schlegel, may be attributed negatively 2006). Jin et al.
2010). This apparent to a greater affecting the (2007) reported that
contradiction is content of organic growth of deep the treatment with
generally explained material in the roots and water zero tillage reached
by the susceptibility soils with zero absorption from higher values of bulk
of soils to tillage (Martinez et the deeper density; a mean of
compaction. The al., 2008). Six et horizons of the 1.41 g cm-3 compared
infiltration of water al. (1999) found soil profile to the 1.26 g cm-3 of
and the saturated that total C was (Alvarez and conventional tillage.
hydraulic 9% to 16% lower Steinbach, 2009).
conductivity, which in soils with The increase of The technique of
control the partition conventional bulk density may subsoiling as a
of rainwater and the tillage compared to be attributed to a complement to zero
magnitude of surface zero tillage, being natural tillage minimizes
runoff, are also the main consolidation of the effect of
sensitive indicators of differences in the soil and the compacting by
soil structure (Blanco- first 5 cm of soil. compaction due to rupturing the
Canqui and Lal, 2007) Tillage practices the movement of compacted layers,
and of the impact of also affect the agricultural allowing the
tillage systems on amount, size and machinery accumulation of a
soil. distribution pattern (Pelegrin et al., water reserve below
of roots, altering 1990), the latter by the surface horizons,
Alvarez and the physical the action of the increasing the depth
Steinbach (2009) properties of soils, force transmitted of rooting and
found that the such as pore size, to the soil by improving water
structure of the soil bulk density and the wheels of availability for plants,
with conventional soil strength (Chan tractors and which considerably
tillage evaluated by and Mead, 1992). sowing improves their
the change of mean resistance to periods
weigh diameter of In the upper 15 cm of drought (Raper et
the aggregates was of soil, al., 1998; Hong-ling
on average 70% more improvement in et al., 2008).
unstable than for soils water retention Subsoiling promotes
with conservation capacity and soil higher water storage
tillage.. This result structure result in in the deeper horizons
agrees with those of higher root growth of the soil profile,
other authors, who of wheat under principally in dry
conclude that the zero tillage seasons, which would
stability of aggregates (Acharya and improve yield in
is affected by the Sharma, 1994; dryland areas and
tillage system; Merrill et al., increase the WUE of
treatments with zero 1996; Lampurlanés the crop (Pikul and
tillage with stubble and Cantero- Aase,
have a higher mean Martínez, 2003; 1999; Jin et al., 2007;
diameter of Valle, 2004). Mohanty et al., 2007;
aggregates (Cannell However, it has Hong- ling et al.,
and Hawes, 1994; been reported 2008). Aldea et al.

(2005), who used a chisel water availability, and
plow before sowing, found may be more important
that this technique may than the total
provide transitory benefits
in soil managed with zero
tillage, with significant
differences in infiltration at
planting when compared to
the treatment without using
the chisel plow; however,
no differences were found
at the flowering and
harvest stages. Wang et al.
(2007) found that the
subsoiling technique, as a
complement to zero tillage,
produced an increase of
18.8% in wheat yield and
16.8% in WUE compared
to conventional tillage.
Similar results were found
for oats by Hong-ling et
al. (2008), who reported
that subsoiling increased
water storage in the soil
between 0 and 100 cm
depth, which in dry periods
allowed a higher amount of
water from the deeper soil,
producing a higher WUE.
3
.
D
i
s
c
u
s
s
i
o
n
In dryland zones with

Mediterranean climate, the
distribution pattern of
rainfall, especially in soils
with low water storage
capacity, notably affects

131 Brunel et al.

amount of rainfall in determining crop yield (Tanaka practically inexistent. On the other hand, only 15% of
and Anderson, 1997; Olivieri, 2008; Stone and total annual precipitation occurs during the period of
Schlegel, 2010). The water deficit of plants during spike growth. Any practice which favors the water
the period of reproduction and grain filling, mainly storage in the soil will favor the water availability
due to an unfavorable rainfall regime, is the most for crops during the high water demand period.
limiting factor for wheat production in these zones.
The degraded state of the soils as a result of cereal
In the Mediterranean dryland of Chile, an average cropping with intensive tillage for many years in
rainfall of 700 mm year-1, as occurs in the Cauquenes the dryland zone of the Coast Range in Chile has
area, should provide adequate availability of soil reduced the water retention capacity of the soil. The
water during the growth period of the crop, with a low capacity of water infiltration and retention of
positive impact on final yield. However, the real the soils of this area (Uribe et al., 2003) increases
crop productivity is low and does not fulfill this water loss, due to surface runoff and evaporation.
expectation. Figure 2 shows the mean monthly Figure 3 illustrates the magnitude of the main events
rainfall for Cauquenes. affecting water availability in the zone. The amount
of precipitation decreases drastically during the
Figure 2 shows that the water available at sowing period of maturation, coinciding with the greatest
depends mainly on the rainfall during May, which can water demand of the crop; runoff is closely related
be scarce; thus the practice of summer fallowing, to the intensity of the rainfall, resulting in high water
which is usually used by the farmers in the area, is loss during winter months.
insufficient for water storage, since summer
precipitation is
Figure 2. mean monthly precipitation in Cauquenes, Chile (1958-2009). Source: Instituto de Investigaciones
Agropecuarias, Centro Experimental Cauquenes.

Figure 3. Diagram of the patterns of precipitation, potential evapotranspiration and superficial runoff during the
development of wheat in Cauquenes, Chile.
Figure 3 clearly These conditions the rain which falls strong impact on soil
shows that the water produce a during winter, generating water balance during
deficit begins in dominance of fine a higher availability of the period of crop
September, and until pores, with good water in the most critical growth; in this
the end of the growth water retention but months for crop scenario, conservation
period the poor aeration, development, in which tillage has great
evapotranspiration which limits the the water stored in depth benefits. Covering the
demand is greater penetration of is extremely useful for soil with stubble
than the rainfall. In roots. crops (Passioura, 1983). protects the soil from
this period the ability Although in terms of the direct impact of
of the soil to retain The optimum water use there are no raindrops, which
available water and to development of clear advantages of minimizes the
allow roots to reach wheat depends on conservation tillage disaggregation of
the deepest horizons a number of systems, these provide a particles and
of the soil profile play agronomic good alternative to maintains the soil
a fundamental role in practices focused increase available water structure, favoring
the normal on the increase of in the soil (Hill et al.,
development of the soil water storage 1985; Jin et al., 2007;
crop. and the Alvarez and Steinbach,
improvement of 2009; Fuentes et al.,
The activity of deep WUE of 2009), especially in dry
roots helps to reduce years, in which the
water loss from deep increase in yield is
percolation, even in determined by the WUE
clayey soils, where and may suggest changes
the deep drainage is in the pattern of water
much less important use before and after
than direct loss by anthesis (Cantero-
evaporation from the Martínez et al.,
soil (Passioura, 2006). 2
The dryland soils in 0
south-central Chile 0
are found in the 7
hillsides of the )
.
Coastal Range;
showing variable The increase in organic
degrees of matter content and the
degradation. In this reduction of the
zone, information perturbation of the upper
about the effective soil due to conservation
rooting of wheat is tillage systems improve
not available; the physical, chemical
however, rooting and biological properties
depth is restricted by of the profile, improving
dense clay in the soil structure and water
subsoil, with high retention capacity. The
values of bulk density climate of the dryland
(1.4-1.5 g cm-3) which zone of the Coast Range
increases at depth of central Chile has a
(CIREN, 1997).
water infiltration and increase the infiltration practices in the management for
reducing surface and storage of water in northern Great improved water
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continued which improvement of the Ciencias
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of tillage-erosion with the soil; both tend to Ciencias
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1

Conservation Tillage and Water Availability For Wheat in The Dryland of Central Chile

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Conservation Tillage and Water Availability For Wheat in The Dryland of Central Chile

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Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 2013, 13(3), 622-637