Speakers The Ancient History of Advertising:

Boh Insights and Implications for Practitioners

What Today’s Advertisers and Marketers

Can Learn from Their Predecessors

FRED K. BEARD
University of Oklahoma Editor's Note:
fbeard@ou.edu "Speaker's Box" invites academics and practitioners to identify potential areas o f research affecting mar­
keting and advertising. Its intention is to bridge the gap betioeen the length of time it takes to produce
rigorous work and the acceleration o f change within practice. With this contribution, Fred Beard takes a
step backfrom an industry that seems to reinvent itself daily with new platforms, new media, and new data
sources. From this distance, he reviews some ideas, practices, and events that contributed to the history c f
advertising and advertising thought before the 19th century. In doing so, he proposes ways that body of
thought might be relevant to present-day practice. He notes, to his dismay, how prevalent and influential
the belief is that nothing remotely resembling "modern" advertising existed before it was "invented" by
the 20th-century American pioneers. Beard argues that, in fact, advertising has a rich, relevant history.
Here, he exposes the bias against historic relevance and suggests some o f its consequences.
Douglas C. West
Professor of Marketing, King's College London
Visiting Fellow of Kellogg College, University of Oxford
Contributing Editor, Journal o f Advertising Research

INTRODUCTION
Many historians date the dawn of modern adver­
tising and branding to the beginning of the 20th
century, and they tend to fixate on the philosophies
and practices of the period's American pioneers,
such as Albert Lasker, Claude Hopkins, George
Rowell, Francis Wayland Ayer, Harley Procter,
James L. Kraft, and J. Walter Thompson. Any ear­
lier history, they contend, largely is irrelevant when
it comes to gaining a deeper understanding of the
institution and business of advertising, as well as
what its theory and practice can teach about con­
sumption, culture, creativity, economics, and the
media.
These biases might have produced the combined
view that anything occurring before the late 19th
or early 20th centuries—or the contributions of
anyone other than the founding American adver­
tising fathers—is unimportant. Do other biases in
advertising's historiography limit the ability to see
how the past has helped shape the present? Can a
deeper understanding of and appreciation for the
ancient history of advertising and branding, the lat­
ter of which advertising historians have claimed as
part of their subject matter, inform the beliefs and
practices of its 21st-century practitioners in any
meaningful, or even interesting, ways?
As the authors of a textbook on promotions
management observed, "studying a subject with­
out an appreciation of its antecedents is like seeing
a picture in two dimensions—there is no depth.
The study of history gives us this depth as well as
an understanding of why things are as they are"
(Brink and Kelley, 1963, p. 4).
The early Mesopotamians, Chinese, Greeks, and
Romans all appreciated the value of a good promo­
tion. Witness the following:
• Iron Age Greek potters used trademarks and
mottos to differentiate their brands.

DOI: 10.2501/JAR-2017-033 September 2017 JOUROflL OF RDUERTISIAG RESEARCH 239

THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF ADVERTISING: INSIGHTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTITIONERS

• Medieval Chinese manufacturers relied

on consumer word of mouth (WOM) to
promote their offerings.
• Point-of-purchase advertisem ents and
political campaign posters are visible on
the walls of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
• In w hat m ight have been considered
(very) early consumer packaged-goods
branding, "garum " (a fermented fish
sauce) was marketed under several brand
names throughout the Roman Empire.
• In late 15th-century London, printer Wil­
liam Caxton used the United Kingdom's %$ •?. **
first printing press to produce the first
book. His second use of the new equip­
ment was to produce an advertisement
to f “
(called a "tackup" in his day) to sell the
book. Source: Chinese History Museum, ed., Zhongguo godai shi cankao tulu: Song Yuan
shiqi (Shangha : Shanghai Education Publishing House, 1991). Retrieved from:
h ttp s://d epts.w 3 shin gtor.ed U /chin aciv/g rap h/9co m m a in .h tm # bu nny.
Critical of contentions that advertis­
ing m ight have "flourished" centuries
ago, journalism professor Vincent Norris Figure 1 Branding for the White Rabbit Brand Sewing Needles
(1980, p. 4) argued that those responsible
(Song Dynasty, 9 6 0 -1 2 7 9 AD)
had neglected to mention that "advertis­
ing is associated with market activity and
even more so w ith market economies, and 20th-century advertisers of soap and pat­ The earliest of these premodern or pro­
that until very recently there was very lit­ ent medicines strategically began to craft tobrands existed in the Bronze Age in
tle of the former and none of the latter." messages in support of their wares. Indus Valley, China, M esopotamia, and
The critique raises an interesting question. Such advertising w as inform ed by elsewhere in the ancient world (Moore and
Are popular views of advertising's his­ relentless repetition, psychological brand­ Reid, 2008). Historians have proposed that
tory, in fact, severely limited by w hat his­ ing principles, and the power of the mass premodern brands functioned in some of
torian Stefan Schwarzkopf (2011) called the media. H istorical research in the early the same ways brands did in the early 20th
"m odernization" and "Americanization" 2000s, however, began to challenge the century. They were used to control and
philosophical paradigms? view that "m odern'’ brands are vastly dif­ ensure quality and to inform prospective
ferent from their ancient counterparts in consumers about the origin and authentic­
BRANDING AND ADVERTISING term s of their characteristics, functions, ity of goods chat were produced in quan­
ACROSS THE CENTURIES and contributions to consumer cultures. tity and exported to distant markets.
Until recently, m any historians tracked At its simplest, branding involves the Modern brand theory and management
the ancient origins of brands and brand­ use of a tangible m ark or symbol that also recognize the role of brands as convey­
ing back to the burning of a mark on cat­ differentiates a product or service from ors of image, status, power, and personal­
tle and m anufactured goods. They then those of competitors. Brands and brand­ ity. Early brands have been found to have
quickly moved on to developments during ing, in fact, are related to an ancient his­ possessed these qualities as well. For exam­
the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In tory of product-container seals as well as ple, some 7th-century BC Greek potters
such cases, modernization and Americani­ commodity marks and labels, all of which inscribed their work with mottos intended
zation paradigm atic lim itations encour­ were in common use 2,000 to 3,000 years to portray an image to prospective buyers
aged the assum ptions that "true" brands ago (Eckhardt and Bengtsson, 2010; Moore (Moore and Reid, 2008). In what may be his­
did not exist until prim arily American and Reid, 2008; Wengrcw, 2008). tory's first instance of a direct comparison

240 JOURnHL OF A D U E R T IS in O RESERRCH Septem ber 2017

 THE a NC ENT HISTORY OF ADVERTISING: INSIGH“ S AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTITIONERS
Figure 2 Victorian-Era Advertising Trade Card
in a oromotional message, Greek potter
Euthymides boasted that a vase he made
was of "high quality as never [were those
of] Euphronios," another important poder
of the same period (Osborne, as cited in
Mooie and Reid, 2008, p. 428).
O ther research on prem odern brands
in China, w here a consumerist-focused
material culture existed several hund-ed
years earlier :han in Europe, shows tnat
during the Ming Dynasty (1368 to 1644
AD), consumers themselves took p a r' in
the creation of brands via organic WOM
(Eckhardt and Bengtsson, 2010). More
im portant is the fact that some manufac­
turers strategically used visual and veibal
branding elements to portray more com­
plex image and personality characteristics.
One of these—the White Rabbit branc of
sewing needles, which originated during
the Song Dynasty (960 to 1279 AD) and
was chosen for its symbolic and mytholog­
ical features (See Figure 1)—is believed to
be the oldest complete brand in the world
(Eckhardt and Bengtsson, 2010). With that
starting point, a global history of ancient
brands and branding has produced a more
sophisticated understanding of and appre­
ciation for the varied processes by which
brands can evolve and the roles they long
have played in consumer culture.
A n c ie n t A d v e rtis in g
The term "advertisement" first was used in
1655, when it took the place of "advices,"
which previously had supplanted the term
"siquis." This term came from ancient
Rome, where announcements often began
with the Latin words "Si quis...," meaning
"if anybody..." or "if an y o n e .(F re d e rick ,
1925; Presbrey, 1929). One key difference
between m odern and ancient advertising
is the absence of advertising-supported
media, although below-the-line prom o­
tions and media popular in the 17th century
remain vital tools of communication today.
Of the advertising in place during the
earliest periods—before and during clas­
sical antiquity, the Middle Ages, and then
the early m odern era (roughly the late
S e p te m b e r 2 0 1 7
THEARF.ORG
15th to the late 18th century), some his­
torical evidence shows that organic WOM
was im portant during the Chinese Ming
Dynasty (Eckhardt and Bengtsson, 2010).
Lacking from the literature are other histo­
ries of the importance of either organic or
actively encouraged WOM. Some 500 years
later, the importance of WOM remains sub­
stantially unchallenged, with the Word of
Mouth Marketing Association proposing it
is the "most effective form of advertising."1
The authors at BuzzTalk made an explicit
connection betw een ancient WOM and
electronic WOM when they observed that
WOM is "the oldest type of marketing we
know."2
The Chinese invented paper during the
Han Dynasty (206 BC to 220 AD), and what
followed were the first advertisem ents
containing words and pictures (Eckhardt
and Bengtsson, 2010). Movable-type print­
ing arrived 500 years sooner in China than
it did in Europe, and popular prom o­
tional items, including banners, lanterns,
pictures, and printed product w rappers
(McDonough and Egoff, 2000), came with
the technological advancement.
Printed advertising began in Europe
during the mid-15th century, with Guten­
berg's improved system of movable type.
The streets of London soon were littered
with printed tack-ups and handbills. Every
available lam ppost and wall—including
those of taverns, town halls, cathedrals, and
even people's houses—was covered with
them. (It appears that advertising "clutter"
is at least a 500-year-old problem.) One of
the most important media in advertising's
history arrived in 1622—the trade or shop
card (Berg and Clifford, 2007; See Figure 2).
These were printed in various sizes on good
1 Word o f Mouth Marketing Association. (2017). "About
W O M M A ." Retrieved from womma.org/about-womma/.
2 Kremers, B. (2017). "Electronic word o f mouth presents
a window o f opportunity for businesses." Retrieved from
the BuzzTalk website: www.buzztalkmonitor.com/blog/
bid/233669/Electronic-W ord-O f-M outh-presents-a-win-
dow-of-opportunity-for-businesses.
JOUffllAL DF HDUEflTISIHG RESEARCH 241
THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF ADVERTISING: INSIGHTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTITIONERS
quality paper and distributed to customers
as a reminder of their shopping experience
and to inform them about newly available
goods. Expensive, visually sophisticated,
and often persuasive in intent, these were
used widely and collected in many coun­
tries for the next 300 years.
The first newspapers appeared in the
17th century, and many in Europe as well
as the American colonies primarily existed
to carry advertising. The "free shopper"
was invented in England in 1692 (Russell,
1910). In another example of an Americani­
zation, Benjamin Franklin was declared the
first newspaper entrepreneur to recognize
advertising as his most important source of
revenue (Foster, 1967). A more likely can­
didate, however, is John Houghton, the
"father of English advertising" (Sampson,
1874). He was the first to conduct a system­
atic campaign to promote advertising in a
newspaper, beginning in 1692 (Hotchkiss,
1938), although advertisements for his own
businesses and products soon displaced
those of his clients (Walker, 1973). Frank­
lin did not launch his Pennsylvania Gazette
until 1729.
Houghton's encouragement of adver­
tising for foods, clothing, luxury items,
and store goods in general earned him
advertising-historian Frank Presbrey's
(1929) nom ination in The History and
Development of Advertising as "the out­
standing advertising figure of the 17th
Century" (p. 59).
Toward the end of the Elizabethan
era (1558 to 1601), English booksellers
unleashed a "flood of advertisements"
(Voss, 1998, p. 737) and further devel­
oped the "advertising arts" by employing
sophisticated consumer-focused strategies
and tactics, such as an emphasis on the
"new," ornamental type, headlines, wood-
cut illustrations, rhyming copy, and market
segmentation.
The theaters of London during the
same period also relied on extensive
242 JO U R IE OF RDUERTISIRG RESERRCH Septem ber 2017
advertising, in the form of playbills. These
playbills were so highly valued, upper-
crust theater patrons sent their servants
out to collect them (Stern, 2006). At the
beginning of the 19th century in Brit­
ain, nationally advertised products and
brands included condiments, patent med­
icines, carbonated water, biscuits, shoe
blacking, and a large variety of health and
beauty aids (Corley, 1988).
A history of advertising in the Roman
Empire, written as a master's thesis by a
copywriter at DDB/Needham Worldwide
in Detroit, proposed that the first advertis­
ing professionals might have been Roman
"signatores" or "scriptores" (scribes or
sign painters; Rokicki, 1987). They solic­
ited and serviced clients, created advertis­
ing, and arranged for its placement. The
"album," a flat, whitewashed space on a
wall, was their primary medium. Adver­
tising contractors might have controlled
some of these Pompeiian albums, given
that they included a variety of announce­
ments (theatrical performances, baths,
gladiatorial contests, and circuses), and
locations apparently were chosen for their
high volume of traffic (Presbrey, 1929).
Both newspapers and advertising agen­
cies can trace their origins to the European
public registries. Inspired by French essay­
ist Michel de Montaigne, buyers and sell­
ers registered their offers and requests,
and copies were then distributed to branch
offices. Parisian Theophraste Renaudot
(publisher of France's first newspaper, La
Gazette) and Englishmen Henry Walker and
Marchmont Nedham all established such
"offices of entry" between 1630 and 1657
(Presbrey, 1929).
The first advertising agent likely was
England's William Tayler, in 1786 (Nevett,
1977). Although most agents at the time
just sold space in one or more newspapers,
at least one, Charles Barker, was function­
ing as a true advertising agent as early as
1812. He booked insertions in newspapers,
negotiated rates, and gave advice on
advertising problems (Nevett, 1977). Vol-
ney Palmer, by contrast, would not estab­
lish America's first agency in Philadelphia
for another 30 years.
Im p lic a tio n s a n d In s ig h ts fo r Today
In his study of the prophetic but widely
overlooked writings about advertising
by mid-19th-century German economist
Karl Knies, historian Ronald Fullerton
observed, "Participants in other business-
oriented disciplines—accounting, econom­
ics, and management, for example—have
come to recognize that they have long and
rich intellectual heritages, and that the
work they produce today does not emerge
in isolation but rather develops out of
and contributes to a long stream of work.
We in advertising also have a rich herit­
age, and exploring it can enrich our self­
understanding" (Fullerton, 1988, p. 64).
The contention, however, persists that
early nonperiodical media and mes­
sages were not really "advertising" and
that any pre-20th-century advertising did
not contribute much to current practice
(Norris, 1980). These claims appear to be
directly attributable to the modernization
and Americanization biases. It is true that
early 20th-century advertising agents and
newspaper publishers struggled to con­
vince businessmen that advertising was
both valuable and reputable. A newspaper
advertisement for advertising agent R. H.
Fitch, for example, includes a variation of
NW Ayer & Son's widely repeated and fre­
quently plagiarized slogan "Keeping Ever­
lastingly at It Brings Success" (See Figure 3).
Ancient branding and advertising, how­
ever, often were consistent with modern
strategies and tactics in form, technique,
and intent. Both clearly were important
to many types of manufacturers and mer­
chants, and they consistently came into use
with increases in competition. Once the
earliest production of commodities and
 THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF ADVERTISING: INSIGHTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTITIONERS THEARF.ORG

However, based on the findings of their

Keeping Everlastingly research on early Chinese brands like the
at It White Rabbit, Eckhardt and Bentsson (2010,
Is th e only w a y to p. 219) argued that "brands are an outcome
MAKE ADVERTISING PAY. rather than the mechanism that generates
T h e tro u b le is. t h a t th e a v e r a g e
rmslnoss m a n h a s too m a n y Irons in consumer culture. That is, consumer culture
tho firo to a tt e n d to th e freque nt
c h an g e oT his a d v e r t is i n g apace pro p ­ develops because of social needs and ten­
erly. W h y not
sions and brands emerge to provide status
LET FITC H DO IT and stratification." Indeed, as was noted in
T h o se who h a v e trie d his service
say it is t h e host i n v e s tm e n t for th e a recent edition of the Journal of Advertising
money expended t h a t they h a v e e v e r
made. And t h e c o n tr a c t expire s every
Research Speaker's Box, "armed w ith an
Saturday. abundance of information and opportuni­
R . H. FITCH ties, consumers no longer accept the role of
ADVERTISING S P EC IA LIS T. passive recipients of marketing communi­
Gazette B’ld’g.. Room 10. 'P h o n e , 330.
NORWALK, CONN. cation" (Acar and Puntoni, 2016, p. 4). It is
A ccurato Mailing Lints cf all s u r r o u n d ­
ing to wns. C ircu la rs w r i t te n and possible that many never really did, or at
addressed. Advice Free.
least that advertising's cultural influence

Source: The Norwalk Hour, 1910, March 26, p. 5. Retrieved from https://news.googIe.
com/newspapers?nid=KKiikWAUrRgC&dat=19100326&printsec=frontpage&hl=en.
Figure 3 Advertisement for Advertising Agent R. H. Fitch, 1910
other goods surpassed local consumption
and export to distant markets became via­
ble, it also became necessary to seal, mark,
and brand the goods. By 1750, advertising
had become essential to the marketing of
many British goods and services, with up
to 75 percent of the space in some new spa­
pers devoted to it (Walker, 1973).
The full pre-20th-century history of
branding and advertising also challenges
the contention that such tools of brand rec­
ognition were unim portant to consumers.
Historians have confirmed that assurances
of purity, quality, authenticity, and brand
consumption as a symbol of status have
been important to commodity consumers
for thousands of years. Indeed, "the long
history of consumer culture and branding in
China demonstrates that the marketplace is
not just now becoming a consumer society
driven by symbolic brand consumption, as
is so often argued in both the popular press
and in the academic literature" (Eckhardt
and Bengtsson, 2010, p. 217). The similarity
of the earliest advertised products to those
of today also suggests that advertising long
has served a fundamental need for informa­
tion, especially about newly available goods
that appeal to changing tastes, fashions, and
consumer choices.
In addition to the limitations of Ameri­
canization and m odernization, another
im portant bias in advertising's historiog­
raphy exists: Much historical work has
approached the history of advertising and
branding as forms of m anipulation (Berg
and Clifford, 2007; Church, 1999). Consum­
ers were assumed to be passive recipients
of a "fictional" world of advertising, where
"h id d en p ersu ad ers" (Packard, 1957)
or "captains of consciousness" (Ewen,
1976) were capable of exploiting them.
Brands also have been viewed as weapons
"wielded by capitalists to extract rents out
of consumers" (Eckhardt and Bengtsson,
2010, p. 218) and have been targeted by
contem porary critics such as Kalle Lasn,
cofounder of Adbusters.
hardly has been uniform around the world
or across the centuries. By avoiding the
Americanization and modernization biases,
advertising and branding historians might
discover other instances in which early
advertisers were able to engage with and
empower consumers, as previous research­
ers advocated (Acar and Puntoni, 2016).
Finally, it is important to recognize that
"ad bashing" long has been a popular
sport. A 16th-century critic of playbills
complained that "by sticking of their bils
in London, [the posters] defile the streetes
w ith their infectious filthiness" (Stern,
2006, p. 74). hi 1759, British essayist Samuel
Johnson wrote, "Advertisements are now
so numerous that they are very negligently
perused, and it is, therefore, become nec­
essary to gain attention by magnificence
of promises, and by eloquence sometimes
sublim e and som etim es pathetick" (as
cited in Rivers, 1929, p. 58). Some 300 years
later, marketing historian Richard Pollay
(1977) highlighted the seriousness of the
potential consequences for today's adver­
tisers with the following warning: "Unless
the history of advertising is exhaustively
researched and accurately docum ented,
the industry and those within it stand too
great a chance of being demeaned" (p. 3).

September 2017 JOURRRL DFRDUERTISIflGRESEARCH 243

THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF ADVERTISING: INSIGHTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTITIONERS

In The Story of Advertising, magazine
editor, author, and advertising historian
James Playsted Wood (1958) offered an
elegant rationale in favor of understanding
and appreciating the connections between
ancient advertising and its practice today:
"Over the centuries, advertising has expe­
rienced changes in the proportioning of its
ingredients, in direction, in application,
but something of the first advertisement
survives in the latest, and there will be
traces of it in the last" (p. 502). CID
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Nineteenth-Century Britain: Reinterpretations." of Writing the History of Advertising." journal of
Economic History Review 53,4 (1999): 621-645. Advertising History 1,1 (1977): 1-5.
C o r le y , T. A. B. "Competition and the Growth of P resbrey , F. The History and Development of
Advertising in the U.S. and Britain, 1800-1914."
Advertising. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1929.
Business and Economic History 17 (1988): 155-167.
R ivers , H. W. Ancient Advertising and Publicity.
E c k h a r d t , G. M., and A. B eng tsso n . "A Brief His­
Chicago: Krochs, 1929.
tory of Branding in China." journal of Macromar­
keting 30,3(2010): 210-221.
R o k ic k i , ]. "Advertising in the Roman Empire."
Whole Earth Review Spring (1987): 84-87.
Ew en, S. Captains of Consciousness. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1976.
R ussell , T. H. Advertising Methods and Mediums.

F oster , G. A. Advertising: Ancient Marketplace to Chicago: Whitman, 1910.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Television. New York: Criterion Books, 1967.
F red K. B eard is professor o f advertising in the Gaylord Sa m p s o n , H. A History of Advertising from the
College o f Journalism and Mass Communication at the F r e d e r ic k , J. G. "Introduction: The Story of Earliest Times. London: Chatto & Windus, 1874.
University of Oklahoma. Prior to his academic career, Advertising Writing." In Masters of Advertis­
he worked as a small-business manager, newspaper ing Copy, J. G. Frederick, ed. New York: Frank- Sc h w a r z k o p f , S. "The Subsiding Sizzle of Adver­
advertising-sales representative, and market-research Maurice, 1925. tising History: Methodological and Theoretical
analyst. His work can be found in the Journal of Challenges in the Post Advertising Age." jour­
F u lle r t o n , R. A. "A Prophet of Modem Advertis­
Advertising, the Journal of Advertising Research, nal of Historical Research in Marketing 3, 4 (2011):
ing: Germany's Karl Knies." journal of Advertising
the Journal of Business Ethics, the Journal of Business 528-548.
Research, the Journal of Macromarketing, the Journal
27,1 (1998): 51-66.

of Historical Research in Marketing, Journalism and St e r n , T. '"On Each Wall and Comer Post': Play­
H o t c h k is s , G. B. Milestones of Marketing. New
Communication Monographs. Journalism. History, and bills, Title-Pages, and Advertising in Early Mod­
York: MacMillan, 1938.
the Journal of Marketing Communications, among other ern London." English Literary Renaissance 36, 1
publications. M cD o no ug h, J., and K. Eg o ff. The Advertising (2006): 57-89.
Age Encyclopedia of Advertising. Chicago: Fitzroy
Dearborn, 2000. Voss, P. J. "Books for Sale: A dvertising and

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244 JOURnHL OF flOUERTISIflG RESEARCH Septem ber 2017

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