Recent Patents on Nanotechnology 2009, 3, 53-60 53

A Review of Micro/Nano Welding and Its Future Developments

Kelvii W. Guo*
Department of Manufacturing Engineering and Engineering Management, City University of Hong Kong, 83 Tat Chee
Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China

Received: August 29, 2008; Accepted: October 9, 2008; Revised: October 28, 2008
Abstract: A review is given about the current state-of-the-art surrounding micro/nano scale welding/joining used in
miniaturization or microsystems. Except for reviewing the applications of micro/nano welding/joining in various fields,
such as microelectromechanical system (MEMS), micro total-analysis systems (μTAS), carbon nanotubes (CNTs) etc., the
optimal equipments for micro/nano welding/joining, its corresponding future applications and research directions are
discussed. Moreover, an extensive part of the paper is devoted to the introduction of new techniques, micro/nano laser and
electron beam welding/joining. In turn, it is anticipated these techniques will be used in future micro/nano welding/joining
applications. Meanwhile, because even smallest particles of dust can influence the results, more considerations are given
to machine improvements that are required for its corresponding nano welding/joining. It will be one challenge for R&D
efforts to combine the progress in micro/nano scales with that in miniaturization. This review provides a timely
explanation of the literature surrounding the factors required for successful micro and nano welding/joining.
Keywords: Micro/nano welding, microsystem, laser, electron beam, microelectromechanical system (MEMS), carbon
nanotubes (CNTs), micro total-analysis systems (μTAS).

1. INTRODUCTION joining techniques can be used to manufacture micro/

Innovations in the area of micro and nanofabrication
have created opportunities to manufacture structures at the
micro and nanometer scales. The opportunities can be used
to fabricate electronic, optical, magnetic, and biological
devices ranging from sensors to computation and control
systems.
To date, the miniaturization of devices, from pure
electrical system to mechanical systems, is increasingly
being driven by technology. Engineering criteria, such as
cost, performance, and system integration provide incentives
to miniaturize. For lowering the cost, avoiding the assembly
of discrete components in the final device, increasing the
reliability, fasting the response time and fitting more places
simply, miniaturized components allow complete systems to
be created in a single package. Additionally, batch
fabrication methods can drastically reduce the cost of a
system’s components.
Nowadays, most micro and nano techniques were
developed by the semiconductor industry. The semicon-
ductor industry has grown rapidly in the past 30 years, which
is driven by the microelectronics revolution. The desire to
place many transistors on to a silicon wafer has demanded
innovative ways to fabricate electronic circuits and to fit
more and more electronic devices into a smaller workable
area.
In order to illustrate structure fabrications in micro and
nanometer, the current state-of-the-arts surrounding micro/
nano scale welding/joining used in miniaturization or
microsystems are expressed. Meanwhile, the promising
*Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Manufacturing
Engineering and Engineering Management, City University of Hong Kong,
83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China;
E-mail: guoweichinese@yahoo.com
nanofabricated structures are discussed.
2. MINIATURIZATION
2.1. Microelectromechanical System (MEMS)
Up to now, the use of micro/nano technology to
miniaturize and functionally integrate electronic components
has changed our world and hardly any facet of our lives is
not in some way affected by micro/nano electronics [1-19].
Sometimes it is hard to imagine that only two decades ago
personal computers, mobile phones and so on did not exist.
What made these technological developments possible? One
of the major contributing factors is micro/ nano technology.
For example, if we should summarize the process that made
microelectronics so successful, we could say that it was the
combination of miniaturization, i.e. microfabrication of
transistors and other electronic components, and functional
integration, i.e. the organization of many different miniature
electronic components to form integrated circuits with
complex functions [20-22].
Fig. (1) shows ADXRS commercial gyroscope chip from
Analog Devices, Inc. (ADI), one of the leaders in MEMS
motion detectors, offers such a product that targets
automotive and other areas. The sensitive and versatile
gyroscope will be used to signal impending vehicle rollover
conditions, and will eventually provide input to a control
system that can interact to prevent it. Gyroscopes can sense
tilt, motion, shock, acceleration/deceleration, and vibration.
From a packaging perspective, MEMS motion sensors
present a relatively simple challenge, since no external
input/output, other than electrical is needed [23].
Since the application of miniaturization and functional
integration to electronics, the same strategy has been applied
to a range of other disciplines, e.g., mechanics and optics
[24]. One example of a microelectromechanical system

1872-2105/09 $100.00+.00 © 2009 Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.

54 Recent Patents on Nanotechnology 2009, Vol. 3, No. 1
Fig. (1). ADXRS commercial gyroscope chip from Analog
Devices, Inc. (ADI) [23].
(MEMS) is accelerometers. The deployment of airbags in
cars depends on signals from a number of accelerometers,
i.e., miniaturized mechanical sensors that measure the
acceleration on the car. Other examples of MEMS are
pressure sensors and microphones [20, 25]. The promise of
faster and better data transfer offered by optical
communication has resulted in the application of micro/nano
technology to develop microstructures for the manipulation
of light, e.g., micro/nano mirrors and optical switches.
2.2. Micro Total-Analysis Systems (μTAS)
Meanwhile, when the concept of micro total-analysis
systems (μTAS) was introduced in the early 1990s, it
attracted so much interest from the scientific and the
industrial community because the conventional approach to
chemical analysis can no longer meet all the requirements
that many applications demands [12-14, 26-30]. With rapid
developments and growing interest in, e.g., medicine, drug
discovery, biotechnology and environmental monitoring, we
have become more and more dependent on chemical
analysis. Traditionally, chemical analyses have been
performed in central laboratories because they require skilled
personnel and specialized equipment. However, the trend is
to move chemical analysis closer to the customer. Some
examples are pregnancy tests, blood glucose concentration
tests for diabetes patients, and analysis of soil and water
samples. These chemical test kits can be acquired off the
shelf and can be used in the home by persons with no special
training in chemistry. This trend of decentralization of
chemical analyses is expected to continue. For this to happen
it is urgent to make analytical equipment smaller and thus
portable, easier to operate, and reliable. The results of the
chemical analyses must be processed so that it is easy for the
user to interpret. The concepts of μTAS build on performing
all the necessary steps that are required for a chemical
Kelvii Wei Guo
analysis on a miniaturized format and thereby offer
portability. Because the microfabricated components in a
μTAS can be operated with very low power consumption,
battery-operated analytical equipment opens up the
possibility of performing chemical analyses in the field
independent of a power grid. Automation of the entire
chemical analysis process and data processing is also part of
the μTAS concept. In its extreme case μTAS can be
represented as a black box where the user needs only to
apply the sample and push a start button to perform the
chemical analysis and retrieve the results, etc. It seems that
micro/nano fabrication allows us to reproduce the same
carefully designed μTAS many times with the same
specifications. Fig. (2) shows a micro-total analysis system
for Duchenne muscular dystrophy diagnosis [31]. As
mentioned above, μTAS offers portability, reliability,
reduction of sample and reagent consumption, automation of
chemical analysis, high-throughput screening, and online
analysis, however, a much research and development still
has to be performed in order to fully benefit from all its
advantages. Several issues that are essential to the
widespread use of μTAS have received little attention so far.
The most prominent of these issues are interconnection and
packaging. Regardless of how skilled in designing and
fabricating μTAS, the chip at the heart of the μTAS must be
interfaced to the macro-world of the user. Except for
requirement of fluidic, mechanic, optical and electronic
interconnections, μTAS must be packaged so they can be
handled safely without damaging the delicate micro-
structures on the chip. Both issues must be dealt with to
allow for successful commercialization and thereby wider
use of the technology.
Fig. (2). The integrated microdevice used for IR mediated PCR
amplifications directly coupled to microchip electrophoretic DNA
separations [31].
It can be concluded that the micro systems technology is
going to play an important key role in the competitiveness of
highly developed industrial countries. The development of
highly-integrated-microsystems is accompanied by the
advance of the appertaining, necessary assembly and joining
techniques. Already existing technology from the field of
macro applications is frequently used for this purpose. With
consideration to the specific demands, this technology can,
by downscaling, be utilized for the assembly of hybrid
microsystems. But, the ever increasing demand for smaller,
higher-quality and lower-priced products from almost all
fields of industry, household equipment and entertainment
A Review of Micro/Nano Welding
electronics involves the optimization of already existing and
the development of new manufacturing methods which are
tailor-made for the microsystems techniques with higher
precision.
2.3. Microsystem Assembling [1, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 23, 27,
28, 32-37]
Regardless of the configuration, the parts must be joined
together after the device is assembled and connected.
2.3.1. Thermal adhesive
Thermally-cured adhesives, thermoset epoxies, are the
most versatile bonding agents. Epoxies bond strongly to
most metals (especially if they have some oxide), plastics,
ceramics, and glasses. In some cases, the substrate may need
to be treated to improve adhesion but it is sometimes
practical to make self-treating, or self-priming adhesives.
Thermoplastic adhesives can also be used, but are more
difficult to dry than thermosets, which only contain low
molecular weight components. Thermoplastics typically
require higher temperatures than thermosets since the
materials must be raised to their softening point that can be
as high as 350°C or even 400 °C, but the assembly time is
very short since there is no polymerization involved, like
with thermosets. Moreover, needle dispensing is a more
common adhesives application method for packaging
assembly lines since this is the standard method for applying
die attach adhesive making the dispenser a standard piece of
equipment.
2.3.2. UV curing
UV cured adhesives have been used on glass panels and
lids for some time. Glass, and some plastics, will allow
enough actinic radiation to pass through that it is practical to
activate several types of radiation-cure adhesives. Both free-
radical acrylics and cationic epoxies can be used. The
commercial products for glass can be screen printed, needle
dispensed, or jetted. Curing requires fairly simple equipment
that is widely available and takes up very little space, and the
entire process takes only seconds, has no waste, and
essentially no waste products. However, the resulting seal is
not hermetic. But since the bond line can be thin and the path
length relatively long means that the leak rate can be low.
2.3.3. Ultrasonic sealing
Ultrasonic energy has been used to bond metals, plastics,
and other materials for a long time. One or more of the
materials must be able to melt or diffuse into another to
create a bond. Ultrasonic welding involves the use of high
frequencies beyond the audible range to soften, or melt the
thermoplastics, or metals at the bond site. The vibrational
energy is transmitted through a booster that increases the
amplitude of the wave. The ultrasound waves are then
transmitted to the horn-an acoustic tool-that transfers the
vibratory energy directly to the parts being assembled. The
horn also applies the welding pressure required for bonding.
The vibrations are transmitted through the work pieces to the
joint area where the mechanical energy is converted to
thermal energy through friction that will soften or melt the
materials together. But, the weld quality is mainly effected
by the design of the equipment, design of the components,
Recent Patents on Nanotechnology 2009, Vol. 3, No. 1 55
the properties of the material to be bonded, and the energy
process.
2.3.4. RF sealing/welding
Radio frequency (RF) welding, dielectric welding, or
high-frequency welding, is an energy localized process for
fusing materials together by applying RF energy that is
transformed to heat at the bonding site. The process is useful
for joining polymers that have strong dipoles, such as
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyurethanes, and polyamides.
The highintensity alternating RF causes the dipoles (polar
groups) to orient with the electric field. The diploes convert
some of the field energy into heat thus creating a weld. Since
field intensity decreases with distance, this process is
normally most useful when the electrodes are close together
as with polymer films. The need for polar molecules and the
electrode configuration limits the use and this may not be an
ideal process for packaging.
2.3.5. Soldering/Brazing
Solders have long been used to seal metal, glass and
ceramic. Brazing is akin to solder, but the joining
temperature is higher. Brazing is defined as metallurgical
joining process usually in the 440°C to 593°C. Both
soldering and brazing involve wetting the metallic surfaces
to be joined with a molten brazing alloy, which spreads by
capillary action and then upon cooling, forms a strong
metallurgical joint.
2.3.6. Others
Besides the abovementioned, there are still other methods
for microsystems assembling, such as electric welding with
the help of clamping, rollers, parallel seam rollers, and so on
for applying electrical power to the packages; mechanical
locking, which has been tried but do not produce hermetic
seals; and direct heat bonding, which directly transfer
thermal energy to the packages etc.
2.4. Drawbacks of Micro assembly
When focusing on the assembling of small parts,
presently technologies like adhesive bonding, brazing and
welding are applied [2-4, 9, 11, 12, 26, 27, 32-50]. However,
predicting a further decrease of part sizes and an increasing
use of metallic structures, adhesive bonding might reach a
limit in applicability. Furthermore, adhesive bonds tend to
aging and to severe pollution during recycling. In brazing
lead-free alloys improved the environmental friendliness of
the process. However, fluxes and additional third materials
as filler material have still to be applied, which is a
demanding task especially for small parts. Additionally, the
high energy input compared to welding might lead to
undesired distortion effects or might influence the properties
of the joined parts.
3. CARBON NANOTUBES AND ITS INTER-
CONNECTIONS
3.1. Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) [51, 52] are unique
nanosystems with extraordinary mechanical and electronic
properties, which derive from their unusual molecular
structure. An ideal carbon nanotube can be thought of as a
56 Recent Patents on Nanotechnology 2009, Vol. 3, No. 1
single graphite layer (graphene sheet), rolled up to make a
seamless hollow cylinder. These cylinders can be tens of
microns long, with diameters as small as 0.7 nanometers and
are closed at both ends by fullerene-like caps. CNTs having
wall thickness of one carbon sheet are named single-wall
carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs). In consequence of the Van der
Waals interactions between nanotubes, they often aggregate
in large ropes: ordered arrays of SWCNTs arranged on a
triangular lattice. SWCNTs can be considered as the building
bocks of multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), which
consist of a coaxial array of SWCNTs with increasing
diameter. MWCNTs are also usually long many microns,
with the external diameter that ranges from two to several
tens of nanometers, providing very high aspect ratio
structures, as shown in Fig. (3) [52].
Fig. (3). Electron micrographs of microtubules of graphitic carbon
[52].
In the last decade, an enormous amount of work has been
devoted to reveal the, sometimes unique, structural,
electrical, mechanical and chemical properties of carbon
nanotubes and to explore what might be the most interesting
applications of these novel materials [53, 54]. First of all,
CNTs are promising materials for building electronic
devices, in particular field effect transistors [55].
It is well known that transistors have been built using
carbon nanotubes that have a semiconductor molecular
structure. They behave like one-dimensional quantum wires
that can be either metallic or semiconducting, depending on
their chirality and diameter. This CNT device can be
classified as a field effect transistor (FET), or CNTFET.
First, silicon substrate is first oxidized and a CNT is placed
on the resulting SiO2 layer. This can be done in the lab by
spreading CNT solution on the oxide. A gate and source
drain contact electrodes which are formed at the correct
locations using SEM, ATM techniques, certainly not a
production-worthy method. The contact metal electrodes can
be Ti, Ni, Al, Au, and so on. So far, Ti, which forms metal-
carbide bonds with the CNT, gives the lowest contact
Kelvii Wei Guo
resistance. The transistors show a p-type character, but it is
not due to doping in the nanotube, but rather is the result of
barriers at the source and drain, or nanotube interfaces. N-
type FETs can be produced by treating the device at high
temperatures in order to drive off the absorbed oxygen from
the source and drain the contact regions. Fig. (4) shows the
image of a kind of MWCNT-FET [55].
Fig. 4 (a) Noncontact AFM image of the MWCNT-FET. (b) and (c)
Close up views showing three twists in the collpased CNT (see
arrows) [55].
Moreover, the geometric properties of nanotubes, such as
the high aspect ratio and small curvature radius of the tip,
coupled with the extraordinary mechanical strength and
chemical stability, make them ideal candidates for electron
field emitters [56, 57], having several applications like flat
panel displays [58] and gas sensors [59].
3.2. CNTs Interconnections (Welding/Joining)
It is clear that CNTs are currently one of the most
promising materials for molecular electronics. However,
many challenges remain before they can become a successful
technology. For example, the ability to make metallic
contacts and connect together nanotubes has allowed the
investigation of the metallic and semiconducting behavior, as
well as of the electronic transport through individual nano-
tubes and the realization of nanotube-based devices.
A major effort has been addressed to see if individual (or
bundles of) nanotubes could be used as molecular wires for
interconnections in electronic circuits. The room temperature
two terminal resistance of a contacted metallic SWCNT will
depend on the nature of the metal-tube contact and the length
of the tube. Results having important implications to high
performance nanotube interconnections have been reported
[60, 61]. Contacting metallic single-wall carbon nanotubes
by palladium, a noble metal with high work function and
good wetting interactions with nanotubes, affords highly
reproducible Ohmic contacts. Good metal-tube contacts
allow the measurement of low resistance (in the range of
several tens of k
) also in semiconducting SWCNT samples
[62], for which room temperature demonstration of
conventional switching mechanism, such as in field effect
transistor (FET), first appeared in 1998 [55], which can be
realized by placing a SWCNT to bridge a pair of metal
A Review of Micro/Nano Welding
electrodes serving as source and drain. It was proposed that
by joining SWCNTs having different diameters and
helicities via topological defects novel intramolecular
devices may be obtained [63]. The simplest way is to
introduce pairs of heptagons and pentagons in an otherwise
perfect hexagonal lattice structure. The resulting junction
present a bend angle and can act like a rectifying diode.
Heterojunctions with more than two terminals can be created
by connecting different nanotubes through junctions welded
by topological defects [64] or by crossing nanotubes over
each other in order to simply form physically touching
junctions [65]. The difference in the two approaches is the
nature of the junction forming the device. In the first case, a
stable junction is formed between the nanotubes, which are
welded through chemical bonds, giving rise to a variety of
possible networks and structural shapes for switching, logic
and transistor applications. Moreover, T and Y type
junctions have been proposed [64, 66], while template-based
chemical vapor deposition (CVD) [67] and pyrolysis of an
organometallic precursor with nickelocene and thiophene
[68] for the reproducible and high-yield fabrication of multi-
wall carbon nanotube Y-junctions have been developed. In
the second case, when two tubes cross, the junction is simply
through a physical contact and will be affected by changes in
the nature of the contact.
In the meantime, research [69-71] show that carbon
nanotubes can be welded by atomic force microscope (AFM)
with the help of a jig manipulated in three dimensions inside
a scanning electron microscope (SEM). A custom
piezoelectric vacuum manipulator achieves positional
resolutions comparable to scanning probe microscopes, with
the ability to manipulate objects along one rotational and
three linear degrees of freedom. Under real-time SEM ins-
pection, carbon nanotubes are connected, and its conduc-
tivity variations are monitored. Also, the forces applied to
the tubes can be measured from the cantilevers' deflections.
As a rudimentary building device for larger nanotube
assemblies, the capability to select and manipulate nanoscale
components and to examine directly their suitability as
construction materials during various phases of the
construction process will play an important role in enabling
the technology of assembling mechanical and electronic
devices from prefabricated components. Literature [72]
reports a simple ultrasonic nanowelding technique to reliably
bond single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) onto metal
electrodes, by pressing SWCNTs against electrodes under a
vibrating force at ultrasonic frequency.
On the other hand, computational simulations [64, 66,
73-75] are not limited by the experimental inability shows
the feasibility of connecting a SWCNT with another
SWCNT at a variety of angles at the junction by an
engineering type ‘nanowelding’ technique.
Recently, literature [76] reports a technique for
nanoscaled interconnection that CNTs are soldered using Fe
oxide nanoparticles prepared from a ferritin molecule
manipulated by AFM. It depicts after heating the two CNTs
attached to an Fe oxide nanoparticle in a hydrogen atmos-
phere at 800 °C, the CNTs bound weakly.
So far, many other methods have been attempted to
connect CNTs with electrodes and improve their contacts,
Recent Patents on Nanotechnology 2009, Vol. 3, No. 1 57
such as chemical bonding, focused beam radiation or high-
temperature annealing. However, all of these applications are
faced with difficulties: they either need rigorous process
conditions or the contacts lack long-term stability.
4. PROMISING WELDING/JOINING TECHNIQUES
FOR MICRO/NANO SYSTEMS
As a conventional joining technique, if the attributes of
macro-machining can be reduced in size to the micro/nano
scales, micro/nano welding is a technique that has the
potential to become a successful manufacturing process.
Consequently, a versatile manufacturing technique will be
created that is capable of processing a wide variety of
materials. However, simply scaling down machines is not the
solution, reducing the scale from macro-to-micro presents
unique problems that must be overcome. These problems
include, eliminating effect of welding parameters, creating a
stable welding/joining structure, overcoming the size effect,
etc.
4.1. Laser for Micro/Nano Welding
Besides the high rating in macro-range industrial
manufacturing processes, laser beam joining methods are
also increasingly gaining in importance in the microsystems
technology. Laser systems, which have progressed to a level
where they are affordable and easy to maintain, especially
diode infrared and near-infrared lasers that can serve as an
ideal heating source, are particularly suitable for micro/nano
texturing of sensitive materials because of the low thermal
load on the components and the non-contact nature of the
process. During the laser decades, systems generating laser
pulses proved to be excellent tools for processing various
kinds of metals and ceramics with outstanding quality. Laser
micro/nano processing is a highly flexible tool and
represents in many applications the best compromise in
combining precision and efficiency [77, 78]. In addition,
brittle and transparent materials are coming more and more
into the focus of laser micro/nano processing due to the
recent advances demonstrated in microsystems, especially
when high aspect ratios are required [79, 80].
Within the last years a significant shift towards minia-
turization and functional integration within several markets
especially for consumer electronics and mechatronics is
observed [81-84]. The development of highly integrated
small devices is accompanied by a reduced amount of
materials. Focusing on the single product, this
miniaturization leads directly to a reduced use of recourses.
On the other hand, the number of devices e.g. in the field of
consumer electronics increases significantly whilst the
lifetime of the product decreases [61, 63, 65, 85-87].
Therefore, productions technologies with high reprodu-
cibility, high accuracy, and short processing time are needed.
Furthermore, it would be beneficial if no additional materials
have to be applied and pollution during processing is
minimized. Laser beam micro/nano welding with lasers of
the latest generation with high beam quality offers the
potential to become a highly popular processing technology
within this application field [88]. Several advantages are
associated with the laser processes. Firstly, a wide range of
joint geometries from single spot to several types of seam
welds can be realized. High energy density in combination
58 Recent Patents on Nanotechnology 2009, Vol. 3, No. 1
with good focus ability enables processes with high
reproducibility even for copper alloys with metallic coatings,
e.g. Ni, Ag and Sn. The welds are characteristically of low
distortion and show a small heat affected zone [81, 82].
Based on the increasingly good energy efficiency of the
applied laser, the overall energy balance of production
processes is shifted towards environmentally friendly
production technologies [84]. A micro welding/joining
technique, laser transmission joining, is proposed in
literature [89]. It mechanism is based on the fact that one of
the joining components is transparent for the laser radiation
and the other is absorbing. Thereby, both parts must be
pressed on top of each other. The main part of the laser
energy is transformed into heat in the contact interface of
both joining parts. During the laser transmission welding
process of plastics melt is generated in the joining area. On
the contrary, while laser bonding of silicon and glass
chemical bonds (covalent oxygen bonds) are induced by
activation of adhesion forces. As a result, the advantages of
laser micro/nano welding/joining are highlighted as follows:
i. Exact control of the energy deposition in the joining area;
ii. Minimization of the heat affected zone
iii. Complex weld and bond geometries
iv. Selective joining
v. Single-step process
vi. Short cycle times
vii. Low mechanical and thermal load of the components
Unfortunately, the heat transfer and fluid flow in the laser
micro/nano welds have not received much attention in the
literature, such as the interaction of the heat source and the
material results in rapid heating, melting, and circulation of
molten metal in the weld pool aided by surface tension
gradient and buoyancy forces; the resulting flow of liquid
metal and heat transfer determine the changes in temperature
with time, i.e., the thermal cycles, and the resulting structure
and properties of the welds; the experimental measurements
of the temperature and velocity fields during laser
micro/nano welding are difficult because of the small size of
the weld pool, insufficient time for measurement, and high
heating and cooling rates; the additional physical phenomena
arise due to the downscaling (scaling effects) of the
geometrical dimensional of the welding/joining zone,
especially on nano scale, etc.
4.2. Electron Beam for Micro/Nano Welding
Electron beam welding is a wide spread method from the
field of macro applications and it is most appreciated for its
low thermal load on the components, its precise energy
input, the wearless tool and the manifold beam manipulation
possibilities.
This method is, also for micro/nano range applications,
gaining in importance. In the field of microsystem tech-
nology the possibility of the exact focusing on beam
diameters of just a few micrometers, even smaller is, above
all, the most crucial characteristic, which makes the appli-
cation of this method particularly interesting for micro-
dimensions. Typical of this joining technology is the almost
Kelvii Wei Guo
inertia-free manipulation of the electron beam via electro-
magnetic coils. This allows extremely high-frequency
oscillation movements, which entail welding advantages and
allow the very accurate dosing of the energy input and its
precise local input. Moreover, for SEM, the electron beam is,
in its function as carrier of electric charges, most suitable for
metal materials. The joining environment is a vacuum
chamber, which, to a high degree, protects the components
against contamination and possible oxide formation. In
connection with the assembly of hybrid microsystems, the
process characteristics of electron beam are considered
within the scope of special research area. Main points of
research are micro/nano electron beam welding. Moreover,
the process-specific basics are to be elaborated. While the
industry is already using the laser beam for joining, surface
modifications or for structuring with different process
variations, micro/nano range electron beam joining is still in
the laboratory stage [90, 91].
The favourable possibilities to control the electron beam,
the clean environment and the beam diameters which are, in
comparison with the laser, even smaller make this
technology the destined method when smallest possible spot
or line joints of metallic and also of non-metallic materials
with locally concentrated energy conveyance into the
component are to be realised.
This is, however, too high a power range for the welding
of micro/nano fine components and therefore not suitable.
Literature [90, 91] shows that since electron beam welding
machines from the macro range with their beam powers of
100 W and up to several kW are not suitable for the welding
of micro fine components, a scanning electron microscope
(SEM) which operates according to the same principle has
been modified and extended in such a way that it is much
more promising as a welding tool. Some modifications such
as the high number of diaphragms which are small enough
for the screening of edge electrons and two condensing coils
for the reduction of superfluous electrons in the beam cause
extremely small beam radii. On the other hand, in most
welding cases a higher power (by several orders of
magnitude) must be guaranteed. As a result, power losses
due to screening by diaphragms and also the scattering in the
beam column reduce the power down to approximately 3 up
to 4 W on the workpieces. Furthermore, the technical modi-
fications are primarily concerned with the electromagnetic
components. Among those are the removal of two
diaphragms from the liner tube, the increase of the aperture
diaphragm diameter and also the switching off of the first
condensing coil. As these modifications are reversible, the
existing equipment may be used for observation and also for
analysis purposes.
5. CURRENT & FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
Nowadays, a wide range of material dimensions are
welded scaled from several cm down to some μm. However,
in microsystems technology, the scale-down can be up to far
below 1 μm. Focusing now on welding technologies, laser
and electron beam are suitable for micro/nano welding. The
properties of these methods make it very promising for
microsystems, the very small possible beam diameter predes-
tine for the realization of smallest spot or line welds of metal
A Review of Micro/Nano Welding
and also of non-metal materials with locally concentrated
energy input into the component.
Depending on the welding task, the weld quality is,
except for the effect of substrates, strongest influenced by
the power-determining parameters from the side of
equipment. Therefore, a high rating must be assigned to the
problem of interdependences of these parameters.
Moreover, in micro/nanosystems, where even smallest
particles of dust can influence the results, the micro/nano
electron beam welding will be a more optimal choice,
because the processings inside a vacuum chamber protect the
components to a high degree from contamination and oxide
formation during the welding cycle. Meanwhile, if the beam
deflection between different points is carried out rapidly
enough, the simultaneous working on several joining points
is possible.
For a better understanding of the processes in the
micro/nano range, an essential aspect of research for weld
geometries, a suitable heat control and the corresponding jigs
for clamping and fixing the micro parts which must be
elaborated in more detail.
For both laser and electron beam micro/nano welding,
beam size, beam characterization, beam-material interaction,
numerical simulation of the micro/nano welding process,
temperature measurement and the integration of image
processing for the control of the welding process are the
central points of research in micro/nano beam welding. Most
of all are the scaling effects, such as on the cooling
rate/solidification structure, stability of fluid flow, surface
tension, distortion etc., which severely affect the
welding/joining quality.
It is clear that a substantial and long term commitment to
micro/nano welding development is necessary if their true
potential is to be fully achieved, whilst the present resear-
chers are genuinely enthusiastic about the long term future
for micro/nano welding. As a new technique, micro/nano
welding is still in its initial stages and needed to investigate
from various aspects.
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