Solid Solutions/Phase Diagrams C.
C. Nitriding: T < A1, Gas nitriding: only N, Carbonitriding: C and N both
Alloy: metal made with a pure metal + other elements
Components: elements that make an alloy
Phase: Same structure, atomic arrangement, same composition,
properties. A definite interface bw phase and surrounding phases. Zero
DOF means you cant change the pressure or temp on a phase diagram
and vice versa.
Solid Solution: One or more solutes in solvent(solid). Not a compound,
crystal structure unchanged, single homogeneous phase. In Unlimited
solubility, only one phase is produced, NOT A MIXTURE. Size is an imp
factor! Hume Rothery Rule: size <15% diff in diameter, crystal structure
should be same, valence same, electronegativity same. In Limited
solubility excessive atoms form a compound, two solid phases exist.
Excess material forms cluster.
Solid Soln. Hardening: Increase in strength, hardness, creep resistance
(high temp alloy are SS). Decrease in electrical conductivity.
Binary Isomorphous System: Liq phase is homogeneous, alpha phase is
solid soln. If pressure is constant, can change the temp and composition.
Lever Rule: % x = (%A in alloy)-(%A in Liquid) / (%A in alpha) –(%A in
Liquid)….. Use Tie line to do this.
Micro segregation: B/w dendrites, can be fixed by homogenization
Homogenization: Heat up below non-equil. solidus to promote diffusion
Macro segregation: b/w surface and center, fixed by hot working.
Dispersion Strengthening & Eutectic Phase Diagrams:
Hypoeutectic: alloy with a composition bw the left end of the tie line
defining the eutectic reaction and composition. Area left of 0.8.
Hypereutectic: alloy composition bw the right-hand end and defining
the eutectic composition & reaction. Area right of 0.8.
Strength of Eutectic Allows: Finer colony is better, interlamellar spacing
leads to faster solidification = finer = stronger, depends on amount of
eutectic.
Primary Phase Refinement: Done by adding 0.05% Phosphorus to
encourage nucleation.
Phase Transformations & Heat Treatment:
Arrhenius relationship => Growth rate= A*exp(-Q/RT)
Lower T, Low T, higher nucleation, low diffusion  fine grains
High T, higher diffusion, low nucleation  large grains
Incoherent: Matrix is intact
Coherent: Matrix is distorted – more useful
Guinier-Preston (GP) zones: Tiny clusters of atoms that precipitate from
the matrix in the early stage of age hardening
Good Age-Hardenability: Substantial solid solution region, Decreasing
solid solubility with decreasing temperature,
Soft matrix and hard precipitates, Quenchable, Coherent precipitates
Al alloys: Hardenable : copper, Mg+Si , Zn
Fe-C System = Eutectoid Reaction
α-Fe: Ferrite, γ-Fe: Austenite, Iron Carbide: Cementite
0.8 is eutectoid point
Controlling of eutectoid reaction: High strength is associated with: The
amount of carbon, Size of pearlite colonies, Size of the lamellar
structure, Transformation temperature
Modifiers: reduce melting temperature and viscosity for easy processing
FCC austenite (<0.2%C)  BCC martensite
FCC austenite (higher C)  Body-centered-tetragonal martensite (no
closed-packed plane, very hard)
Plate martensite is harder due to more dislocations and crystal
structure.
Tempering of Martensite: Martensite is a non-equilibrium phase, not
shown on the phase diagram. Tempering releases the carbon atoms to
form α + cm. Becomes less hard but more ductility (toughness).
Heat Treatment of Steels
3 important microstructures = pearlite, bainite, tempered martensite.
Heat Treatments of HYPOEUTECTOID Steels:
-Process annealing (80-170oC below A1): remove residual stresses
-Austenitizing: Heat to above A3 to produce full austenite
-Annealing (Austenitizing at 30oC above A3, slow cool): coarse pearlite
-Normalizing (Austenitizing at 55oC above A3, rapid cool in air): fine
pearlite
Heat Treatments For HYPEREUTECTOID Steels:
-Austenitizing: Heat to above A1 to γ and Fe3C
-Annealing (at 30oC above A1, slow cool): coarse pearlite
-Normalizing (55oC above Acm, rapid cool): fine pearlite
-Spheroidizing (30oC below A1, long time annealing): spherical Fe3C,
ductile (improved machinability)
Isothermal Heat Treatments
-Isothermal annealing: above nose temp, produces pearlite
-Austempering: below nose temp, produces bainite
Quenching and Tempering: Retained Austenite
-Quenching: hardening
-Tempering: regain toughness, ductility
-Retained austenite
-How: Austenite does not fully transform to martensite.
-Problem: After tempering of martensite, during cooling, retained
austenite transforms to brittle martensite
-Solution: need a second tempering
Residual Stress: Induces Cracking. Surface cools faster, forms
martensite. When austenite becomes martensite, expands and induces
tensile stress on surface, which leads to cracking.
Remove Surface Crack: Marquenching or Martempering, hold until the
temperature equalizes in the steel.
Purpose of alloying: solid solution strengthening, form alloy carbide
precipitates (rather than brittle Fe3C); improve corrosion resistance;
improve hardenability (changes H.T. curve); reduce carbon content,
phase stability
Hardenability: The ease to form martensite (in thick section of steels): a)
Plain carbon steel – low hardenability (difficult to form marten., need
very high cooling rate), b) Alloy steel – better hardenability
Ausforming – increase the strength without an adverse effect on
toughness.
Jominy test: Jominy test – compare hardenability of steels
Jominy distance – distance from the quenched end
Grossman Chart: Used to determine the hardness at the center of a
round bar, Used to determine the need for different quenching methods
Surface Treatments:
A. Case Hardening: Make surface strong – fatigue, wear resistance,
Heating surface (T > A3), then cool down – Martensite on surface, soft
ferrite core, Heating technique: gas flame, induction coil, laser beam.
B. Carburizing: T > A3, C diffuse into surface – hardened surface, Much
thinner surface layer than heating induced surface layer
diffuse to surface, Cyaniding – immerse in liquid cyanide (both C and N)
Weldability of Steel: (a) Structure at Tmax (b) After cooling in a steel of low
hardenability (c) After cooling in a steel of high hardenability.
Low C steels 1) Weld easily, 2) the strength of welded mater is greater
than matrix (good). 3) Ductile, 4) Hard precipitates 5)Low hardenability
Medium-high C steels Form martensite easily after cooling of HAZ – brittle
failure
Stainless steels contain a minimum of 11% C, which permits a thing,
protective surface layer of chromium oxide. Cr stabilizes ferrite phase; Ni
stabilizes austenite phase. Types:
Ferritic stainless steels :< 30% Cr, < 0.12% C, BCC, Good strength,
moderate ductility, Ferromagnetic, not heat treatable
Martensitic stainless steels: < 17% Cr, 0.1-1% C, High hardness, corrosion
resistant, Applications: knives, ball bearings, valves
Austenitic stainless steels: Excellent ductility, formability, corrosion
resistance, Non-magnetic (good for cardiovascular stent), Can be cold
worked to achieve higher strength, 304 stainless steel (18Cr-8Ni) –
medical grade
Precipitation hardened (PH) stainless steel, e.g.,17Cr-4Ni (17-4 PH),
Contain Al, Nb Ta, Processing: A, quench to form M, temp to form Ni3Al
Duplex stainless steels: 50% Austenite + 50% Ferrite
Cast Irons: Eutectic undercooled by 6C, graphite becomes Fe3C  white
iron, Bi – bismuth, Silicone reduces the amount of carbon contained in the
eutectic. Carbone equivalent (CE) = %C + 1/3%Si, 4.3%CE forms eutectic.
Annealing  soft ferritic matrix (not coarse pearlite as in steels!)
Austempere  bainite + graphite
Normalizing  pearlite + graphite
Gray Cast Iron: Small interconnected graphite flakes (eutectic cells), Low
strength, low ductility, Good thermal fatigue resistance, vibration
damping, thermal conductivity
White Cast Iron: Contains lots of Fe3C (instead of graphite), Hard, Brittle,
Highly alloyed white irons have good resistance to abrasive wear, due to
alloy carbides and martensite.
Malleable Cast Iron: Malleable iron is formed by the heat treatment of
white cast iron……Clumps of graphite, Better ductility than gray and
while cast irons, very machinable, Ferritic malleable iron –Slow cooled
Pearlitic malleable iron – Fast cooled in air or oil
Ductile (Nodular) Cast Iron: CE ~ 4.3% with Mg., Contains spheroidal
graphite particles, Better strength and ductility compared to gray iron and
malleable irons., Malleable iron has better fracture toughness than
Nodular iron.
Compacted Graphite Iron: Contains rounded but interconnected
graphite, Advantages of both Gray and Ductile irons: Strengths, ductility,
thermal conductivity, damping
Ceramics: Ceramics may be crystalline, partially crystalline, or amorphous
Ionic: typically metals and non-metals (e.g., NaCl, MgO, Al2O3)
Covalent: metalloids and non-metals or pure elements, (SiO2, SiC,
Diamond
Properties: Generally brittle but may behavior plastic under low strain
rate and high temperature , Generally stiffer than metals, Density is often
low (due to porosity), Most ceramics are intrinsically hard: Covalent bond
produces resistance to dislocation, Ionic bond structures produce
electrostatic repulsion of opposite charged ions
Flaws: Porosity increases, strength decreases
Apparent porosity =
Inorganic glass: Soda-lime glass, potash-lime glass, lead-glass (all contain
Silica), Non-crystallization (amorphous), Metastable, hard/Brittle,
Undercooled liquid – Density slope changes at Tg No transition at Tm
Glass Former/Modifier: Formers: base material, amorphous
Intermediates: prevent thermal shock
Glass Heat Treatment:
Metal - Stress-relief Annealing: Heat up to annealing point and cool down
slowly to reduce or eliminate the residual stress
Annealed Glass (no or little stress)
Tempered Glass (Compressive stress
Glass Ceramics: Crystalline materials derived from amorphous glasses.,
Good mechanical strength/toughness, corrosion resistance at high
temperature
Clay Products: Clays are hydrous sheet aluminum silicates with a
crystalline structure, Use water as a binder for ceramic particles (silica),
Common applications: Pottery/bricks Forming techniques: clay -> liquid
phase formed -> glassy bond.
Refractories: High melting-point ceramics, Used in production refining,
handling of metals/glasses., Three types: Acidic, Basic, and Neutral
Ceramic Alloys: Metal alloys: strengthening, corrosion resistance,
Ceramic alloys: sintering to full density, fracture toughness.
High-Performance Ceramics:
Diamond: the hardest material. Industrial applications include coating,
abrasives (grinding/polishing)
SiC: good oxidation resistance at high temperatures. Applications include
coating, abrasives(grinding wheels),
Intermetallic Compound: contains two or more metallic elements,
producing a new phase with its own composition, crystal structure, and
properties. Intermetallic compounds are almost always very hard and
brittle.
Stoichiometric intermetallic compounds have a fixed composition. On
the phase diagram they have a vertical line.
Nonstoichiometric intermetallic compounds have a range of
compositions and are sometimes called intermediate solid solutions.
Solid Reactions: Solid to Solid
First solid to form, draw a tie line from liquid to solid region.
Final Microstructure cooled from liquid contains pieces of gamma and
lamellar structure around it.
Artificial Age Hardening for Cu 10% Be alloy. 1)Solution treat bw 605-
850C. 2) Quench. 3)Age below 605(around 400).
Cold Work= A_initial – A_final / A_initial
Cr is important in steels because H is a ferrite stabilizes and impacts
stainless character to the steel
Mn is imp because H alters the phase diagram, reduces eutectoid temp
and composition. It lowers the Cr requirement since it acts like a
austenite stabilizer.